Editing Nilotic peoples

{{short description|Collection of ethnic groups indigenous to Nile Valley in East Africa}}
{{redirect|Nilotic|other uses}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Nilotes
| poptime          = 
| popplace         = [[South Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[African Great Lakes]], Northeastern [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]
| langs            = [[Nilotic languages]]
| rels             = [[Christianity]], [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]], [[Kalenjin folklore]], [[Dinka religion]], [[Islam]]
}}
The '''Nilotic peoples''' are peoples [[Indigenous people of Africa|indigenous]] to [[South Sudan]] and the [[Nile Valley]] who speak [[Nilotic languages]]. They inhabit  [[South Sudan]] and the [[Gambela Region]] of [[Ethiopia]], while also being a large minority in [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], the north eastern border area of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and [[Tanzania]].{{sfn|AHD: Nilotic|2020}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2024 |title=Teso people |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Teso |website=[[britannica.com]]}}</ref> The Nilotic peoples consist of the [[Dinka]], the [[Nuer people|Nuer]], the [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]], the [[Luo peoples]], the [[Alur people|Alur]], the [[Anuak people|Anuak]], the [[Ateker peoples]], the [[Kalenjin people]] and the [[Karamojong people]] also known as the Karamojong or Karimojong,<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2024 |title=Karamojong people |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Karimojong |website=[[britannica.com]]}}</ref> [[Chaga people]], [[Ngasa people]], [[Datooga people|Datooga]], [[Dinka people|Samburu]], and the [[Maa languages|Maa-speaking peoples]].

The Nilotes constitute the majority of the population in [[South Sudan]] while constituting a substantial minority in the countries of Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. [[South Sudan]] is the area that is believed to be their original point of dispersal, as they constitute the second-most numerous group of peoples inhabiting the [[African Great Lakes]] region around the [[East African Rift]].{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}} They make up a notable part of the population of North eastern [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] as well. Nilotic people are believed to numbered 50 million in the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2024 |title=Nilot &#124; History, Culture & Language &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nilot}}</ref>

The Nilotic people primarily adhere to [[Christianity]] and [[Traditional African religion|traditional beliefs]], with the majority of them being [[Christians]]. A small minority of Nilotes practice the religion of [[Islam]].

==Name==
[[File:Shanqella.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian painting depicting a battle between the "[[Amhara people|Amhara]] and the ''[[Shanqella]]''", 1920]]
The terms "Nilotic" and "Nilote"' were previously used as [[racial]] subclassifications, based on [[Anthropology|anthropological]] observations of the supposed distinct body morphology of many Nilotic speakers. Twentieth-century [[Social science|social scientists]] have largely discarded such efforts to classify peoples according to physical characteristics, in favor of using linguistic studies to distinguish among peoples. They formed ethnicities and cultures based on a shared language.{{sfn|Kidd|2006}} Since the late 20th century, however, social and physical scientists are making use of data from population genetics.{{sfn|Tishkoff|Reed|Friedlaender|Ehret|2009|pp=1035–44}}{{verify source|date=May 2021}}

Nilotic and Nilote are now mainly used to refer to the various disparate people who speak languages in the same Nilotic language family. Etymologically, the terms Nilotic and Nilote (singular nilot) derive from the [[Nile Valley]]; specifically, the [[Upper Nile, Sudan|Upper Nile]] and its tributaries, where most Sudanese Nilo-Saharan-speaking people live.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica:Nilot}}

==Ethnic and linguistic divisions==
===Languages===
[[File:Nilotic languages.png|thumb|Areas where [[Nilotic languages]] are spoken]]
{{main|Nilotic languages}}
{{further|Paranilotic languages}}
Linguistically, Nilotic people are divided into three subgroups:
* [[Eastern Nilotic languages|Eastern Nilotic]] – Spoken by Nilotic populations in southwestern Ethiopia, eastern South Sudan, northeastern [[Uganda]], western [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]], it includes languages such as [[Turkana language|Turkana]] and [[Maasai language|Maasai]].
** [[Bari languages|Bari]]-Kuku-Kakwa-Pojulu-Mundari-Nyangwara-Nyepo and others
** [[Teso-Turkana languages|Teso]]–[[Lotuko language|Lotuko]]–[[Maa languages|Maa]]
* [[Southern Nilotic languages|Southern Nilotic]] – Spoken by Nilotic populations in western Kenya, northern Tanzania, and eastern Uganda, it includes [[Kalenjin languages|Kalenjin]] and [[Datooga language|Datog]].
** [[Kalenjin languages|Kalenjin]]
** [[Omotik language|Omotik]]-[[Datooga language|Datooga]]
* [[Western Nilotic languages|Western Nilotic]] – Spoken by Nilotic populations in South Sudan, Sudan, northeastern Congo (DRC), northern Uganda, southwestern Kenya, northern Tanzania, and southwestern Ethiopia, it includes the [[Dinka language|Dinka]]-[[Nuer language|Nuer]] languages, [[Luo languages]], and the [[Burun languages]].
** Dinka–Nuer-Atwot
** Luo languages
** Burun languages

