Editing Neologism

{{Short description|Recent term that is gaining acceptance}}

In [[linguistics]], a '''neologism''' ({{IPAc-en|n|i|ˈ|ɒ|l|ə|ˌ|dʒ|ɪ|z|əm}}; also known as a '''coinage''') is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson|first=James M. |editor-last=Malmkjær|editor-first=Kirsten |title=The Linguistics Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=0-203-43286-X |page=601}}</ref> Most definitively, a word can be considered a neologism once it is published in a dictionary.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simatupang|first1=E. C. M. |last2=Heryono|first2=H. |year=2022 |title=New-word formation and social disruption on metaverse |journal=English Review: Journal of English Education |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=1019 |doi=10.25134/erjee.v10i3.6722|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Neologisms are one facet of [[lexical innovation]], i.e., the linguistic process of new terms and meanings entering a language's [[lexicon]]. The most precise studies into [[language change]] and [[word formation]], in fact, identify the process of a "neological continuum": a ''[[nonce word]]'' is any single-use term that may or may not grow in popularity; a ''[[protologism]]'' is such a term used exclusively within a small group; a ''prelogism'' is such a term that is gaining usage but is still not mainstream; and a ''neologism'' has become accepted or recognized by social institutions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gryniuk|first1=D|title=On Institutionalization and De-Institutionalization of Late 1990s Neologisms|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|page=150|quote=This process [of lexicalization] does not seem to be coincidental because neologisms themselves are prone to go through certain stages of transformation. They began as ''unstable'' creations (otherwise called ''prelogisms''), that is, they are extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a small subculture}}</ref><ref name="Anesa">{{cite book |last1=Anesa |first1=Patrizia |title=Lexical Innovation in World Englishes: Cross-fertilization and Evolving Paradigms |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |chapter=Three, 3}}</ref>

Neologisms are often driven by changes in culture and technology.<ref>McDonald, L. J. (2004). The meaning of e- : neologisms as markers of culture and technology.</ref><ref>Forgue, Guy (1978). "American Neologisms as a Reflection of Cultural Change since 1945". ''Proceedings of a Symposium on American Literature'': 199–211.</ref> Popular examples of neologisms can be found in [[science]], [[technology]], [[fiction]] (notably [[science fiction]]), films and television, commercial branding, [[literature]], [[jargon]], [[Cant (language)|cant]], [[linguistics]], the [[visual arts]], and popular culture.{{cn|reason=They can be found in nearly all aspects of life. Is there a reason or source backing these specific examples?|date=May 2024}}

Examples of 20th-century neologisms include "[[laser]]" (1960), an [[acronym]] of "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation"; "[[robot]]" (1921), from [[Czechoslovakia|Czech]] writer [[Karel Čapek]]'s play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'';<ref name="KapekWebsite">{{cite web|url=http://capek.misto.cz/english/robot.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123023343/http://capek.misto.cz/english/robot.html|archive-date=2013-01-23|first=Dominik| last=Zunt|title=Who did actually invent the word "robot" and what does it mean?|website=Karel Čapek |access-date=2017-02-05}}</ref> and "''[[agitprop]]''" (1930), a [[portmanteau]] of the Russian "''agitatsiya''" ("agitation") and "propaganda").<ref name="Leshchenko2015">{{Cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia= Britannica | date = 2002 | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/agitprop | title= agitprop}}</ref>

==Background==
Neologisms are often formed by combining existing words (see [[compound noun and adjective]]) or by giving words new and unique [[suffix]]es or [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]]es.<ref name="bodle">{{Cite news |last=Bodle |first=Andy |date=2016-02-04 |title=How new words are born |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2016/feb/04/english-neologisms-new-words |access-date=2023-08-05 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Neologisms can also be formed by [[Blend word|blending]] words, for example, "brunch" is a blend of the words "breakfast" and "lunch", or through [[abbreviation]] or [[acronym]], by intentionally [[rhyme|rhyming]] with existing words or simply through playing with sounds. A relatively rare form of neologism is when proper names are used as words (e.g., [[boycott]], from [[Charles Boycott]]), including [[Wiktionary:guy#Etymology 1|guy]], [[Dick (slang)|dick]], [[Chad (slang)|Chad]], and [[Karen (slang)|Karen]].<ref name="bodle" />

Neologisms can become popular through [[memetics]], through [[mass media]], the [[Internet]], and [[word of mouth]], including academic discourse in many fields renowned for their use of distinctive [[jargon]], and often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. It is unusual for a word to gain popularity if it does not clearly resemble other words. 

