Editing Neoclassicism

{{Short description|Western cultural movement inspired by ancient Greece and Rome}}
{{for|the musical movement|Neoclassicism (music)}}
{{Infobox art movement
|name = Neoclassicism
|image = {{photomontage
|photo1a = Psyche revived by cupid's kiss, Paris 2 October 2011 002.jpg
|photo2a = Cupid driving a chariot pulled by griffins, by Michelangelo Maestri, c.1800, unknown media or location.jpg
|photo3a = Parc et Château de Rambouillet (50029592691).jpg
|photo4a = Pair of Spindle Vases - OA 11090 - Louvre (02).jpg
|size = 250
|color_border = #AAAAAAAA
|color = #F9F9F9F9
|yearsactive = mid-18th century, and faded into obscurity around 1860
|countries = Western world
}}
|caption = Top: ''[[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss]]'', by [[Antonio Canova]], 1787, marble, [[Louvre]]; Second: ''Cupid Driving a Chariot Pulled by Griffins'', by [[Michelangelo Maestri]], {{circa}}1800, unknown media or location; Third: Napoleon's bath of the [[Château de Rambouillet]], [[Rambouillet]], France, with painted decoration inspired by those from [[Pompeii]], painted by Godard and Jean Vasserot, 1806; Bottom: Detail with swans and [[rinceau]]x on a vase; produced by [[Antoine Béranger]], [[Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart]], and the [[Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory]], hard-paste porcelain with gilded bronze mounts, Louvre
}}
{{Classicism}}
'''Neoclassicism''', also spelled '''Neo-classicism''', emerged as a Western [[cultural movement]] in the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]], [[literature]], [[theatre]], [[music]], and [[architecture]] that drew inspiration from the art and culture of [[classical antiquity]]. Neoclassicism was born in [[Rome]], largely due to the writings of [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] during the rediscovery of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. Its popularity expanded throughout Europe as a generation of European art students finished their [[Grand Tour]] and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.<ref>{{Cite book | url={{Google books|id=anecAQAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=1189 |keywords=|text=}} | title=Oxford Dictionary of English| isbn=9780199571123| last1=Stevenson| first1=Angus| date=2010-08-19| publisher=OUP Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/978/ |title=The road from Rome to Paris. The birth of a modern Neoclassicism |first=Hubertu. |last=Kohle |date=August 7, 2006 |publisher=Jacques Louis David. New perspectives}}</ref><ref name="Baldick">{{cite encyclopedia |surname=Baldick |given=Chris |author-link=Chris Baldick |entry=Neoclassicism |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms |edition=4th |format=Online Version |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191783234 |entry-url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198715443.001.0001/acref-9780198715443-e-110?rskey=gCA8Zd&result=782 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198715443.001.0001/acref-9780198715443 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Greene">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Greene |editor-given=Roland |editor-link=Roland Greene |display-editors=etal |entry=Neoclassical poetics |entry-url= |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics |edition=4th rev. |year=2012 |url={{Google books|id=uKiC6IeFR2UC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |place=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15491-6}}</ref> The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment]], and continued into the early 19th century, eventually competing with [[Romanticism]]. In architecture, the style endured throughout the 19th, 20th, and into the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-01 |title=Neoclassical architecture {{!}} Definition, Characteristics, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Neoclassical-architecture |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Classical / Classical Revival / Neo-Classical: an architectural style guide |url=https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-and-resources/knowledge-landing-page/classical-classical-revival-neo-classical |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=www.architecture.com}}</ref>

European Neoclassicism in the [[visual art]]s began {{circa|1760}} in opposition to the then-dominant [[Rococo]] style. [[Rococo architecture]] emphasizes grace, [[Ornament (art)|ornamentation]] and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of [[Roman art|Ancient Rome]] and [[Ancient Greek art|Ancient Greece]], and drawn directly from 16th-century [[Renaissance|Renaissance Classicism]]. Each "neo"-classicism movement selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. Between 1765 and 1830, Neoclassical proponents—writers, speakers, patrons, collectors, artists and sculptors—paid homage to an ''idea'' of the artistic generation associated with [[Phidias]], but sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of [[Hellenistic]] sculptures. They ignored both [[Archaic Greek]] art and the works of [[late antiquity]]. The discovery of ancient [[Palmyra]]'s "Rococo" art through engravings in [[Robert Wood (antiquarian)|Robert Wood]]'s ''The Ruins of Palmyra'' came as a revelation. With Greece largely unexplored and considered a dangerous territory of the [[Ottoman Empire]], Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was predominantly mediated through drawings and [[engraving]]s which were subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" monuments of Greece, not always consciously.