===Ethnic groups===
{{see also|Kunama people}}
[[File:Ngorongoro, Tanzania - Maasai people.jpg|thumb|right|[[Maasai people|Maasai]] men in [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area|Ngorongoro]], [[Tanzania]]]]
Nilotic people constitute the bulk of the population of South Sudan. The largest of the Sudanese Nilotic peoples are the [[Dinka people|Dinka]], who have as many as 25 ethnic subdivisions. The next-largest groups are the [[Nuer people|Nuer]], followed by the [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]].{{sfn|Metz|1991}}

Nilotic people in Uganda includes the [[Luo peoples]] ([[Acholi people|Acholi]], [[Alur people|Alur]], [[Adhola people|Adhola]]), the [[Ateker peoples]] ([[Teso people|Iteso]], [[Kumam people|Kumam]], [[Karamojong people|Karamojong]], [[Lango people]] who despite speaking a mixture of Luo words, have Atekere origins, [[Sebei people|Sebei]], and [[Kakwa people|Kakwa]]).

In East Africa, the Nilotes are often subdivided into three general groups:
* The Plain Nilotes speak Maa languages and include the Maasai, Samburu, and Turkana peoples{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}}
* The River Lake Nilotes include the [[Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania|Joluo]] (Kenyan Luo), who are part of the larger Luo group{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}}
* The Highland Nilotes are subdivided into two groups, the [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]] and the [[Datooga people|Datog]].
** Kalenjin: [[Elgeyo people|Elgeyo]], [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]], [[Marakwet people|Marakwet]], [[Nandi people|Nandi]], [[Pokot people|Pokot]], [[Sabaot people|Sabaot]], [[Lembus people|Lembus]], [[Terik people|Terik]] and [[Tugen people|Tugen]] [Keiyo]{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}}
** Datog: represented mainly by the [[Barabaig people|Barabaig]] and small clusters of other Datog speakers{{sfn|Oboler|1985|p=17}}

==History==
===Origins===
{{further|History of South Sudan|History of Uganda|History of Kenya|History of Tanzania}}
{{anchor|Origins}}
{{anchor|History}}

A proto-Nilotic unity, separate from an earlier undifferentiated [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] unity, is assumed to have emerged by the third millennium BC. The development of the proto-Nilotes as a group may have been connected with their domestication of [[livestock]]. The Eastern Sudanic unity must have been considerably earlier still, perhaps around the fifth millennium BC. The proposed [[Nilo-Saharan]] unity would date to the [[Upper Paleolithic]] about 15 thousand years ago. The original locus of the early Nilotic speakers was presumably east of the Nile in what is now South Sudan. The Proto-Nilotes of the third millennium BC were [[pastoralists]], while their neighbors, the proto-[[Central Sudanic]] peoples, were mostly agriculturalists.{{sfn|Clark|1984|p=31}}

Nilotic people practised a mixed economy of cattle pastoralism, fishing, and seed cultivation.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=40–42}} Some of the earliest archaeological findings on record, that describe a similar culture to this from the same region, are found at [[Kadero (archaeological site)|Kadero]], 48&nbsp;m north of [[Khartoum]] in Sudan and date to 3000&nbsp;BC. Kadero contains the remains of a cattle pastoralist culture and a cemetery with skeletal remains featuring sub-Saharan African phenotypes. It also contains evidence of other animal domestication, artistry, long-distance trade, seed cultivation, and fish consumption.{{sfn|Krzyzaniak|1976|p=762}}{{sfn|Marshall|Hildebrand|2002|pp=99–143}}{{sfn|Gautier|2006}}{{sfn|Krzyzaniak|1978|pp=159–172}}

Genetic and linguistic studies have demonstrated that [[Nubian people]] in Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt are an admixed group that started off as a population closely related to Nilotic people.{{sfn|Hollfelder|Schlebusch|Günther|Babiker|2017|pp=e1006976}}{{sfn|Rilly|2016}} This population later received significant gene flow from [[Middle eastern people|Middle Eastern]] and other East African populations.{{sfn|Hollfelder|Schlebusch|Günther|Babiker|2017|pp=e1006976}} Nubians are considered to be descendants of the early inhabitants of the Nile valley who later formed the [[Kingdom of Kush]], which included [[Kerma]] and [[Meroe]] and the medieval Christian kingdoms of [[Makuria]], [[Nobatia]], and [[Alodia]].{{sfn|Cooper|2017}} These studies suggest that populations closely related to Nilotic people long inhabited the Nile Valley as far as southern Egypt in antiquity.