==History and meaning==
The term "neologism" is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from the French "''néologisme''" (1734).<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Neologism|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00322941|dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|format=draft revision|date=December 2009}}</ref> The French word derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''νέο'' (''néo''), meaning "new", and ''λόγος'' (''lógos''), meaning "speech, utterance". 

In an academic sense, there are no professional neologists, because the study of such things (e.g., of cultural or ethnic vernacular) is [[interdisciplinary]]. Anyone such as a [[Lexicography|lexicographer]] or an [[Etymology|etymologist]] might study neologisms, how their uses span the scope of human expression, and how, due to science and technology, they now spread more rapidly than ever.<ref>{{cite web
 |title        = THE MEANING OF "e-": Neologisms as Markers of Culture and Technology
 |url          = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267305674
 |date         = 2019-03-28
 |archive-url  = https://archive.today/20190328141152/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267305674_THE_MEANING_OF_e-_Neologisms_as_Markers_of_Culture_and_Technology
 |archive-date = 2019-03-28
 |access-date  = 2019-03-28
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref>

The term "neologism" also has a broader meaning, of "a word which has gained a ''new meaning''".<ref name="palgrave">{{cite book|last1=Zuckermann|first1=Ghilʻad|title=Language contact and lexical enrichment in Israeli Hebrew|date=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=978-1403917232|page=3|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>Sally Barr Ebest ''Writing from A to Z: the easy-to-use reference handbook'' 1999 – p. 449  "A neologism is a newly coined word or phrase or a new usage of an existing word or phrase."</ref><ref>Lynne Bowker, Jennifer Pearson ''Working With Specialized Language'' 2002 p. 214 "Neologisms can also be formed in another way, however, by assigning a new meaning to an existing word."</ref> Sometimes the latter process is called "semantic shifting"<ref name="palgrave"/> or "semantic extension".<ref>Ole Nedergaard Thomsen ''Competing models of linguistic change: evolution and beyond'' 2006 – p. 68 "Extensions, by contrast, are applications of extant means in new usage. Note that since individual speakers differ in their command of their shared tradition of speaking, one person's Extension may be experienced by another as a Neologism"</ref><ref>Michael D. Picone ''Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French'' 1996 – p. 3 "Proceeding now to the task of defining terms, I will begin with the more general term 'neologism'. ...A neologism is any new word, morpheme or locution and any new meaning for a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution that appears in a language. ... Likewise, any semantic extension of a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution.. but is also, by accepted definition, a neologism."</ref> Neologisms are distinct from a person's ''[[idiolect]]'', one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

Neologisms are usually introduced when a concept is lacking a term, or when an existing term lacks detail, or when a speaker is unaware of the existing term.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mesthrie|first1=Rajend|title=Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics|date=1995|page=225}}</ref> The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Solan|first1=Lawrence|title=The Oxford Handbook of Language and Law|date=2012|page=36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Greiffenstern|first1=Sandra|title=The Influence of Computers, the Internet and Computer-Mediated Communication on Everyday English|date=2010|page=125}}</ref> Another motive for the coining of a neologism is to disambiguate a term that has multiple meanings.<ref>Cowan, Robert. "Shadow of a Doubt: A Phantom Caesura in Horace Odes 4.14." Classical Journal, The 109.4 (2014): 407–417.</ref>

==Literature==

Neologisms may come from a word used in the narrative of fiction such as novels and short stories. Examples include "[[grok]]" (to intuitively understand) from the science fiction novel about a Martian entitled ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]; "[[McJob]]" (precarious, poorly-paid employment) from ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'' by [[Douglas Coupland]]; "[[cyberspace]]" (widespread, interconnected digital technology) from ''[[Neuromancer]]'' by [[William Gibson]]<ref>Dunn, Robin. 2003: "The Generative Edge." Foundation 87 (2003): 73–93.</ref> and "[[Quark#Etymology|quark]]" (Slavic slang for "rubbish"; German for a type of [[Quark (dairy product)|dairy product]]) from [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Finnegans Wake]]''.

