Editing Nikos Kazantzakis

{{Short description|Greek writer and philosopher (1883–1957)}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] -->
| name             = Nikos Kazantzakis
| image            = Nikos Kazantzakis 1904.jpg
| caption          = Kazantzakis in 1904
| pseudonym        = 
| birth_date       = 2 March ([[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] 18 February) 1883
| birth_place      = [[Heraklion|Kandiye]], [[Ottoman Crete|Vilayet of Crete]], [[Ottoman Empire]]<br />(now [[Heraklion]], [[Greece]])
| death_date       = {{death date and age|df=y|1957|10|26|1883|2|18}}
| death_place      = [[Freiburg im Breisgau]], [[West Germany]]
| spouse           = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|[[Galateia Kazantzakis]] |1911|1926|reason=divorced}}|{{marriage|Eleni Kazantzakis|1945}}}}
| resting_place    = Martinengo Bastion, Venetian Walls of Heraklion
| occupation       = Poet, novelist, essayist, travel writer, philosopher, playwright, journalist, translator
| period           = 
|language=[[Modern Greek]]
| genre            = 
| subject          = 
| movement         = 
| education        = [[University of Athens]]<br />(1902–1906; [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]], 1906)<ref name="Biblionet">[https://biblionet.gr/%cf%80%cf%81%ce%bf%cf%83%cf%89%cf%80%ce%bf/?personid=50 "Nikos Kazantzakis"] at [[:el:Εθνικό Κέντρο Βιβλίου|E.KE.BI / Biblionet]]</ref><br />[[University of Paris]]<br />(1907–1909; [[Doctorat d'État|DrE]], 1909)<ref name="Biblionet"/>
| signature        = Nikos-kazantzakis-signature.svg
| website          = 
| native_name_lang = el
| native_name      = {{nobold|Νίκος Καζαντζάκης}}
}}

'''Nikos Kazantzakis''' ({{IPAc-en|k|æ|z|æ|n|ˈ|z|æ|k|ɪ|s}}; {{langx|el|{{lang|el|Νίκος Καζαντζάκης}}}} {{IPA|el|ˈnikos kazanˈd͡zacis|}}; 2 March ([[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]] 18 February) 1883<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxMO3faQYkkC&dq=nikos+kazantzakis+born+1883+or+1885&pg=PA691 The Selected Letters of Nikos Kazantzakis, p. 691]</ref>{{spaced ndash}}26 October 1957) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] writer, journalist, politician, poet and philosopher.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gnomikologikon.gr/authquotes.php?auth=36|title=Νίκος Καζαντζάκης-Αποφθέγματα|last=Παπαθανασίου|first=Μανώλης|website=Gnomikologikon.gr|access-date=25 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sansimera.gr/biographies/203|title=Νίκος Καζαντζάκης (1883 – 1957)|language=Greek|publisher=Σαν Σήμερα.gr|access-date=25 August 2023}}</ref> Widely considered a giant of [[modern Greek literature]], he was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in nine different years,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=4747 |title=Nomination Database |website=www.nobelprize.org |access-date=2016-06-29}}</ref> and remains the most translated Greek author worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/|title=Εκδόσεις Καζαντζάκη (Πάτροκλος Σταύρου)|website=Kazantzakispublications.org|language=Greek|access-date=25 August 2023|archive-date=2011-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829114825/http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kazantzakis's novels included ''[[Zorba the Greek]]'' (published in 1946 as ''Life and Times of Alexis Zorbas''), ''[[Christ Recrucified]]'' (1948), ''[[Captain Michalis]]'' (1950, translated as ''Freedom or Death''), and ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (novel)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (1955). He also wrote [[Modern Greek theatre|plays]], [[Travel writing|travel books]], memoirs, and philosophical essays, such as ''[[The Saviors of God|The Saviors of God: Spiritual Exercises]]''. His fame spread in the English-speaking world due to cinematic adaptations of ''[[Zorba the Greek (film)|Zorba the Greek]]'' (1964) and ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (film)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (1988).

He also translated a number of notable works into [[Modern Greek]], such as the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'', ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', and [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=el:Εκδοσεις Καζαντζακη |title=Ekdoseis Kazantzaki |trans-title=Kazantzakis Publications |language=el |url=http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/gr/translations2.php |access-date=2021-06-29 |website=www.kazantzakispublications.org}}</ref>

==Biography==
[[File:Nikos Kazantzakis.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Nikos Kazantzakis]]
Kazantzakis was born in the town of [[Kandiye]] (now [[Heraklion]]) in [[Crete]], with origins from the village of [[Myrtia, Heraklion|Myrtia]]. Crete had not yet joined [[Greece|the modern Greek state]] (which had been established in 1832), and was still under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historical-museum.gr/webapps/kazantzakis-pages/|title=Νίκος Καζαντζάκης|last=|first=|date=|website=www.historical-museum.gr|publisher=Ιστορικό Μουσείο Κρήτης|accessdate=21 August 2023}}</ref><ref name=in.gr>{{Cite web |title= Λύθηκε το "αίνιγμα" σχετικά με την ακριβή ημερομηνία γέννησης του Νίκου Καζαντζάκη |url= http://news.in.gr/culture/article/?aid=810018 |publisher= in.gr |date= 15 June 2007 |accessdate= 21 August 2023}}</ref> Based on family records, Kazantzakis was born on 18 February 1883 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]]), in contrast to the [[census]] of Heraklion which listed his birthyear as 1881; this discrepancy was settled by Kazantzakis himself in one of his epistles.<ref name=in.gr />