The [[Empire style]], a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the [[decorative arts]], had its cultural centre in [[Paris]] in the [[Napoleonic era]]. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

==History==
Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,<ref name=Irwin>{{cite book| title=Neoclassicism A&I (Art and Ideas)| last=Irwin| first=David G.| publisher=Phaidon Press| year=1997| isbn=978-0-7148-3369-9| url-access=registration| url=https://archive.org/details/neoclassicism0000irwi}}</ref> which coincided and reflected the developments in [[philosophy]] and other areas of the Age of  Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding [[Rococo]] style.<ref>Honour, 17–25; Novotny, 21</ref> While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of [[Romanticism]], this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres|Ingres]], demonstrates this especially well.<ref>A recurring theme in Clark: 19–23, 58–62, 69, 97–98 (on Ingres); Honour, 187–190; Novotny, 86–87</ref> The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal [[archaeology]].<ref name=Lingo>{{cite book |title = François Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal| last=Lingo| first=Estelle Cecile| publisher = Yale University Press; First Edition|year = 2007| pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlq67ikF0OEC&dq=Winckelmann+Neoclassicism&pg=PA161 161]| isbn=978-0-300-12483-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = Classical Savannah: fine & decorative arts, 1800-1840| last=Talbott | first=Page| publisher = University of Georgia Press |year = 1995| pages = 6| isbn=978-0-8203-1793-9 }}</ref>

The Italian archaeologist and art theorist [[Giovanni Pietro Bellori]] is considered the forerunner of Neoclassicism. In 1664 he delivered a lecture on the ‘Ideal’ in art at the [[Accademia di San Luca]], Rome, which became the seminal statement of idealist art theory.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
|last         = Langdon
|first        = H.
|date         = 2001
|title        = Bellori, Giovanni Pietro
|url          = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662037.001.0001/acref-9780198662037-e-238
|encyclopedia = The Oxford Companion to Western Art
|location     = Oxford
|publisher    = Oxford University Press
|access-date  = 10 May 2025
}}</ref> Bellori's lecture had a decisive influence on European academic theory and later became the theoretical basis of the Neoclassicism preached by Winckelmann.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Chilvers|first = I.|date = |title = Bellori, Giovanni Pietro|url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191782763.001.0001/acref-9780191782763-e-244|encyclopedia = The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists|location = Oxford|publisher = Oxford University Press|access-date = 10 May 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Johann Joachim Winckelmann (Anton von Maron 1768).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]], often called "the father of archaeology"<ref>{{cite book |title = Culture and values: a survey of the humanities| last=Cunningham, Reich| first= Lawrence S., John J. | publisher = Wadsworth Publishing; 7 edition|year = 2009| pages = 104 | isbn=978-0-495-56877-3}}</ref>]]

The writings of [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His books ''Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture'' (1750) and ''Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums'' ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",<ref>Honour, 57–62, 61 quoted</ref> and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter of [[Plato]] teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".<ref>Both quotes from the first pages of "Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"</ref>

The [[Industrial Revolution]] saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Industrial History of European Countries |url=https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries |access-date=2 June 2021 |website=European Route of Industrial Heritage |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref> There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=North |first1=Douglass C. |last2=Thomas |first2=Robert Paul |date=May 1977 |title=The First Economic Revolution | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2595144 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=30 | issue=2 |pages=229–230 |doi=10.2307/2595144 |access-date=6 June 2022 |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the Economic History Society |jstor=2595144 |url-access=registration}}</ref> With the advent of the [[Grand Tour]], a fad of collecting [[antiquities]] began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.<ref>{{cite book |title = In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries| last= Dyson| first=Stephen L.| publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2006| pages = xii | isbn=978-0-300-11097-5}}</ref> "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model.