The title of a book may become a neologism, for instance, ''[[Catch-22]]'' (from the title of [[Joseph Heller]]'s novel).<ref name="catch22">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1868619.stm |title=What is Catch-22? And why does the book matter? |work=BBC News |date=March 12, 2002 |access-date=March 11, 2011}}</ref> Alternatively, the author's name may give rise to the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as "[[Orwellian]]" (from [[George Orwell]], referring to his dystopian novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') and "Kafkaesque" (from [[Franz Kafka]]).

Names of famous characters are another source of literary neologisms. Some examples include: ''[[quixotism|Quixotic]]'', referring to a misguided romantic quest like that of the [[title character]] in ''[[Don Quixote]]'' by [[Miguel de Cervantes]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cervantes Saavedra |first=Miguel de |title=The ingenious hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha |date=2003 |others=John Rutherford |isbn=0-14-243723-9 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |oclc=52187865}}</ref> ''[[Ebenezer Scrooge|Scrooge]]'', a pejorative for [[Miser|misers]] based on the avaricious main character in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'';<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dickens |first=Charles |title=A Christmas carol in prose: a ghost story of Christmas |date=1999 |publisher=Tyndale House |isbn=1-56179-746-4 |location=Wheaton, Ill. |oclc=190824043}}</ref> and ''[[Pollyanna principle|Pollyanna]]'', referring to people who are unfailingly optimistic like the title character of [[Eleanor H. Porter|Eleanor H. Porter's]] ''[[Pollyanna]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Eleanor H. |title=Pollyanna |date=2002 |isbn=0-689-84910-9 |publisher=Aladdin Classics |location=New York |oclc=48994834}}</ref>

=== Scientific literature ===
Neologisms are often introduced in technical writing, so-called ''Fachtexte'' or 'technical texts' through the process of [[lexical innovation]]. Technical subjects such as philosophy, sociology, physics, etc. are especially rich in neologisms. In philosophy, as an example, many terms became introduced into languages through processes of translation, e.g., from Ancient Greek to [[Latin]], or from Latin to [[German language|German]] or [[English language|English]], and so on. So [[Plato]] introduced the Greek term ποιότης (''poiotēs''), which Cicero rendered with Latin ''qualitas'', which subsequently became our notion of '[[Quality (philosophy)|quality]]' in relation to epistemology, e.g., a quality or attribute of a perceived object, as opposed to its essence. In physics, new terms were introduced sometimes via nonce formation (e.g., [[Murray Gell-Mann|Murray Gell-Man]]'s ''[[quark]]'', taken from [[James Joyce]]) or through derivation (e.g. John von [[John von Neumann|Neumann's]] ''kiloton'', coined by combining the common prefix ''kilo-'' 'thousand' with the noun ''ton''). Neologisms therefore are a vital component of scientific [[jargon]] or ''termini technici''.

==Cant==
{{Main|Cant (language)}}

[[Polari]] is a cant used by some actors, circus performers, and the [[gay subculture]] to communicate without outsiders understanding. Some Polari terms have crossed over into mainstream slang, in part through their usage in pop song lyrics and other works. Example include: ''acdc'', ''barney'', ''blag'', ''[[wikt:butch#Adjective|butch]]'', ''[[Camp (style)|camp]]'', ''khazi'', ''cottaging'', ''hoofer'', ''mince'', ''ogle'', ''scarper'', ''slap'', ''strides'', ''tod'', ''[rough] trade'' ([[Trade (gay slang)|rough trade]]).

[[Verlan]] ({{IPA|fr|vɛʁlɑ̃}}), (''verlan'' is the reverse of the expression "l'envers") is a type of [[argot]] in the [[French language]], featuring inversion of [[syllable]]s in a word, and is common in [[slang]] and youth language. It rests on a long French tradition of transposing syllables of individual words to create slang words.<ref name=Lefkowitz>{{cite book |last=Lefkowitz |first=Natalie |title=Talking Backwards, Looking Forwards: The French Language Game Verlan |date=1991 |publisher=Gunter Narr Verlag |isbn=3823340735 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xOk9Pldx7i0C}}</ref>{{rp|50}} Some ''verlan'' words, such as ''meuf'' ("femme", which means "woman" roughly backwards), have become so commonplace that they have been included in the ''[[Petit Larousse]]''.<ref>See the [[Petit Larousse]] itself. These words are also given on the Larousse website:  [http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/keuf keuf] [http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/meuf meuf] [http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/ripou ripou]</ref> Like any slang, the purpose of ''verlan'' is to create a somewhat secret language that only its speakers can understand. Words becoming mainstream is counterproductive. As a result, such newly common words are re-verlanised: reversed a second time. The common ''meuf'' became ''feumeu''.<ref name=Valdman>{{cite journal |last=Valdman |first=Albert |title=La Langue des faubourgs et des banlieues: de l'argot au français populaire |journal=The French Review |volume=73 |issue=6 |year=2000 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=LefkowitzReview>{{cite journal |title=Verlan: talking backwards in French |first=Natalie J |last= Lefkowitz |journal=[[The French Review]] |volume=63 |issue=2 |year=1989}}</ref>