From 1902 to 1906 Kazantzakis studied law at the [[University of Athens]]; his 1906 [[Juris Doctor]] thesis was titled {{lang|el|Ο Φρειδερίκος Νίτσε εν τη φιλοσοφία του δικαίου και της πολιτείας}}<ref name="Biblionet"/> ("[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] on the Philosophy of Law and the State"). Then he went to the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in 1907 to study philosophy. There he fell under the influence of [[Henri Bergson]]. His 1909 [[Thesis|doctoral dissertation]] at the Sorbonne was a reworked version of his 1906 dissertation under the title ''Friedrich Nietzsche dans la philosophie du droit et de la cité'' ("Friedrich Nietzsche on the Philosophy of Right and the State").<ref name="Biblionet"/> Upon his return to Greece, he began translating works of philosophy. In 1914, he met the writer [[Angelos Sikelianos]]. Together they travelled for two years through places where Greek Orthodox [[Christian culture]] flourished, largely due to the enthusiastic nationalism of Sikelianos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/|title=Εκδόσεις Καζαντζάκη (Πάτροκλος Σταύρου)|last=|first=|date=|website=www.kazantzakispublications.org|publisher=|accessdate=21 August 2023|archive-date=2011-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829114825/http://www.kazantzakispublications.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kazantzakis married [[Galateia Kazantzakis|Galateia Alexiou]] in 1911; they divorced in 1926. Kazantzakis met Eleni Samiou (Helen) in 1924.<ref name="The Return and the Odyssey">{{Cite web |url=https://www.kazantzaki.gr/en/life-and-work/epistrofi-kai-odusseia-189|title=The Return and the Odyssey}}</ref> They began a romantic relationship in 1928, though they were not married until 1945. Samiou helped Kazantzakis with his work, typing drafts, accompanying him on his travels, and managing his business affairs.<ref name="The Return and the Odyssey"/> They were married until his death in 1957. Samiou died in 2004.

Between 1922 and his death in 1957, he sojourned in Paris and [[Berlin]] (from 1922 to 1924), [[Italy]], [[Russia]] (in 1925), [[Spain]] (in 1932), and then later in [[Cyprus]], [[Aegina]], [[Egypt]], [[Mount Sinai]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Nice]] (he later bought a villa in nearby [[Antibes]], in the Old Town section near the famed seawall), [[China]], and [[Japan]].

While in Berlin, where the political situation was explosive, Kazantzakis discovered [[communism]] and became an admirer of [[Vladimir Lenin]]. He never became a committed communist but visited the [[Soviet Union]] and stayed with the [[Left Opposition]] politician and writer [[Victor Serge]]. He witnessed the rise of [[Joseph Stalin]], and became disillusioned with [[Communist state|Soviet-style communism]]. Around this time, his earlier nationalist beliefs were gradually replaced by a more universalist ideology. As a journalist, in 1926 he interviewed prime minister of Spain [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] and the Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]].

During WWII, he was in Athens, where he and the philologist [[Ioannis Kakridis]] translated the ''[[Iliad]]''. In 1945, he became the leader of a small party on the non-communist left, and entered the Greek government as Minister without Portfolio. He resigned this post the following year. In 1946, Kazantzakis became the head of the [[UNESCO]] Bureau of Translations, the organization which promoted translations of literary works. However, he resigned in 1947 to concentrate on writing, and indeed produced most of his literary output during the last ten years of his life.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chrysopoulos |first1=Philip |title=Nikos Kazantzakis: The Greatest Greek Writer of the 20th Century |url=https://greekreporter.com/2022/06/18/nikos-kazantzakis/ |work=[[Greek Reporter]] |date=18 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bien |first1=P. A. |title=Translator's Note |date=21 September 2023 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |isbn=978-0-571-17856-8 |pages=577–589}}</ref>

In 1946, ''The Society of Greek Writers'' recommended that Kazantzakis and [[Angelos Sikelianos]] be awarded the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]]. In 1957, he lost the Prize to [[Albert Camus]] by a single vote. Camus later said that Kazantzakis deserved the honour "a hundred times more" than himself.<ref>''The Philosophers' Magazine'', Issues 13–20, 2001 p. 120</ref> In total, Kazantzakis was nominated in nine different years.<ref>[https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=4747 Nomination Database]</ref>