In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement in [[English literature]], which began considerably earlier, is called [[Augustan literature]]. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in [[French literature]] was similar. In music, the period saw the rise of [[classical music]], and "Neoclassicism" is used of [[Neoclassicism (music)|20th-century developments]]. However, the operas of [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]] represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of ''[[Alceste (Gluck)|Alceste]]'' (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing [[ornamentation (music)|ornamentation]], increasing the role of the chorus in line with [[Greek tragedy]], and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.<ref>Honour, 21</ref>

The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms as "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble [[Baroque]] of the age of [[Louis XIV]], for which a considerable [[nostalgia]] had developed as France's dominant military and political position started a serious decline.<ref>Honour, 11, 23–25</ref> [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres|Ingres]]'s [[Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne|coronation portrait of Napoleon]] even borrowed from Late Antique [[consular diptych]]s and their [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in [[Neoclassical architecture|architecture]], [[sculpture]] and the [[decorative arts]], where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing found in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] and, like most contemporaries except for [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]], was unimpressed by them, citing [[Pliny the Younger]]'s comments on the decline of painting in his period.<ref>Honour, 44–46; Novotny, 21</ref>

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through [[bas-relief]] [[frieze]]s, [[mosaic]]s and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the [[High Renaissance]] of [[Raphael]]'s generation, frescos in [[Nero]]'s ''[[Domus Aurea]]'', Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of [[Nicolas Poussin]]. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.<ref>Honour, 43–62</ref>

==Painting, drawing and printmaking==
{{see also|Capriccio (art)}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
Giovanni Paolo Panini - Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome - 61.62 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|''Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome''; by [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]]; 1737; oil on canvas; 98.9 x 137.49&nbsp;cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston]], US
The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . . (Campidoglio antico a cui si ascendeva per circa cento gradini . . .) MET DP827987.jpg|''The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .''; by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]]; {{circa}}1750; etching; size of the entire sheet: 33.5 × 49.4&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
Wright of Derby, The Orrery.jpg|''[[A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery]]''; by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]]; {{circa}}1766; oil on canvas; 1.47 x 2.03 m; [[Derby Museum and Art Gallery]], Derby, England{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=275}}
Attributs de la peinture, de la sculpture et de l'architecture - Anne Vallayer-Coster.jpg|''The Attributes of the Arts''; by [[Anne Vallayer-Coster]]; 1769; oil on canvas; 90 x 121&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=413|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Kauffmann, Angelica - Ariadne von Theseus verlassen - prior to 1782.jpg|''Ariadne Abandoned''; by [[Angelica Kauffmann]]; before 1782; oil on canvas; 88 x 70.5&nbsp;cm; [[Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister]], Dresden, Germany<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=211|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Jacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]''; by [[Jacques-Louis David]]; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27&nbsp;m; Louvre{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=276}}
Self-Portrait with a Harp MET DP164843.jpg|''Self-Portrait with a Harp''; by [[Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux]]; 1791; oil on canvas; 193 x 128.9&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
(27) Flaxman Ilias 1795, Zeichnung 1793, 189 x 284 mm.jpg|[[Achilles]] mourning [[Patroclus|Patrocles]]; after [[John Flaxman]]; 1795; engraving after a drawing; unknown size; unknown location
Anne-Louis Girodet De Roucy-Trioson - Portrait of J. B. Belley, Deputy for Saint-Domingue - WGA09508.jpg|''[[Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley]]'', Ex-Representative of the Colonies; by [[Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson|Anne-Louis Girodet]]; 1796–1797; oil on canvas; 1.59 x 1.11 m; [[Palace of Versailles]], France<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=993|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Gerard FrancoisPascalSimon-Cupid Psyche end.jpg|''[[Cupid and Psyche (Gérard)|Cupid and Psyche]]''; by [[François Gérard]]; 1798; oil on canvas; 186 x 132&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Graham-Dixon|title=art - The Definitive Visual History|date=2023|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|isbn=978-0-2416-2903-1|page=251|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Vigee-Lebrun–Julie-Lebrun-as-Flora.jpg|''Julie Lebrun as [[Flora (mythology)|Flora]]''; by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]]; {{circa}}1799; oil on canvas; 129.5 x 97.8&nbsp;cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg, Florida)]], US
Marie-Guillemine Benoist - portrait d'une negresse.jpg|''Portrait of a Black Woman'', by [[Marie-Guillemine Benoist]]; 1800; oil on canvas; 81 x 65&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=59|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Charpentier, Constance Marie - Melancholy - 1801.jpg|''Melancholy''; by [[Constance Marie Charpentier]]; 1801; oil on canvas; 130 x 165; [[Musée de Picardie]], Amiens, France<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=298|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Villers Young Woman Drawing.jpg|''[[Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes (Marie-Denise Villers)|Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes]]''; by [[Marie-Denise Villers]]; 1801; oil on canvas; 161.3 x 128.6&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=419|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa.jpg|''[[Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa]]''; by [[Antoine-Jean Gros]]; 1804; oil on canvas; 5.2 x 7.2 m; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Graham-Dixon|title=art - The Definitive Visual History|date=2023|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|isbn=978-0-2416-2903-1|page=270|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Pierre-Paul Prud'hon 001.jpg|Portrait of Empress Joséphine; by [[Pierre-Paul Prud'hon]]; 1805; oil on canvas; 244 x 179&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Graham-Dixon|title=art - The Definitive Visual History|date=2023|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|isbn=978-0-2416-2903-1|page=298|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Ingres, Napoleon on his Imperial throne.jpg|[[Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne]]; by [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]]; 1806; oil on canvas; 2.62 x 1.62 m; [[Army Museum (Paris)]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=276}}
File:Брюллов Гений искусства.jpg|The Genius of Art; by [[Karl Briullov]]; 1819–1821; gray paper, pencil, chalk, charcoal, and pastel; 65.2 x 62.2; [[Russian Museum]], Saint Petersburg
file:Tantalus-and-sisyphus-in-hades-august-theodor-kaselowsky.jpg|Tantalus and Sisyphus in Hades; by [[August Theodor Kaselowsky]]; {{circa}}1850; wall painting; unknown dimensions; on a wall of the Room of the Niobids, [[Neues Museum]], Berlin
</gallery>
It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of [[Kenneth Clark]]'s comments on [[Anton Raphael Mengs]]' ambitious ''Parnassus'' at the [[Villa Albani]],<ref>Clark, 20 (quoted); Honour, 14; [[:File:Mengs Parnasus.jpg|image of the painting]] (in fairness, other works by Mengs are more successful)</ref> by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times".<ref>Honour, 31–32 (31 quoted)</ref> The drawings, subsequently turned into [[old master print|prints]], of [[John Flaxman]] used very simple line drawing (thought to be the purest classical medium<ref>Honour, 113–114</ref>) and figures mostly in profile to depict ''[[The Odyssey]]'' and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are now "neglected",<ref>Honour, 14</ref> while the [[history painting]]s of [[Angelica Kauffman]], mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by [[Fritz Novotny]].<ref>Novotny, 62</ref>  Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the [[Ancient Greek pottery|Greek vases]] used by Flaxman, [[Raphael]] tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements.  The German-Danish painter [[Asmus Jacob Carstens]] finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".<ref>Novotny, 51–54</ref> Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the [[etching]]s of [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]] were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the [[Grand Tour]] to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his ''[[Veduta|Vedute]]'' (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of ''[[Carceri d'invenzione]]'' ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".<ref>Clark, 45–58 (47–48 quoted); Honour, 50–57</ref> The Swiss-born [[Henry Fuseli]] spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of [[Romanticism]], and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of [[Jacques-Louis David]]'s ''[[Oath of the Horatii]]'' at the [[Paris Salon]] of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a [[frieze]], with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of [[opera]], and the classical colouring of [[Nicolas Poussin]]. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the [[French Revolution]] became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the [[Napoleon]]ic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]].<ref>Honour, 34–37; Clark, 21–26; Novotny, 19–22</ref>