===Early expansion===
{{see also|Elmenteitan}}
Language evidence indicates an initial southward expansion out of the Nilotic nursery into far southern Sudan beginning in the second millennium BC,
the [[Southern Nilotic]] communities that participated in this expansion eventually reached western Kenya between 1000 and 500 BC.{{sfn|Ehret|1998|p=7}} Their arrival occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa.{{sfn|Clark|Brandt|1984|p=234}}

===Expansion out of the Lower Wadi Howar===
[[File:ETH-BIB-Nuer-Mädchen im Tanz-Kilimanjaroflug 1929-30-LBS MH02-07-0077.tif|thumb|Nuer women in Sudan, 1930]]
Linguistic studies indicate that the ancestors of the Nilotic peoples resided further north than their present locations. Archaeological evidence from sites in the Lower Wadi Howar reveals the presence of groups that are likely ancestral to both modern Nilotic speakers and [[Eastern Sudanic languages|Eastern Sudanic]] speakers as a whole.<ref name="Becker 2011">Becker, E. (2011). ''The prehistoric inhabitants of the Wadi Howar''. Germany: Verlag nicht ermittelbar.</ref><ref name="Dimmendaal 2007">Dimmendaal, G. J. (2007). ''Eastern Sudanic and the Wadi Howar and Wadi El Milk diaspora''. University of Cologne.</ref>  Scholars argue that these ancestors inhabited the Lower [[Wadi Howar]] region.<ref name="Dimmendaal 2007"/>

The archaeological findings in the Lower [[Wadi Howar]] reveal significant evidence of cultural continuity and interaction with [[Ancient nubians|ancient Nubian]] cultures, particularly through the association with the herringbone culture.<ref name="Becker 2011"/><ref name="Dimmendaal 2007"/> As aridity increased during the fourth millennium BCE, the importance of cattle in the economic and social life of the region grew, leading to the emergence of distinct cultural practices, including the adoption of pottery styles characterized by incised herringbone patterns. These patterns indicate strong contact with the [[A-Group culture|A-Group]] and [[pre-Kerma]] cultures along the Nubian Nile Valley.<ref>Author. (2013). 'I Hope Your Cattle are Well': Archaeological Evidence for Early Cattle-centred Behaviour in the Eastern Sahara of Sudan and Chad. In M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, & H.-P. Wotzka (Eds.), ''Pastoralism in Africa - Past, Present and Future'' (pp. 66–103). Berghahn Books.</ref> This interaction suggests that communities in the Lower Wadi Howar were actively engaged in trade networks, exchanging livestock and resources with these established cultures, thus integrating into the broader economic and cultural landscape of ancient Nubia. The evidence of cattle burials and the presence of pottery designs reflect a synthesis of local traditions and influences from neighboring cultures, highlighting the dynamic relationships that existed during this period of transformation and trade.

The Nilotic expansion from Central regions of the Sudan like the [[Gezira State|Gezira]] into the rest of South Sudan seems to have begun between the 5th-11th centuries. Some of these later migrations coincided with the collapse of the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia and the penetration of Arab traders into central Sudan. From the Arabs, the South Sudanese may have obtained new breeds of humpless cattle.{{sfn|Robertshaw|1987|pp=177–189}} Archaeologist [[Roland Oliver]] notes that the period also shows an [[Iron Age]] beginning among the Nilotic. These factors may explain how the Nilotic speakers expanded to dominate the region.

===Shilluk===
[[File:A group of Shilluk, ca 1860.jpg|thumb|A group of [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]] in around 1860]]
By the 16th century, the most powerful group among the Nilotic speakers were the Cøllø, called Shilluk by Arabs and Europeans, who spread east to the banks of the white Nile under the legendary leadership of Nyikang,{{sfn|Forde|James|1999}} who is said to have ruled Läg Cøllø c from around 1490 to 1517.{{sfn|Mercer|1971|p=410}} The Cøllø gained control of the west bank of the river as far north as [[Kosti, Sudan|Kosti]] in Sudan. There they established an economy based on cattle raising, cereal farming, and fishing, with small villages located along the length of the river.{{sfn|EOPAME: Shilluk|2009}} The Cøllø developed an intensive system of agriculture. The Cøllø lands in the 17th century had a population density similar to that of the Egyptian Nile lands.{{sfn|Singh|2002|p=659}}