===Death===
[[File:Grabmal von Nikos Kazantzakis-1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Epitaph]] on the grave of Kazantzakis in [[Heraklion]]. It reads "I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free."]]
Late in 1957, even though suffering from [[leukemia]], Kazantzakis set out on one last trip to China and Japan. According to one theory, while in China Kazantzakis had to be vaccinated, possibly due to symptoms of [[smallpox]] and [[cholera]]. The vaccine, however, caused him [[gangrene]] and at the expense of the Chinese government he was transported first to [[Copenhagen]] and then to [[Freiburg]]. His gangrene was cured but he had contracted a severe form of [[Asian flu]] in China, which eventually led to his death.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Καζαντζάκη |first= Helen Ν. |title= Νίκος Καζαντζάκης, ο ασυμβίβαστος: Βιογραφία βασισμένη σε ανέκδοτα γράμματα και κείμενά του |url= https://www.biblionet.gr/titleinfo/?titleid=31750 |others= Patroklos Stavrou |publisher= Εκδόσεις Καζαντζάκη |location= Athens |date= 1998 |isbn=978-0007948116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.biblionet.gr/titleinfo/?titleid=31744 |title=Τετρακόσια γράμματα του Καζαντζάκη στον Πρεβελάκη|last1=Kazantzakis|first1=Nikos|last2=Prevalkis|first2=Pantelis|authorlink2=Pantelis Prevelakis |publisher=Εκδόσεις Καζαντζάκη|year=1984|isbn=|location=Athens|page=}}</ref>

Kazantzakis died on 26 October 1957 in [[Freiburg im Breisgau|Freiburg, Germany]], at age 74. He is buried at the highest point of the Walls of Heraklion, the ''Martinengo Bastion'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nikos Kazantzakis Grave|url=https://www.cretanbeaches.com/en/cities-and-towns-in-crete/heraklion-city/historical-monuments-of-heraklion/nikos-kazantzakis-grave-martinengo}}</ref> looking out over the mountains and [[sea of Crete]]. His [[epitaph]] reads "I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free." ({{lang|el|Δεν ελπίζω τίποτα. Δε φοβούμαι}} {{lang|el|τίποτα. Είμαι λέφτερος.}}) Kazantzakis developed this famously pithy phrasing of the philosophical ideal of [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynicism]], which dates back to at least the second century CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reporter.com.cy/celebrity/listings/art-culture/article/103534/ |title="I do not hope for anything, I am not afraid of anything, I am free" ("Δεν ελπίζω τίποτα, δεν φοβούμαι τίποτα, είμαι ελέφτερος") |first=Ελίνα |last=Σταματίου |publisher=Celebrity Reporter |date=2016-08-28 |language=el |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117143840/https://www.reporter.com.cy/celebrity/listings/art-culture/article/103534/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The 50th anniversary of the death of Nikos Kazantzakis was selected as the main motif for a high-value euro collectors' coin; the €10 Greek [[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Greece)#2007 coinage|Nikos Kazantzakis commemorative coin]], minted in 2007. His image is on the obverse of the coin, while the reverse carries the [[National Emblem of Greece]], with his signature.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/shop/showcart.asp?id=drs152 | title=Nikos Kazantsakis Commemorative Coin | publisher=Fleur de Coin | access-date=2023-08-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024014639/http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/shop/showcart.asp?id=drs152 | archive-date=2008-10-24 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Literary work==
Kazantzakis's first published work was the 1906 narrative, ''[[Serpent and Lily]]'' (Όφις και Κρίνο), which he signed with the pen name Karma Nirvami. In 1907 Kazantzakis went to Paris for his graduate studies and was deeply influenced by the philosophy of [[Henri Bergson]], primarily the idea that a true understanding of the world comes from the combination of intuition, personal experience, and rational thought.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Nikos Kazantzakis, Novelist |last=Peter |first=Bien |date=1989 |publisher=Bristol Classical Press |isbn=1853990337 |location=Bristol |oclc=19353754}}</ref> The theme of [[rationalism]] mixed with irrationality later became central to many of Kazantzakis's later stories, characters, and personal philosophies. Later, in 1909, he wrote a one-act play titled ''Comedy'', which was filled with [[Existentialism|existential]] themes, predating the post-World War II existentialist movement in Europe spearheaded by writers like [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and Camus. After completing his studies in Paris, he wrote the tragedy, "The Master Builder" ({{lang|el|Ο Πρωτομάστορας}}), based on a popular [[Modern Greek folklore|Greek folkloric]] myth.

[[File:Kazantzakisloggia.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Medallion honoring Kazantzakis in the Venetian loggia of Heraklion]]

Through the next several decades, from the 1910s through the 1930s, Kazantzakis traveled around Greece, much of Europe, northern Africa, and to several countries in [[Asia]]. Countries he visited include: Germany, Italy, France, The Netherlands, Romania, Egypt, Russia, Japan, and China, among others. These journeys put Kazantzakis in contact with different philosophies, ideologies, lifestyles, and people, all of which influenced him and his writings.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Spiritual Odyssey of Nikos Kazantzakis: A Talk |last=Kimon |first=Friar |date=1979 |publisher=North Central Pub. Co |others=Stavrou, Theofanis G., 1934-, Σταύρου, Θεοφάνης Γ. 1934-|isbn=0935476008 |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |oclc=6314676}}</ref> Kazantzakis would often write about his influences in letters to friends, citing [[Sigmund Freud]], the philosophy of [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] theology, and [[Communism|communist]] ideology as major influences. While he continued to travel later in life, the bulk of his [[Travel literature|travel writing]] came from this time period.