David's many students included [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres]], who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into [[Orientalism]] and the [[Troubadour style]] that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of [[Impressionism]], but his style, once formed, changed little.<ref>Novotny, 39–47; Clark, 97–145; Honour, 187–190</ref>

==Sculpture==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Franz Xaver Messerschmidt - Charakterkopf 03.jpg|''An Arch-Rascal'' (no. 33 in a character head series); by [[Franz Xaver Messerschmidt]]; after 1770; alabaster; height: 38&nbsp;cm; [[Österreichische Galerie Belvedere]], Vienna, Austria<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=ART ● Architecture ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Design|date=2011|publisher=Gardners Books|isbn=978-1-4454-5585-3|page=313|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Mars and Venus, 1804 CE, by Johan Tobias Sergel, Nationalmuseum, Sweden.jpg|''Mars and Venus''; by [[Johan Tobias Sergel]]; {{circa}}1775; marble; height: 93&nbsp;cm; [[Nationalmuseum]], Stockholm, Sweden<ref name="art - The Definitive Visual History">{{cite book|last1=Andrew|first1=Graham-Dixon|title=art - The Definitive Visual History|date=2023|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|isbn=978-0-2416-2903-1|page=273|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Mercury Pajou Louvre RF1624.jpg|''Mercury'' or ''The Trade''; by [[Augustin Pajou]]; 1780; marble; height: 196&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]