One theory is that pressure from the Cøllø drove the Funj people north, who would establish the [[Sultanate of Sennar]].
The Dinka remained in the Sudd area, maintaining their [[transhumance]] economy.{{sfn|EOPAME: Dinka|2009}}

While the Dinka were protected and isolated from their neighbours, the Cøllø were more involved in international affairs. The Cøllø controlled the west bank of the White Nile, but the other side was controlled by the Funj sultanate, with regular conflict between the two. The Cøllø had the ability to quickly raid outside areas by [[war canoe]], and had control of the waters of the Nile. The Funj had a standing army of armoured cavalry, and this force allowed them to dominate the plains of the [[sahel]].

Cøllø traditions tell of Rädh Odak Ocollo who ruled around 1630 and led them in a three-decade war with Sennar over control of the White Nile trade routes. The Cøllø allied with the [[Sultanate of Darfur]] and the Kingdom of [[Takali]] against the Funj, but the capitulation of Takali ended the war in the Funj's favour. In the later 17th century, the Cøllø and Funj allied against the Dinka, who rose to power in the border area between the Funj and Cøllø.{{sfn|Gen Hist Africa: vol. V chap 7|1999|pp=89–103}}

The Cøllø political structure gradually centralized under the a king or ''reth''. The most important is Rädh Tugø (son of Rädh Dhøköödhø) who ruled from ''circa'' 1690 to 1710 and established the Cøllø capital of [[Fashoda]]. The same period had the gradual collapse of the Funj sultanate, leaving the Cøllø in complete control of the White Nile and its trade routes. The Cøllø military power was based on control of the river.{{sfn|Gen Hist Africa: vol. V chap 7|1999|pp=89–103}}

===Southern Nilotic settlement in East Africa===
[[File:Guerrier Luo.JPG|thumb|180px|Luo warrior in Kenya, c. 1902]]
Starting in the mid-19th century, European anthropologists and later Kenyan historians have been interested in the origins of human migration from various parts of Africa into East Africa. One of the more notable broad-based theories emanating from these studies includes the [[Bantu expansion]]. The main tools of study have been linguistics, archaeology and oral traditions.

====Oral traditions====
The significance of tracing individual clan histories in order to get an idea of Kalenjin groups formation has been shown by scholars such as B.E. Kipkorir (1978). He argued that the Tugen first settled in small clan groups, fleeing from war, famine, and disease, and that they arrived from western, eastern, and northern sections. Even a section among the Tugen claims to have come from Mount Kenya.{{sfn|De Vries|2007|p=47}}

The Nandi account on the [[settlement of Nandi]] displays a similar manner of occupation of the Nandi territory. The Kalenjin clans who moved into and occupied the Nandi area, thus becoming the Nandi tribe, came from a wide array of Kalenjin-speaking areas.{{sfn|Huntingford|1953}}

Apparently, spatial core areas existed to which people moved and concentrated over the centuries, and in the process evolved into the individual Kalenjin communities known today by adopting migrants and assimilating original inhabitants.{{sfn|De Vries|2007|p=48}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Samburu krijgers op de Mayer's Farm nabij het Navaisha meer TMnr 20014289.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Samburu people|Samburu]] warriors, 1973]]
For various reasons, slow and multigenerational migrations of Nilotic Luo peoples occurred from South Sudan into Uganda and western Kenya from at least 1000&nbsp;AD, and continuing until the early 20th century.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=41–43}} Oral history and genealogical evidence have been used to estimate timelines of Luo expansion into and within Kenya and Tanzania. Four major waves of migrations into the former [[Nyanza province]] in Kenya are discernible starting with the people of Jok (''Joka Jok''), which is estimated to have begun around 1490–1517.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|p=144}}

''Joka Jok'' were the first and largest wave of migrants into northern Nyanza. These migrants settled at a place called Ramogi Hill, then expanded around northern Nyanza. The people of Owiny' (''Jok'Owiny'') and the people of Omolo (''Jok'Omolo'') followed soon after (1598-1625).{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=144–154}}

A miscellaneous group composed of the Suba, Sakwa, Asembo, Uyoma, and Kano then followed. The [[Suba people (Kenya)|Suba]] originally were Bantu-speaking people who assimilated into Luo culture. They fled from the [[Buganda Kingdom]] in Uganda after the civil strife that followed the murder of the 24th [[Kabaka of Buganda]] in the mid-18th century and settled in [[South Nyanza]], especially at [[Rusinga Island|Rusinga]] and [[Mfangano Island|Mfangano]] islands.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|p=212}} Luo speakers crossed [[Winam Gulf]] of Lake Victoria from northern Nyanza into [[South Nyanza]] starting in the early 17th century.{{sfn|Ogot|1967|pp=144–154}}