Kazantzakis began writing ''[[The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel]]'' in 1924, and completed it in 1938 after fourteen years of writing and revision.<ref name=":1" /> The poem follows the hero of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', [[Odysseus]], as he undertakes a final journey after the end of the original poem. Following the structure of Homer's ''Odyssey'', it is divided into 24 [[Rhapsode|rhapsodies]] and consists of 33,333 lines.<ref name=":0" /> While Kazantzakis felt this poem held his cumulative wisdom and experience, and that it was his greatest literary experience, [[Literary criticism|critics]] were split, "some praised it as an unprecedented epic, [while] many simply viewed it as a hybristic act," with many scholars still being split to this day.<ref name=":1" /> A common criticism of ''The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel'' was aimed at Kazantzakis's over-reliance on flowery and metaphorical verse, a criticism that is also aimed at his works of fiction.<ref name=":0" />

Many of Kazantzakis's most famous novels were published between 1940 and 1961, including ''[[Zorba the Greek]]'' (1946), ''[[Christ Recrucified]]'' (1948), ''[[Captain Michalis]]'' (1953), ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (novel)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (1955), and ''[[Report to Greco]]'' (1961).

Scholar Peter Bien argues that each story explores different aspects of post-World War II Greek culture such as religion, nationalism, political beliefs, the [[Greek Civil War]], gender roles, immigration, and general cultural practices and beliefs.<ref name=":0" /> These works also explore what Kazantzakis believed to be the unique physical and spiritual location of Greece, a nation that belongs to neither the East nor the West, an idea he put forth in many of his letters to friends.<ref name=":1" /> As the scholar Peter Bien argued, "Kazantzakis viewed Greece's special mission as the reconciliation of Eastern instinct with Western reason," echoing the Bergsonian themes that balance logic against emotion found in many of Kazantzakis's novels.<ref name=":0" />

Two of these works of fiction, ''[[Zorba the Greek]]'' and ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (novel)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' had major motion picture adaptations in [[Zorba the Greek (film)|1964]] and [[The Last Temptation of Christ (film)|1988]] respectively.
[[File:2007 Greece 10 Euro Nikos Kazantzakis front.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Greece)#2007 coinage|Nikos Kazantzakis commemorative coin]]]]

== Language and use of Demotic Greek ==
During the time when Kazantzakis was writing his novels, poems, and plays, the majority of "serious" Greek artistic work was written in [[Katharevousa]], a "pure" form of the Greek language that was created to bridge [[Ancient Greek]] with Modern, [[Demotic Greek]], in order to "purify" Demotic Greek. The use of Demotic, among writers, gradually started to gain the upper hand only at the turn of the 20th century, under the influence of the [[New Athenian School]] (or Palamian).

In his letters to friends and correspondents, Kazantzakis wrote that he chose to write in Demotic Greek to capture the spirit of the people and to make his writing resonate with the common Greek citizen.<ref name=":0" /> Moreover, he wanted to prove that the common spoken language of Greek was able to produce artistic, literary works. "Why not show off all the possibilities of Demotic Greek?" he argued.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, Kazantzakis felt that it was important to record the [[vernacular]] of the everyday person, including Greek peasants, and often tried to include expressions, metaphors, and idioms he would hear while traveling throughout Greece and incorporate them into his writing for posterity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> At the time of writing, some scholars and critics condemned his work because it was not written in Katharevousa, while others praised it precisely because it was written in Demotic Greek.

Several critics have argued that Kazantzakis's writing was too flowery, filled with obscure metaphors, and difficult to read despite being written in Demotic Greek. Kazantzakis scholar Peter Bien argues that the metaphors and language Kazantzakis used were taken directly from the peasants he encountered when traveling Greece.<ref name=":0" /> Bien asserts that, since Kazantzakis was trying to preserve the language of the people, he used their local metaphors and phrases to give his narrative an air of authenticity and preserve these phrases so that they were not lost.<ref name=":0" />

== Socialism ==
Throughout his life, Kazantzakis reiterated his belief that "only [[socialism]] as the goal and [[democracy]] as the means" could provide an equitable solution to the "frightfully urgent problems of the age in which we are living."<ref name="Bien">{{cite book |last1=Bien |first1=Peter |title=Kazantzakis: Politics of the Spirit, Volume 2 |date=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=265–266}}</ref> He saw the need for socialist parties throughout the world to put aside their bickering and unite so that the program of "[[socialist democracy]]" could prevail not just in Greece but throughout the civilized world.<ref name="Bien" /> He described socialism as a social system that "does not permit the exploitation of one person by another" and that "must guarantee every freedom."<ref name="Bien" />