SculpturesMuséeFabre27b Houdon Hiver.jpg|''The Winter''; by [[Jean-Antoine Houdon]]; 1783; marble; height: 145&nbsp;cm; [[Musée Fabre]], Montpellier, France<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laneyrie-Dagen|first1=Nadeije|title=Historie de l'art pour tous|date=2021|publisher=Hazan|isbn=978-2-7541-1230-7|page=264|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

John Flaxman (1755-1826) - Cephalus and Aurora (1789-90) front, Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight, Cheshire, June 2013 (9103113142).png|''Cephalus and Aurora''; by [[John Flaxman]]; 1789–1790; probably marble; unknown dimensions; [[Lady Lever Art Gallery]], Merseyside, England

Alte Nationalgalerie-Schadow-Prinzessinnengruppe DSC8124.jpg|''The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia''; by [[Johann Gottfried Schadow]]; 1795–1797; marble; height: 172&nbsp;cm; [[Alte Nationalgalerie]], Berlin, Germany<ref name="art - The Definitive Visual History"/>

Paolina Borghese (Canova).jpg|''[[Venus Victrix (Canova)|Venus Victrix]]''; by [[Antonio Canova]]; 1804–1808; marble; length: 200&nbsp;cm; [[Galleria Borghese]], Rome<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laneyrie-Dagen|first1=Nadeije|title=Historie de l'art pour tous|date=2021|publisher=Hazan|isbn=978-2-7541-1230-7|page=265|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

File:Juliette Récamier face A par Joseph Chinard.jpg|''Bust of Madame Récamier''; by [[Joseph Chinard]]; 1805 or 1806; marble; 80 x 42 x 30&nbsp;cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon]], France

File:Canova - The Three Graces, between 1813 and 1816, Н.ск-506.jpg|''[[The Three Graces (Canova)|The Three Graces]]''; by Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; marble; height: 1.82 m; [[Hermitage Museum]], Saint Petersburg, Russia{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=278}}

Ganymede Waters Zeus as an Eagle by Thorvaldsen.jpg|''Ganymede and Jupiter''; by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]; 1817; marble; height: 94&nbsp;cm; [[Thorvaldsen Museum]], Copenhagen, Denmark<ref name="art - The Definitive Visual History"/>
</gallery>
If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them. Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "[[Classical Greece|Classical Period]]" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.<ref>Novotny, 378</ref> The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of [[Jean-Antoine Houdon]], whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a [[George Washington (Houdon)|statue of George Washington]], as well as busts of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] and other founders of the new republic.<ref>Novotny, 378–379</ref><ref>Chinard, Gilbert, ed., ''Houdon in America'' Arno PressNy, 1979, a reprint of a book published by Johns Hopkins University, 1930</ref>

[[Antonio Canova]] and the Dane [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]] were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the ''Three Graces''.<ref>Novotny, 379–384</ref> All these, and Flaxman, were still active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede [[Johan Tobias Sergel]].<ref>Novotny, 384–385</ref> [[John Flaxman]] was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for [[Josiah Wedgwood]] for several years. [[Johann Gottfried Schadow]] and his son [[Rudolph Schadow|Rudolph]], one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists,<ref>Novotny, 388–389</ref> with [[Franz Anton von Zauner]] in Austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptor [[Franz Xaver Messerschmidt]] turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.<ref>Novotny, 390–392</ref> Like Piranesi's ''Carceri'', these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of [[psychoanalysis]] in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor [[Mathieu Kessels]] studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,<ref>Gerdts, William H., ''American Neo-Classic Sculpture: The Marble Resurrection'',  Viking Press, New York, 1973 p. 11</ref> the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of [[Horatio Greenough]], [[Harriet Hosmer]], [[Hiram Powers]], [[Randolph Rogers]] and [[William Henry Rinehart]].

==Architecture and the decorative arts==
{{Main|Neoclassical architecture|Louis XVI style|Directoire style|Empire style|Adam style|Biedermeier}}
[[File:Paris 10e Hôtel Gouthière 360.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|left|[[Hôtel Gouthière]], Rue Pierre-Bullet no. 6, Paris, possibly by J. Métivier, 1780<ref>{{cite book|last1=Larbodière|first1=Jean-Marc|title=L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui|date=2015|publisher=Massin|isbn=978-2-7072-0915-3|page=106|url=|language=fr}}</ref>]] 
[[File:Etrurisches Zimmer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|"The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] room", from [[Potsdam]], Germany, {{circa}}1840, illustration by [[Friedrich Wilhelm Klose]]]]

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Palmer|first=Alisson Lee|title=Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and architecture.|pages=1}}</ref>