== Popular culture ==
Neologism development may be spurred, or at least spread, by popular culture. Examples of pop-culture neologisms include the American [[alt-Right]] (2010s), the Canadian [[portmanteau]] "[[Snowmageddon]]" (2009), the Russian [[parody]] "[[Monstration]]" ({{circa|2004}}), [[Campaign for the neologism "santorum"|Santorum]] ({{circa|2003}}).

Neologisms spread mainly through their exposure in [[mass media]]. The [[genericize|genericizing]] of [[brand names]], such as "coke" for [[Coca-Cola]], "kleenex" for [[Kleenex]] facial tissue, and "xerox" for [[Xerox]] [[photocopier|photocopying]], all spread through their popular use being enhanced by mass media.<ref>Sayadi, Forough (April 2011). [http://translationjournal.net/journal/56neologisms.htm "The Translation of Neologisms"]. ''Translation Journal''.</ref>

However, in some limited cases, words break out of their original communities and spread through [[social media]].{{citation needed|date=February 2019}} "[[DoggoLingo]]", a term still below the threshold of a neologism according to [[Merriam-Webster]],<ref name=":0" /> is an example of the latter which has specifically spread primarily through [[Facebook]] group and [[Twitter]] account use.<ref name=":0">Boddy, Jessica (April 23, 2017). [https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2017/04/23/524514526/dogs-are-doggos-an-internet-language-built-around-love-for-the-puppers "Dogs Are Doggos: An Internet Language Built Around Love For The Puppers"]. ''National Public Radio''.</ref> The suspected origin of this way of referring to dogs stems from a Facebook group founded in 2008 and gaining popularity in 2014 in Australia. In Australian English it is common to use [[Diminutives in Australian English|diminutives]], often ending in –o, which could be where doggo-lingo was first used.<ref name=":0" /> The term has grown so that Merriam-Webster has acknowledged its use but notes the term needs to be found in published, edited work for a longer period of time before it can be deemed a new word, making it the perfect example of a neologism.<ref name=":0" />

== Translations ==
[[File:Pensador Portuguese Wine.jpg|thumb|In [[Danish language|Danish]] a [[bag-in-box]] wine is known as ''papvin'' literally meaning "cardboard wine". This neologism was first recorded in 1982.<ref>[https://sproget.dk/lookup?SearchableText=papvin Opslag "Papvin" på sproget.dk] {{in lang|da}}</ref>]]
Because neologisms originate in one language, translations between languages can be difficult.

In the scientific community, where English is the predominant language for published research and studies, like-sounding translations (referred to as 'naturalization') are sometimes used.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | last1 = Linder | first1 = Daniel | year = 2016 | title = Non-native scientists, research dissemination and English neologisms: What happens in the early stages of reception and re-production? | journal = Iberica | volume = 32 | pages = 35–58 }}</ref> Alternatively, the English word is used along with a brief explanation of meaning.<ref name=":1" />
The four translation methods are emphasized in order to translate neologisms: [[transliteration]], [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]], the use of analogues, and [[Calque|loan translation]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://termcoord.eu/2015/06/the-translation-of-english-neologisms/|title = The Translation of English Neologisms|website = Terminology Coordination Unit [DGTRAD] |publisher= European Parliament|date = 22 June 2015}}</ref>