Kazantzakis was anathema to the right-wing in Greece both before and after World War II. The right waged war against his books and called him "immoral" and a "[[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] troublemaker" and accused him of being a "Russian agent".<ref name="Georgopoulos">{{cite journal |last1=Georgopoulos |first1=N. |title=Marxism and Kazantzakis |journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies |date=1977 |volume=3 |pages=175–200|doi=10.1179/030701377806931780 |s2cid=153476520 }}</ref> He was also distrusted by both the [[Communist Party of Greece]] and the Soviet Union as a "[[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]]" thinker.<ref name="Georgopoulos" /> However, upon his death in 1957, he was honored by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] as a "great writer" and "devotee of peace."<ref name="Georgopoulos" /> Following the war, he was temporarily leader of a minor Greek leftist party, while in 1945 he was, among others, a founding member of the [[Greece–Russia relations|Greek-Soviet]] friendship union.

== Religious beliefs and relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church ==
While Kazantzakis was deeply spiritual, he often discussed his struggle with religious faith, specifically his Greek Orthodoxy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Owens |first=Lewis |date=1998-10-01 |title="Does This One Exist?" The Unveiled Abyss of Nikos Kazantzakis |journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=331–348 |doi=10.1353/mgs.1998.0041 |s2cid=143703744 |issn=1086-3265}}</ref> Baptized Greek Orthodox as a child, he was fascinated by the [[Hagiography|lives of saints]] from a young age. As a young man he took a month long trip to [[Mount Athos]], a [[Monastery|monastic retreat]] and major spiritual center for Greek Orthodoxy. Most critics and scholars of Kazantzakis agree that the struggle to find truth in religion and spirituality was central to many of his works, and that some novels, like ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (novel)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' and ''[[Christ Recrucified]]'' focus completely on questioning [[Christian ethics|Christian morals and values]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Broken Hallelujah: Nikos Kazantzakis and Christian Theology |author=Middleton, Darren J. N. |date=2007 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9780739119273 |location=Lanham, MD |oclc=71322129}}</ref> As he traveled Europe, he was influenced by various philosophers, cultures, and religions, like Buddhism, causing him to question his Christian beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Middleton |first=Darren J. N. |date=2010-06-24 |title=Nikos Kazantzakis and Process Theology: Thinking Theologically in a Relational World |journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57–74 |doi=10.1353/mgs.2010.0139 |s2cid=146450293 |issn=1086-3265}}</ref> While never claiming to be an [[atheist]], his public questioning and critique put him at odds with some in the Greek Orthodox Church and many of his critics.<ref name=":2" /> Scholars theorize that Kazantzakis's difficult relationship with many members of the clergy and with more religiously conservative literary critics, came from his questioning. In his book ''Broken Hallelujah: Nikos Kazantzakis and Christian Theology'', author Darren Middleton theorizes that, "Where the majority of Christian writers focus on God's immutability, Jesus' deity, and our salvation through God's grace, Kazantzakis emphasized divine mutability, Jesus' humanity, and God's own redemption through our effort," highlighting Kazantzakis's uncommon interpretation of traditional Orthodox Christian beliefs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Middleton |first=Darren J. N. |date=1998-10-01|title=Kazantzakis and Christian Doctrine: Some Bridges of Understanding |journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=285–312 |doi=10.1353/mgs.1998.0040 |s2cid=142993531 |issn=1086-3265}}</ref>

Many Orthodox Church clergy condemned Kazantzakis's work and a campaign was started to [[Excommunication|excommunicate]] him. His reply was: "You gave me a curse, Holy fathers, I give you a blessing: may your conscience be as clear as mine and may you be as moral and religious as I" ("{{lang|el|Μου δώσατε μια κατάρα, Άγιοι πατέρες, σας δίνω κι εγώ μια ευχή: Σας εύχομαι να 'ναι η συνείδηση σας τόσο καθαρή, όσο είναι η δική μου και να 'στε τόσο ηθικοί και θρήσκοι όσο είμαι εγώ}}"). While the excommunication was rejected by the top leadership of the Orthodox Church, it became emblematic of the persistent disapprobation from many Christian authorities for his political and religious views.<ref>Antonia Kyriatzis, ''Η Εκκλησία στην Ελλάδα και το Καζαντζακικό Ζήτημα. Ιστορική αναψηλάφηση με βάση τις πηγές, ed. Ostracon Publishing p.c., 2016, p. 193</ref>

Modern scholarship tends to dismiss the idea that Kazantzakis was being sacrilegious or blasphemous with the content of his novels and beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Constantelos |first=Demetrios J. |date=1998-10-01 |title=Kazantzakis and God (review) |journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=357–358 |doi=10.1353/mgs.1998.0029 |s2cid=141618698 |issn=1086-3265}}</ref> These scholars argue that, if anything, Kazantzakis was acting in accordance to a long tradition of Christians who publicly struggled with their faith, and grew a stronger and more personal connection to God through their doubt.<ref name=":2" /> Moreover, scholars like Darren J. N. Middleton argue that Kazantzakis's interpretation of the Christian faith predated the more modern, personalized interpretation of Christianity that has become popular in the years after Kazantzakis's death.<ref name=":3" />