Neoclassicism first gained influence in Britain and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as [[Gustavian era|Sweden]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for [[Catherine the Great]]'s lover, Count [[Grigory Orlov]], designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian ''[[stucco|stuccadori]]'': only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the [[bas-relief]] overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of [[engraving]]s) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the [[First French Empire|Napoleonic Empire]]. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "[[Louis XVI style]]", and the second in the styles called "[[Directoire style|Directoire]]" and [[Empire style|Empire]]. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.{{according to whom|date=March 2013}}

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in [[Biedermeier]] furniture made in Austria; in [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]'s museums in Berlin, Sir [[John Soane]]'s [[Bank of England]] in London and the newly built "[[United States Capitol]]" in Washington, D.C.; and in [[Josiah Wedgwood]]'s [[bas relief]]s and "black basaltes" [[vase]]s. The style was international; Scots architect [[Charles Cameron (architect)|Charles Cameron]] created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine the Great, in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,<ref name="Gontar">Gontar</ref> with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of ''[[Le Antichità di Ercolano]]'' (''The Antiquities of Herculaneum''). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the [[Baroque]], or the most "Roman" rooms of [[William Kent]] were based on [[basilica]] and [[temple]] exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: [[pediment]]ed window frames turned into [[gilding|gilded]] mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low [[frieze]]-like relief or painted in monotones ''[[Camaïeu|en camaïeu]]'' ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or ''[[bucrania]]'' or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the ''[[Goût grec]]'' ("Greek style"), not a court style; when [[Louis XVI]] acceded to the throne in 1774, [[Marie Antoinette]], his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".<ref>Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted</ref>
[[File:Château de Malmaison - Appartement de Joséphine 003.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Château de Malmaison]], 1800, room for the [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Empress Joséphine]], on the cusp between [[Directoire style]] and [[Empire style]]]]

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the [[Greek Revival]]. At the same time the [[Empire style]] was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of [[Napoleon]] in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois [[Biedermeier]] style in the German-speaking lands, [[Federal architecture|Federal style]] in the United States,<ref name="Gontar"/> the [[Regency style]] in Britain, and the ''Napoleon style'' in Sweden. According to the art historian [[Hugh Honour]] "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".<ref>Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted</ref> An earlier phase of the style was called the [[Adam style]] in Great Britain.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in [[academic art]] through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to [[Romanticism]] or [[Gothic revival]]s —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.{{who|date=March 2013}} The centres of several European cities, notably Saint Petersburg and [[Munich]], came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

=== France ===
==== Louis XVI style (1760–1789) ====
{{Main|Louis XVI style}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
École Militaire Paris Pavillon central depuis la cour d'honneur.jpg|Central pavilion of the [[École militaire]], Paris, 1752, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]]{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=11}}

Pantheon 1, Paris May 11, 2013.jpg|[[Panthéon]], Paris, by [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Rondelet]], 1758–1790{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=276}}

L'Hôtel de la Marine (Paris) (51346237676).jpg|[[Hôtel de la Marine]], Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=13}}

West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|Façade of the [[Petit Trianon]], Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

The Petit Trianon (23935245609).jpg|Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

Salon de Compagnie - Petit Trianon (23935437909).jpg|Interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=273}}

Commode de la comtesse du Barry (Louvre, OA 11293).jpg|Commode of [[Madame du Barry]]; by [[Martin Carlin]] (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and [[amaranth]], soft-paste [[Sèvres porcelain]], bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=65|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Hôtel du Châtelet JP2011 façade cour.jpg|[[Hôtel du Châtelet]], Paris, unknown architect, 1776<ref>{{cite book|last1=Larbodière|first1=Jean-Marc|title=L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui|date=2015|publisher=Massin|isbn=978-2-7072-0915-3|page=105|url=|language=fr}}</ref>

Bordeaux Grand Théâtre R03.jpg|Stairway of the [[Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux|Grand Theater of Bordeaux]], Bordeaux, France, by [[Victor Louis]], 1777-1780{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=17}}

Jean-henri riesener, angoliera, 1785 ca.jpg|Parisian corner cabinet; by [[Jean Henri Riesener]]; 1780–1790; oak, mahogany, marble, and ormolu mounts; 94.3 × 81.3 × 55.9&nbsp;cm; [[Art Institute of Chicago]], US<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.artic.edu/artworks/96539/corner-cabinet |title=Corner Cabinet - The Art Institute of Chicago}}</ref>