When translating from English to other languages, the naturalization method is most often used.<ref>Lindblad, Jonathan. 2017. "Translation strategies of H.P. Lovecraft's neologisms into Japanese." ''Networked Digital Library of Theses & Dissertations''</ref> The most common way that professional translators translate neologisms is through the [[Think aloud protocol]] (TAP), wherein translators find the most appropriate and natural sounding word through speech.{{cn|date=February 2023}} As such, translators can use potential translations in sentences and test them with different structures and syntax. Correct translations from [[English for specific purposes]] into other languages is crucial in various industries and legal systems.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Liu | first1 = Hui | year = 2014 | title = A Probe Into Translation Strategies of Tech English Neologism in Petroleum Engineering Field | journal = Studies in Literature and Language | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 33–37 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | last1 = Kerremans | first1 = Koen | year = 2014 | title = Studying the Dynamics of Understanding and Legal Neologisms within a Linguistically Diverse Judicial Space: The Case of Motherhood in Belgium | journal = International Conference; Meaning in Translation: Illusion of Precision | volume = 231 | pages = 46–52 }}</ref> Inaccurate translations can lead to 'translation asymmetry' or misunderstandings and miscommunication.<ref name=":2" /> Many technical glossaries of English translations exist to combat this issue in the medical, judicial, and technological fields.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Navarro | first1 = F | year = 2008 | title = Controversies in dermatology: One-Hundred Fifty English Words and Expressions in Dermatology That Present Difficulties or Pitfalls for Translation Into Spanish | journal = Actas Dermosifiliográficas |language=en | volume = 99 | issue = 5| pages = 349–362 | doi=10.1016/s1578-2190(08)70268-3| doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Other uses ==
In [[psychiatry]] and [[neuroscience]], the term ''neologism'' is used to describe words that have meaning only to the person who uses them, independent of their common meaning.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2009|title=Neologisms|journal=History of Psychiatry|volume=20|issue=4|pages=480–496|last1=Berrios|first1=G. E.|doi=10.1177/0957154x08348532|pmid=20481134|s2cid=13205195 }}</ref><ref name="WHO1">{{cite web | title=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics: MB25.2 Neologisms | website=[[World Health Organization]] | url=https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#680326614 | access-date=2025-01-12}}</ref> This can be seen in [[schizophrenia]], where a person may replace a word with a nonsensical one of their own invention (e.g., "I got so angry I picked up a dish and threw it at the gelsinger").<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuperberg|first=Gina R.|date=2010|title=Language in schizophrenia Part 1: an Introduction|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=4|issue=8|pages=576–589|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818X.2010.00216.x|issn=1749-818X|pmc=2950318|pmid=20936080}}</ref> The use of neologisms may also be due to [[aphasia]] acquired after [[brain damage]] resulting from a [[stroke]] or [[Traumatic brain injury|head injury]].<ref name="o498">{{cite journal | last=Butterworth | first=Brian | title=Hesitation and the production of verbal paraphasias and neologisms in jargon aphasia | journal=Brain and Language | volume=8 | issue=2 | date=1979 | doi=10.1016/0093-934X(79)90046-4 | pages=133–161}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Linguistics}}
*[[Aureation]]
*[[Backslang]]
*[[Blend word]]
*[[Calque]]
*[[Language planning]]
*[[Mondegreen]]
*[[Morphology (linguistics)]]
*[[Nonce word]]
*[[Phono-semantic matching]]
*[[Protologism]]
*[[Retronym]]
*[[Sniglet]]
*[[Syllabic abbreviations]]
*[[Word formation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|neologism|protologism}}
{{Commons category|Neologism}}
*[http://rdues.bcu.ac.uk/neologisms.shtml Neologisms in Journalistic Text]
*[http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/viewFile/25957/16032 Interpretation of the Formation of Internet Neologisms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324164332/http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/viewFile/25957/16032 |date=2018-03-24 }}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/116/103.html Fowler, H.W., "The King's English", Chapter I. Vocabulary, Neologism]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=3x-umCIwEYQC Algeo, John. ''Fifty Years among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941–1991''] {{ISBN|0-521-41377-X}}
*[http://www.wordspy.com Wordspy]
*[http://wordfusion.org/ WordFusion]
*[http://neologisms.rice.edu/ Rice University Neologisms Database]
*[http://thoughtcast.org/casts/griefer-google-cooking-and-other-neologisms Neologisms from the Internet – with Esther Dyson, Jimmy Wales and more...] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004110515/http://www.thoughtcast.org/casts/griefer-google-cooking-and-other-neologisms/ |date=2011-10-04 }}

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[[Category:Neologisms| ]]
[[Category:Lexicology]]
[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Symptoms or signs involving form of thought]]