==Bibliography of English translations==
[[File:Plaque Níkos Kazantzákis, 13 rue Du Sommerard, Paris 5e.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Plaque for Kazantzakis, 13 rue Du Sommerard, Paris]]
[[File:Nikos Kazantzakis Statue in Heraklion.jpg|thumb|200px|A bust in Heraklion]]
[[File:Nikos Kazantzakis Postkarte an Max-Hermann Hörder 1957 aus China.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Postcard from Nikos Kazantzakis to his physician Max-Hermann Hörder, 13 September 1957, [[Chongqing]]]]

===Translations of ''The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel'', in whole or in part===
*''The Odyssey [Selections from]'', partial translation in prose by [[Kimon Friar]], ''Wake'' 12 (1953), pp.&nbsp;58–65.
*''The Odyssey'', excerpt translated by Kimon Friar, ''[[Chicago Review]]'' 8, No. 2 (Spring/Summer 1954), pp.&nbsp;12–18.
*"The Return of Odysseus", partial translation by Kimon Friar, ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' 195, No. 6 (June 1955), pp.&nbsp;110–112.
*''[[The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel]]'', a full verse-translation by Kimon Friar, New York: [[Simon & Schuster]], 1958; London: [[Secker and Warburg]], 1958.
*"Death, the Ant", from ''The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel'', Book XV, 829–63, trans. Kimon Friar, ''The Charioteer'', No. 1 (Summer 1960), p.&nbsp;39.

===Travel books===
*''Spain'', trans. Amy Mims, New York: [[Simon & Schuster]], 1963.
*''Japan, China'', trans. George C. Pappageotes, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963; published in the United Kingdom as ''Travels in China & Japan'', Oxford: [[Bruno Cassirer]], 1964; London: [[Faber & Faber|Faber and Faber]], 1964.
*''England'', trans. Amy Mims, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965; Oxford, Bruno Cassirer, 1965.
*''Journey to the Morea'', trans. by F. A. Reed, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965; published in the United Kingdom as ''Travels in Greece: Journey to the Morea'', Oxford, [[Bruno Cassirer]], 1966.
*''Journeying: Travels in Italy, Egypt, Sinai, Jerusalem and Cyprus'', trans. Themi Vasils and Theodora Vasils, Boston and Toronto: [[Little, Brown and Company]], 1975; San Francisco: Creative Arts Books Co., 1984.
*''Russia'', trans. A. Maskaleris and M. Antonakis,  San Francisco: Creative Arts Books Co, 1989.

===Novels===
*''[[Zorba the Greek]]'', trans. Carl Wildman, London: John Lehmann, 1952; New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953; Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1959; London & Boston: Faber and Faber, 1961; New York: [[Ballantine Books]], 1964; and ''Zorba the Greek: The Saint's Life of Alexis Zorba'', newly translated by Peter Bien, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.
*''[[Christ Recrucified|The Greek Passion]]'', trans. [[Jonathan Griffin]], New York, Simon & Schuster, 1954; New York, Ballantine Books, 1965; published in the United Kingdom as ''[[Christ Recrucified]]'', Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1954; London: Faber and Faber, 1954.
*''[[Captain Michalis|Freedom or Death]]'', trans. Jonathan Griffin, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1954; New York: Ballantine, 1965; and in the United Kingdom Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1956; London: Faber and Faber, 1956.
*''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (novel)|The Last Temptation]]'', trans. Peter A. Bien, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1960; New York: Bantam Books, 1961; Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1961; London: Faber and Faber, 1975.
*''Saint Francis'', trans. Peter A. Bien, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1962; published in the United Kingdom as ''God's Pauper: Saint Francis of Assisi'', Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1962, 1975; London: Faber and Faber, 1975.
*''The Rock Garden'', trans. from French (in which it was originally written) by Richard Howard, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963.
*''[[The Fratricides]]'', trans. Athena Gianakas Dallas, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964; Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1964.
*''Toda Raba'', trans. from French (in which it was originally written) by Amy Mims, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964.
*''Report to Greco'' — see under ''Memoirs, essays and letters''
*''Alexander the Great: A Novel'' [for children], trans. Theodora Vasils, Athens (Ohio): [[Ohio University Press]], 1982.
*''At the Palaces of Knossos: A Novel'' [for children], trans. Themi and Theodora Vasilis, ed. Theodora Vasilis, London: Owen, 1988. Adapted from the draft typewritten manuscript.
*''Father Yanaros'' [from the novel ''The Fratricides''], trans. Theodore Sampson, in ''Modern Greek Short Stories'', vol. 1, ed. Kyr. Delopoulos, Athens: [[Kathimerini|Kathimerini Publications]], 1980.
*''[[Serpent and Lily]]'', trans. Theodora Vasils, Berkeley: [[University of California Press]], 1980.