====Post-colonial traditions====
[[File:Mount Elgon-2.jpg|thumb|right|Mount Elgon, referred by Kalenjin as Tulwop Kony, a common Kalenjin point of origin]]
Several historical narratives from the various Kalenjin subtribes point to Tulwetab/Tulwop Kony ([[Mount Elgon]]) as their original point of settlement in Kenya.{{sfn|Kipkorir|Welbourn|1973|p=64}} This point of origin appears as a central theme in most narratives recorded after the colonial period. One of the more famous accounts states:

<blockquote>...&nbsp;The Kalenjin originated from a country in the north known as Emet ab Burgei, which means, the warm country. The people are said to have traveled southwards passing through Mount Elgon or Tulwet ab Kony in Kalenjin. The [[Sabaot people|Sabaot]] settled around the slopes of the mountain while the others travelled on in search of better land. The [[Keiyo people|Keiyo]] and [[Marakwet people|Marakwet]] settled in [[Kerio Valley]] and [[Cherangani Hills]]. The [[Pokot people|Pokot]] settled on the northern side of Mount Elgon and later spread to areas north of Lake Baringo. At [[Lake Baringo]], the [[Tugen people|Tugen]] separated from the Nandi and the Kipsigis. This was during a famine known as Kemeutab Reresik, which means, famine of the bats. It is said that during this famine a bat brought blades of green grass which was taken as a sign of good omen signifying that famine could be averted through movement to greener pastures. The Tugen moved and settled around [[Tugen Hills]] while the Kipsigis and the Lembus [[Nandi people|Nandi]] moved to [[Rongai]] area. The [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]] and [[Nandi people|Nandi]] are said to have lived as a united group for a long time but eventually were forced to separate due to antagonistic environmental factors. Some of these were droughts and invasion of the [[Maasai people|Maasai]] from Uasin Gishu.{{sfn|Chesaina|1991|p=29}}</blockquote>

Geographical barriers protected the southerners from Islam's advance, enabling them to retain their social and cultural heritage and their political and religious institutions. The Dinka people were especially secure in the [[Sudd]] marshlands, which protected them from outside interference, and allowed them to remain secure without a large armed forces. The Shilluk, Azande, and Bari people had more regular conflicts with neighbouring states.{{sfn|Gillies|n.d.}}

==Culture and religion==
{{See also|Sudanese nomadic conflicts}}
[[File:Campamento de ganado de la tribu Mundari, Terekeka, Sudán del Sur, 2024-01-29, DD 65.jpg|thumb|Cattle camp of the [[Mundari people]] in South Sudan]]
Most Nilotes continue to practice pastoralism, migrating on a seasonal basis with their herds of livestock.{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}} Some tribes are also known for a tradition of [[cattle raiding]].{{sfn|BBC: cattle vendetta|2012}}

Through lengthy interaction with neighbouring peoples, the Nilotes in East Africa have adopted many customs and practices from [[South Cushitic languages|Southern Cushitic]] groups. The latter include the [[age set]] system of social organization, [[circumcision]], and vocabulary terms.{{sfn|Okoth|Ndaloh|2006|pp=60–62}}{{sfn|Collins|2006|pp=9–10}}

In terms of religious beliefs, Nilotes primarily adhere to traditional faiths, Christianity and Islam. The [[Dinka religion]] has a [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of deities. The Supreme, Creator God is [[Nhialic]], who is the God of the sky and rain, and the ruler of all the spirits.{{sfn|Lienhardt|1988|p=29}}
He is believed to be present in all of creation, and to control the destiny of every human, plant, and animal on Earth. Nhialic is also known as Jaak, Juong, or Dyokin by other Nilotic groups, such as the Nuer and Shilluk. Dengdit or Deng, is the sky God of rain and fertility, empowered by Nhialic.{{sfn|Lienhardt|1988|p=104}}

[[File:The annual Karamojong cultural festival 05.jpg|thumb|The annual [[Karamojong people|Karamojong]] cultural festival]]
Deng's mother is [[Abuk]], the patron goddess of gardening and all women, represented by a snake.{{sfn|Lienhardt|1988|p=90}} Garang, another deity, is believed or assumed by some Dinka to be a god suppressed by Deng. His spirits can cause most Dinka women, and some men, to scream. The term ''Jok'' refers to a group of ancestral spirits.