Grand vase à fond beau bleu (Louvre, OA 6627) 2 (cropped and fixed angles).jpg|Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and [[ormolu|gilt bronze]]; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.90 m; Louvre

Cabinet dore Marie-Antoinette Versailles.jpg|Cabinet Doré of [[Marie Antoinette]] at the [[Palace of Versailles]], Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783{{sfn|de Martin|1925|p=61}}

Secrétaire à cylindre de Marie-Antoinette (Louvre, OA 5226).jpg|Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by [[Jean-Henri Riesener]]; 1784; oak and pine frame, [[sycamore]], amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref name="Decorative Art">{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=61|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Table à écrire à pupitre de Marie-Antoinette (Louvre, OA 5509).jpg|Writing table of Marie Antoinette; by [[Adam Weisweiler]]; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2&nbsp;cm; Louvre<ref name="Decorative Art"/>

Ewer MET DT236853.jpg|Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Folding stool (pliant) (one of a pair) MET DP113122.jpg|Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Pair of vases MET DP168509.jpg|Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud MET DP113960.jpg|Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at [[Château de Saint-Cloud|Saint-Cloud]]; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

It marks the transition from [[Rococo]] to Classicism. Unlike the [[Louis XIV style|Classicism of Louis XIV]], which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=200, 201 & 202|language=ro}}</ref> The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ''ébénistes'' often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=71|language=en}}</ref>

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, [[guilloché]], double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs ([[Rosette (design)|rosettes]], beads, oves), [[Trophy of arms|trophy]] or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, [[gadrooning]], interlace, [[meander (art)|meanders]], [[cornucopia]]s, [[mascaron (architecture)|mascarons]], Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeras]], and [[gryphon]]s. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also heavily used: [[Fluting (architecture)|flutings]], [[pilaster]]s (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), [[column]]s ([[engaged column|engaged]] and unengaged, sometimes replaced by [[caryatid|caryathids]]), [[volute]] [[corbel]]s, [[triglyph]]s with [[gutta]]e (in [[relief]] and [[trompe-l'œil]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=72|language=en}}</ref>

==== Directoire style (1789–1804) ====
{{Main|Directoire style}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Paris 10e Hôtel Gouthière 60675 (fixed angles).jpg|Panel with a [[grotesque]] in the [[Hôtel Gouthière]], Paris, unknown architect, unknown date

P1240239 Paris VI rue Jacob n46 rwk 2.jpg|Rue Jacob no. 46, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date

Corniquet - horloge à heures duodécimales et décimales.jpg|Astronomical clock; by [[Philippe-Jacques Corniquet]]; {{circa}}1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://madparis.fr/~period/article-fiche-local4114en.html|title=ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK|website=madparis.fr|access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref>

Fan MET DP-314-001.jpg|Fan; by [[Charles Percier]], [[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]] and [[Antoine Denis Chaudet]]; {{circa}}1797-1799; paper, wood, and bone; 23.5 x 43.8&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Salon de madame Récamier - Bergère (Louvre, OA 11385).jpg|Armchair of the salon of [[Juliette Récamier]]; attributed to [[Jacob Frères]]; {{circa}}1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62&nbsp;cm; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010116204|title=Bergère du salon de Madame Récamier (OA 11384 à 11391), d'une paire avec OA 11386|website=collections.louvre.fr|date=1799 |access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref>
</gallery>

====Empire style (1804–1815) ====
{{Main|Empire style}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Coffeepot MET DP103166.jpg|Coffeepot; 1797–1809; silver gilt; height: 33.3&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City

Château de Malmaison, France (48029730202).jpg|[[Empress Joséphine]]'s Bedroom in [[Château de Malmaison]], Rueil-Malmaison, France, by [[Charles Percier]] and [[Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine]], 1800-1802{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=275}}

Washstand (athénienne or lavabo) MET DP106594.jpg|Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood, [[ormolu|gilt-bronze]] mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.4&nbsp;cm, width: 49.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Palais Bourbon, Paris 7e, NW View 140402 1.jpg|Portico of the [[Palais Bourbon]], Paris, by [[Bernard Poyet]], 1806-1808{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=111}}

Madeleine Paris.jpg|[[La Madeleine, Paris]], by [[Pierre-Alexandre Vignon]], 1807-1842{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=111}}

Pair of green vases, painted by Jean Georget, mounts by Pierre-Philippe Thomire, 1 of 2, Sèvres porcelain, 1809, soft-paste porcelain - Wadsworth Atheneum - Hartford, CT - DSC05493.jpg|Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9&nbsp;cm, diameter: 35.6&nbsp;cm; [[Wadsworth Atheneum]], Hartford, Connecticut, US<ref>{{cite book|last1=Odile|first1=Nouvel-Kammerer|title=Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815|date=2007|isbn=978-0-8109-9345-7|page=209|publisher=Abrams |language=en}}</ref>