====Untranslated novels====
*1908: "Broken Souls" (Σπασμένες Ψυχές, ''Spasmenes Psyches''), serialised in the ''O Numas'' magazine (1909–10)
*1946: "The Ascent" (Ο Ανήφορος, ''O Aniforos''), first ed., Dioptra, 2022 - ISBN 978-618-220-072-8

===Short stories===
*"He Wants to Be Free – Kill Him!" trans. Athena G. Dallas, ''Greek Heritage'' 1, No. 1 (Winter 1963), pp.&nbsp;78–82.

===Plays===
*''Julian the Apostate'': First staged in Paris, 1948.
*''Three Plays: Melissa, Kouros, Christopher Columbus'', trans. Athena Gianakas-Dallas, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1969.
*''Christopher Columbus'', trans. Athena Gianakas-Dallas, Kentfield (CA): [[Allen Press]], 1972. Edition limited to 140 copies.
*''From Odysseus: A Drama'', partial translation by M. Byron Raizis, ''[[The Literary Review]]'' 16, No. 3 (Spring 1973), p.&nbsp;352.
*''Comedy: A Tragedy in One Act'', trans. Kimon Friar, ''The Literary Review'' 18, No. 4 (Summer 1975), pp.&nbsp;417–454 {61}.
*''Sodom and Gomorrah, A Play'', trans. Kimon Friar, ''The Literary Review'' 19, No. 2 (Winter 1976), pp.&nbsp;122–256 (62).
*''Two plays: Sodom and Gomorrah and Comedy: A Tragedy in One Act'', trans. Kimon Friar, Minneapolis: North Central Publishing Co., 1982.
*''Buddha'', trans. Kimon Friar and Athena Dallas-Damis, San Diego: Avant Books, 1983.
*''Odysseus: A Verse Tragedy'', trans. Kostas Myrsiades, Boston: Somerset Hall Press, 2022.

===Poems===
*1932–1937: "Tertsines," first ed., 1960 - ISBN 978-960-794-819-9 (untranslated)
*''Christ'' (poetry), trans. Kimon Friar, ''Journal of Hellenic Diaspora'' (JHD) 10, No. 4 (Winter 1983), pp.&nbsp;47–51 (60).

===Memoirs, essays and letters===
*''[[The Saviours of God|The Saviours of God: Spiritual Exercises]]'', trans. Kimon Friar, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960.
*''Report to Greco'', trans. Peter A. Bien, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965; Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1965; London: Faber and Faber, 1965; New York: Bantam Books, 1971.
*''Symposium'', trans. Theodora Vasils and Themi Vasils, New York: [[Thomas Y. Crowell Co.|Thomas Y. Crowell Company]], 1974; New York: [[Minerva Press]], 1974.
*''Friedrich Nietzsche on the Philosophy of Right and the State'', trans. O. Makridis, New York: [[SUNY Press|State University of NY Press]], 2007.
*''From The Saviours of God: Spiritual Exercises'', trans. Kimon Friar, ''The Charioteer'', No. 1 (Summer 1960), pp.&nbsp;40–51; reprinted in ''The Charioteer'' 22 and 23 (1980/1981), pp.&nbsp;116–129 {57}.
*''The Suffering God: Selected Letters to Galatea and to Papastephanou'', trans. Philip Ramp and [[Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke|Katerina Anghelaki Rooke]], New Rochelle (NY): Caratzas Brothers, 1979.
*''The Angels of Cyprus'', trans. Amy Mims, in ''Cyprus '74: Aphrodite's Other Face'', ed. Emmanuel C. Casdaglis, Athens: [[National Bank of Greece]], 1976.
*''Burn Me to Ashes: An Excerpt'', trans. Kimon Friar, ''Greek Heritage'' 1, No. 2 (Spring 1964), pp.&nbsp;61–64.
*''Drama and Contemporary Man: An Essay'', trans. Peter Bien, ''[[The Literary Review]]'' 19, No. 2 (Winter 1976), pp.&nbsp;15–121 {62}.
*''The Homeric G.B.S.'', "[[The Shaw Review]]" 18, No. 3 (Sept. 1975), pp.&nbsp;91–92. Greek original written for a 1946 Greek-language radio broadcast by [[BBC World Service|BBC Overseas Service]], on the occasion of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s 90th birthday.
*''Hymn (Allegorical)'', trans. M. Byron Raizis, ''Spirit'' 37, No. 3 (Fall 1970), pp.&nbsp;16–17.
*''Two Dreams'', trans. [[Peter Mackridge]], ''Omphalos'' 1, No. 2 (Summer 1972), p.&nbsp;3.
* Peter Bien (ed. and tr.), ''The Selected Letters of Nikos Kazantzakis'', Princeton [[Modern Greek studies|Modern Greek Studies]], Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 2011. .