In the [[Lotuko mythology]], the chief God is called [[Ajok]]. He is generally seen as kind and benevolent, but can be angered. He once reportedly answered a woman's prayer for the resurrection of her son. Her husband, however, was angry and killed the child. According to the Lotuko religion, Ajok was annoyed by the man's actions and swore never to resurrect any Lotuko again. As a result, death was said to have become permanent.

==Genetics==
{{see also|Genetic history of Africa}}

===Y DNA===
[[File:Peace agreement dancers in Kapoeta, Sudan.jpg|thumb|right|Nilotic men in [[Kapoeta]], South Sudan]]
A [[Y chromosome|Y-chromosome]] study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various populations in Africa for paternal lineages, including 26 Maasai and 9 Luo from Kenya, and 9 Alur from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The signature Nilotic paternal marker [[Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)#A3b2-M13|Haplogroup A3b2]] was observed in 27% of the Maasai, 22% of the [[Alur people|Alur]], and 11% of the Luo.{{sfn|Wood|Stover|Ehret|Destro-Bisol|2005|pp=867–876}}

[[Haplogroup B (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup B]] is another characteristically Nilotic paternal marker.{{sfn|Gomes|Sánchez-Diz|Amorim|Carracedo|2010|pp=603–13}} It was found in 22% of Luo samples, 8% of Maasai, and 50% of Nuer peoples.{{sfn|Wood|Stover|Ehret|Destro-Bisol|2005|pp=867–876}} The [[E1b1b|E1b1b haplogroup]] has been observed at overall frequencies around 11% among Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups in the Great Lakes area,{{sfn|Cruciani|La Fratta|Santolamazza|Sellitto|2004|pp=1014–1022}} with this influence concentrated among the Maasai (50%).{{sfn|Wood|Stover|Ehret|Destro-Bisol|2005|pp=867–876}} This is indicative of substantial historic [[gene flow]] from Cushitic-speaking males into these Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations.{{sfn|Cruciani|La Fratta|Santolamazza|Sellitto|2004|pp=1014–1022}} 67% of the Alur samples possessed the [[Haplogroup E2 (Y-DNA)|E2 haplogroup]].{{sfn|Wood|Stover|Ehret|Destro-Bisol|2005|pp=867–876}}

The Y-DNA of populations in the Sudan region were studied, with various local Nilotic groups included for comparison. The signature Nilotic A and B clades were the most common paternal lineages amongst the Nilo-Saharan speakers, except those inhabiting [[Darfur|western Sudan]]. There, a prominent North African influence was noted.{{sfn|Hassan|Underhill|Cavalli-Sforza|Muntaser|2008|pp=316–323}}

Haplogroup A was observed amongst 62% of Dinka, 53.3% of Shilluk, 46.4% of Nuba, 33.3% of Nuer, 31.3% of [[Fur people|Fur]], and 18.8% of [[Masalit people|Masalit]]. Haplogroup B was found in 50% of Nuer, 26.7% of Shilluk, 23% of Dinka, 14.3% of Nuba, 3.1% of Fur, and 3.1% of Masalit. The E1b1b clade was also observed in 71.9% of the Masalit, 59.4% of the Fur, 39.3% of the [[Nuba]], 20% of the Shilluk, 16.7% of the Nuer, and 15% of the Dinka.{{sfn|Hassan|Underhill|Cavalli-Sforza|Muntaser|2008|pp=316–323}} Balemi (2018) found that a sample of 50 Nuer carried e1b1b-M78 (32%), A-M13 (28%), B-M60 (24%) and F-M89 (4%).

Solomon Balemi (2018)
Genetic Study of LCT- Enhancer, Y chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Some Ethnic Groups in Ethiopia.

The atypically high frequencies of the haplogroup in the Masalit was attributed to either a recent [[population bottleneck]], which likely altered the community's original haplogroup diversity, or to geographical proximity to E1b1b's place of origin in North Africa. The clade "might have been brought to Sudan [...] after the progressive [[desertification]] of the Sahara around 6,000–8,000 years ago".{{sfn|Hassan|Underhill|Cavalli-Sforza|Muntaser|2008|pp=316–323}} Similarly, Afro-Asiatic influence was seen in the Nilotic Datog of northern Tanzania, 43% of whom carried the M293 subclade of E1b1b.{{sfn|Henn|Gignoux|Lin|Oefner|2008|pp=10693–10698}}