===Anthologies===
*''A Tiny Anthology of Kazantzakis: Remarks on the Drama, 1910–1957'', compiled by Peter Bien, ''The Literary Review'' 18, No. 4 (Summer 1975), pp.&nbsp;455–459 {61}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* John (Giannes) Anapliotes, ''The Real Zorbas and Nikos Kazantzakis'', translated by Lewis A. Richards, Amsterdam: [[Hakkert]], 1978.
* Peter Bien, ''Nikos Kazantzakis'', 1962; New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1972.
* Peter Bien, ''Nikos Kazantzakis and the Linguistic Revolution in Greek Literature'', Princeton, N.J.: [[Princeton University Press]], 1972.
* Peter Bien, ''Tempted by happiness. Kazantzakis' post-Christian Christ'' Wallingford, Pa.: [[Pendle Hill Publications]], 1984.
* Peter Bien, ''Kazantzakis: Politics of the Spirit'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
* Daniel A. Dombrowski, ''Kazantzakis and God'', Albany: [[State University of New York Press]], 1997.
* Howard F. Dossor, ''The Existential Theology of Nikos Kazantzakis'', Wallingford, PA (Pendle Hill Pamphlets No 359), 2002
* Kimon Friar, ''The Spiritual Odyssey of Nikos Kazantzakis. A Talk'', edited and with an introduction by Theofanis G. Stavrou, St. Paul, MN.: North Central Pub. Co., 1979.
* Helen Kazantzakis, ''Nikos Kazantzakis. A biography based on his letters'', trans. Amy Mims, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968; Bruno Cassirer, Oxford, 1968; Berkeley: Creative Arts Book Co. for Donald S. Ellis, 1983.
* James F. Lea, ''Kazantzakis: The Politics of Salvation'', foreword by Helen Kazantzakis, The [[University of Alabama Press]], 1979.
* Morton P. Levitt, ''The Cretan Glance: The World and Art of Nikos Kazantzakis'', Columbus, OH: [[Ohio State University Press]], 1980.
* Darren J. N. Middleton and Peter Bien, ed., ''God's Struggler: Religion in the Writings of Nikos Kazantzakis'', Macon, GA: [[Mercer University Press]], 1996
* Darren J. N. Middleton, ''Novel Theology: Nikos Kazantzakis' Encounter with Whiteheadian Process Theism'', Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2000.
* Darren J. N. Middleton, ''Scandalizing Jesus?: Kazantzakis'''  Last Temptation of Christ ''Fifty Years On'', New York: Continuum, 2005.
* Darren J. N. Middleton, ''Broken Hallelujah: Nikos Kazantzakis and Christian Theology'', Lanham, MD: [[Rowman and Littlefield]], 2006.
* Lewis Owen, ''Creative Destruction: Nikos Kazantzakis and the Literature of Responsibility'', Macon, GA: [[Mercer University Press]], 2003.
* [[Pandelis Prevelakis]], ''Nikos Kazantzakis and His Odyssey: A Study of the Poet and the Poem'', translated from the Greek by [[Philip Sherrard]], with a preface by Kimon Friar, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961.
* Colin Wilson and Howard F. Dossor, ''Nikos Kazantzakis'', Nottingham: [[Paupers]], 1999.
* Ioannis G. Zaglaris, [https://www.pdf-archive.com/2017/12/12/nikos-kazantzakis-and-thought-leadership/ "Nikos Kazantzakis and thought leadership"], 2013.
* Ioannis G. Zaglaris, "Nikos Kazantzakis - end of time due to copyright", [https://www.pdf-archive.com/2017/12/12/gisap-educational-sciences/ ''GISAP: Educational Sciences'', 4, pp. 53-54], 2014
* Ioannis G. Zaglaris, [http://www.pdf-archive.com/2016/01/14/challenge-in-writing1/ "Challenge in Writing", 2015]

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070224115200/http://www.kazantzakis-museum.gr/index.php The Nikos Kazantzakis Museum, Crete]
*[http://www.historical-museum.gr/kazantzakis/index1.html The Nikos Kazantzakis Pages at the Historical Museum of Crete]
*[http://www.tehrantimes.com/index_View.asp?code=165972 Iran to pay homage to Greek author Kazantzakis – ''Tehran Times'', 10 April 2008]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081016100133/http://www.amis-kazantzaki.gr/ Society of Nikos Kazantzakis friends] {{in lang|el}}
*[https://www.kazantzaki.gr/gr Kazantzakis museum]
*[https://www.brainyquote.com/authors/nikos-kazantzakis-quotes Nikos Kazantzakis Quotes]
* {{LCAuth|n79100889|Nikos Kazantzakis|128|ue}}
* [[iarchive:sim_boston-phoenix_1981-09-29_10_39/page/n76/mode/1up|Review of ''Man of Crete'', a play by Michael Antonakes based on the life of Kazantzakis]], ''[[The Phoenix (newspaper)|The Boston Phoenix]]'' (29 September 1981)

{{Nikos Kazantzakis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kazantzakis, Nikos}}
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox writers]]
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