===mtDNA===
[[File:Pokot Woman.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pokot people|Pokot]] women trekking through the Kenya outback]]
Unlike the paternal DNA of Nilotes, the maternal lineages of Nilotes in general show low-to-negligible amounts of Afro-Asiatic and other extraneous influences. An [[mtDNA]] study examined the maternal ancestry of various Nilotic populations in Kenya, with Turkana, Samburu, Maasai, and Luo individuals sampled. The mtDNA of almost all of the tested Nilotes belonged to various sub-Saharan [[Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)|macro-haplogroup L]] subclades, including [[Haplogroup L0|L0]], [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)|L2]], [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3]], [[Haplogroup L4 (mtDNA)|L4]], and [[Haplogroup L5 (mtDNA)|L5]]. Low levels of maternal gene flow from North Africa and the Horn of Africa were observed in a few groups, mainly by the presence of mtDNA [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|haplogroup M]] and [[Haplogroup I (mtDNA)|haplogroup I]] lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai and 7% of the Samburu samples, respectively.{{sfn|Castrì|Garagnani|Useli|Pettener|2008|pp=189–92}}

===Autosomal DNA===
The [[Autosome|autosomal]] DNA of Nilotic peoples has been examined in a study <!-- by [[Sarah Tishkoff|Tishkoff]] et al. (2009) --> on the genetic clusters of various populations in Africa. According to the researchers, Nilotes generally form their own African genetic cluster, although relatively most closely related to other Nilo-Saharan populations, more distantly followed by [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic speakers]] and [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo speakers]]. The authors also found that certain Nilotic populations in the eastern Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, showed some additional Afro-Asiatic affinities due to repeated assimilation of Cushitic-speaking peoples over the past 5000 or so years.{{sfn|Tishkoff|Reed|Friedlaender|Ehret|2009|pp=1035–1044}}
[[File:Nyangaton, Ethiopia (22381718216).jpg|thumb|[[Nyangatom people]] in Ethiopia]]

Overall, Nilotic people and other Nilo-Saharan groups are closely related to Afro-Asiatic speakers of North and East Africa. Both groups are inferred to have diverged from a common ancestor around 16,000 years ago. Nilotic people and other Nilo-Saharan groups are also closely related to Niger-Congo speakers of West and Central Africa. Both groups are inferred to have diverged from a common ancestor around 28,000 years ago, perhaps somewhere in the [[Sahel]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fan |first=S. |last2=Kelly |first2=D. E. |last3=Beltrame |first3=M. H. |last4=Hansen |first4=M. E. |last5=Mallick |first5=S. |last6=Ranciaro |first6=A. |last7=Hirbo |first7=J. |last8=Thompson |first8=S. |last9=Beggs |first9=W. |last10=Nyambo |first10=T. |last11=Omar |first11=S. A. |last12=Meskel |first12=D. W. |last13=Belay |first13=G. |last14=Froment |first14=A. |last15=Patterson |first15=N. |date=2019 |title=African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations, Table 1 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6485071/table/Tab1/?report=objectonly |journal=Genome Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=82 |doi=10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2 |pmc=6485071 |pmid=31023338 |doi-access=free |last16=Reich |first16=D. |last17=Tishkoff |first17=S. A.}}</ref> Most Nilotic peoples have predominant to exclusive West/East African ancestry, although some groups display varying degrees of [[Genetic history of Europe|West-Eurasian]] admixture, mostly mediated indirectly through pastoralists from the Horn of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Choudhury |first=Ananyo |last2=Aron |first2=Shaun |last3=Sengupta |first3=Dhriti |last4=Hazelhurst |first4=Scott |last5=Ramsay |first5=Michèle |date=2018-08-01 |title=African genetic diversity provides novel insights into evolutionary history and local adaptations |url=https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/27/R2/R209/4993963 |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=R2 |pages=R209–R218 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddy161 |issn=0964-6906 |pmc=6061870 |pmid=29741686}}</ref>

===Admixture analysis===
<!-- [[Tishkoff, Sarah|Tishkoff]] ''et al'' in 2009 published the largest study done to characterise genetic variation and relationships among populations in Africa. They examined -->In 121 African populations, four African American populations, and 60 non-African populations, results indicated a high degree of mixed ancestry reflecting migration events. In East Africa, all population groups examined had elements of Nilotic, [[Cushitic peoples|Cushitic]] and [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] ancestry amongst others to varying degrees. By and large, genetic clusters were consistent with linguistic classification with notable exceptions including the Luo of Kenya. Despite being Nilo-Saharan speakers, the Luo cluster with the [[Niger-Kordofanian|Niger-Kordofanian-speaking]] populations that surround them. This indicates a high degree of admixture occurred during the southward migration of southern Luo. Kalenjin groups and Maasai groups were found to have less Bantu ancestry, but significant Cushitic ancestry.{{sfn|Tishkoff|Reed|Friedlaender|Ehret|2009|pp=1035–44}}

==Physiology==
[[File:Lornah Kiplagat-b.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cross-country world champion and record holder [[Lornah Kiplagat]] is one of many prominent Nilotic distance runners.]]
Physically, Nilotes are noted for their typically very dark skin color and slender, and occasionally tall bodies. They often possess exceptionally long limbs, particularly their distal segments (fore arms, lower legs). This characteristic is thought to be a climatic adaptation to allow their bodies to shed heat more efficiently.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Roger |title=Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction |date=February 18, 2009 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=9781405156141 |pages=69}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Emilio F. |title=Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology |date=May 9, 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000565935}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Butt Colson |first=Audrey |title=The Nilotes of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Uganda |date=September 9, 2021 |publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC |isbn=9781013629884}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Amartya |title=The Political Economy of Hunger: Volume 3: Endemic Hunger |last2=Drèze |first2=Jean |date=October 17, 1991 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=9780191544484}}</ref>

Sudanese Nilotes are regarded as one of the tallest peoples in the world. <!-- Roberts and Bainbridge (1963) reported a -->Average values of {{convert|182.6|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} for height and {{convert|58.8|kg|lb stlb|abbr=on}} for weight were seen in a sample of Sudanese Shilluk.{{sfn|Roberts|Bainbridge|1963|pp=341–370}} Another sample of Sudanese Dinka had a stature/weight ratio of {{convert|181.9|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} and {{convert|58.0|kg|lb stlb|abbr=on}}, with an extremely ectomorphic [[somatotype and constitutional psychology|somatotype]] of 1.6–3.5–6.2.

In terms of facial features, <!-- Hiernaux (1975) observed that --> the nasal profile most common amongst Nilotic populations is broad, with characteristically high index values ranging from 86.9 to 92.0. <!-- He also reported that -->Lower nasal indices are often found amongst Nilotes who inhabit the more southerly Great Lakes region, such as the Maasai, which is attributed to genetic differences.{{sfn|Hiernaux|1975|pp=142–143 & 147}}

Additionally, the Nilotic groups presently inhabiting the African Great Lakes region are sometimes smaller in stature than those residing in the Sudan region. Measurements of {{convert|172.0|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} and {{convert|53.6|kg|lb stlb|abbr=on}} were found in a sample of agricultural Turkana in northern Kenya, and of {{convert|174.9|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} and {{convert|53.0|kg|lb stlb|abbr=on}} in pastoral Turkana.{{sfn|Campbell|Leslie|Campbell|2006|pp=71–82}} A height of {{convert|172.7|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} was seen for Maasai in southern Kenya, with an extreme trunk/leg length ratio of 47.7.{{sfn|Hiernaux|1975|pp=142–143 & 147}}

Many Nilotic groups excel in [[long-distance running|long-]] and [[middle-distance running]]. This sporting prowess may be related to their exceptional running economy, a function of slim body morphology and very long, slender legs (particularly lower legs, i.e., calf muscles and ankles.<!-- See David Epstein's book ''The Sports Gene''" or his YouTube TedTalk "Are athletes really getting faster, better, stronger?" -->).{{sfn|New Studies In Athletics, vol.2|pp=15–24}} <!-- A study by Pitsiladis et al. (2006) surveyed -->For 404 elite Kenyan distance runners, 76% of the international-class respondents identified as part of the [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]] ethnic group and 79% spoke a Nilotic language.{{sfn|Onywera|Scott|Boit|Pitsiladis|2006|p=415}}

==See also==
*[[Shanqella]], historical Ethiopian term for persons of Nilotic origin
*[[Abeed#Usage_in_Sudan|Junubi]], North Sudanese term for people from [[South Sudan]]
*[[Nilotic languages]] 
*[[Dinka people|Dinka People]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{sfn|Dimmendaal|2007|ref=Dimmendaal, G. J. (2007). *Eastern Sudanic and the Wadi Howar and Wadi El Milk diaspora*. University of Cologne.}}

{{sfn|Author|2013|ref=Author. (2013). 'I Hope Your Cattle are Well': Archaeological Evidence for Early Cattle-centred Behaviour in the Eastern Sahara of Sudan and Chad. In M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, & H.-P. Wotzka (Eds.), *Pastoralism in Africa - Past, Present and Future* (pp. 66–103). Berghahn Books.}}
{{sfn|Becker|2011|ref=Becker, E. (2011). *The prehistoric inhabitants of the Wadi Howar*. Germany: Verlag nicht ermittelbar.}}

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |last=Reich |first=David |title=Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past |date=27 March 2018 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-110187032-7}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nilotic peoples| ]]
[[Category:Nile basin|*]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Kenya]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Sudan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Uganda]]