Coin cabinet MET DP103176.jpg|Egyptian Revival coin cabinet; by [[François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter]]; 1809–1819; [[mahogany]] (probably [[Swietenia mahagoni]]), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Clock Thomire Louvre OA9511.jpg|Clock with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]; {{circa|1810}}; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90&nbsp;cm; Louvre

Austria-03324 - Cradle of Napoleon's Son (32936041295).jpg|King of Rome's Cradle; by [[Pierre-Paul Prud'hon]], [[Henri Victor Roguier]], [[Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot]] and [[Pierre-Philippe Thomire]]; 1811; wood, silver gilt, [[mother-of-pearl]], sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216&nbsp;cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], Vienna, Austria<ref>{{cite book|last1=Odile|first1=Nouvel-Kammerer|title=Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815|date=2007|isbn=978-0-8109-9345-7|page=32|publisher=Abrams |language=en}}</ref>

Carpet MET DP360538.jpg|Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

Neoclassicism was representative for the new French society that exited the [[French Revolution|revolution]], setting the tone in all life fields, including art. The [[Jacquard machine]] was invented during this period (which revolutionised the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours was red, decorated with [[ormolu|gilt bronze]]. Bright colours were also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, blue, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture included wood panels decorated with gilt [[relief]]s (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs were placed geometrically. The walls were covered in [[stucco]]s, wallpaper fabrics. [[Fireplace mantel]]s were made of white marble, having [[caryatid]]s at their corners, or other elements: [[obelisk]]s, [[sphinx]]es, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including [[French Empire mantel clock|mantel clocks]]. The doors consisted of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a blue or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather was also used for upholstery).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=217, 219, 220 & 221|language=ro}}</ref>

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the [[Louis XIV style]]. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely [[symmetrical]] in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like [[Louis XIV]], [[Napoleon]] had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials [[I]] (for ''Imperator'') and [[N]] (for ''Napoleon''), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of [[Nike (mythology)|Victory]] bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged [[putto|putti]], [[mascaron (architecture)|mascarons]] of [[Apollo]], [[Hermes]] and the [[Gorgon]], swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged [[Chimera (mythology)|chimeras]], [[sphinx]]es, [[Bucranium|bucrania]], sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy [[rinceaux]], [[rosette (design)|rosettes]], palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves, [[palmette]]s, [[cornucopia]]s, beads, [[amphora]]s, tripods, imbricated disks, [[caduceus]]es of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially [[lyre]]s). Despite their antique derivation, the [[fluting (architecture)|fluting]] and [[triglyph]]s so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. [[Egyptian Revival decorative arts|Egyptian Revival]] motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: [[Scarab (artifact)|scarabs]], lotus [[capital (architecture)|capitals]], winged disks, obelisks, [[pyramid]]s, figures wearing [[nemes]]es, [[caryatid]]s ''en gaine'' supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sylvie|first1=Chadenet|title=French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco|date=2001|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|page=103 & 105|language=en}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
{{main|Biedermeier#|Gründerzeit}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
File:Berlin - 0266 - 16052015 - Brandenburger Tor.jpg|[[Brandenburg Gate]] in Berlin (1788–1791) by [[Carl Gotthard Langhans]]
File:Marktplatz Karlsruhe 20220705 145159-2.jpg|[[Karlsruhe Pyramid|Pyramid]] (1823–1825) and City Church (1807–1816) in [[Karlsruhe]] by [[Friedrich Weinbrenner]]
File:150418 Konzerthaus Berlin Gendarmenmarkt.jpg|[[Konzerthaus Berlin]] in Berlin (1818–1821) by [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]
File:Exterior views of the Altes Museum Berlin.jpg|[[Altes Museum]] in Berlin (1825–1830) by Karl Friedrich Schinkel
File:Glyptothek in München in 2013.jpg|[[Glyptothek]] in Munich (1816–1830) by [[Leo von Klenze]]
File:Walhalla wie Parthenon zu Ehren bedeutender Personen - erbaut 1842 - König Ludwig I - Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann DSCN2430.jpg|[[Walhalla (memorial)|Walhalla]] (1830–1842) by Leo von Klenze
File:Propyläen München.jpg|[[Propylaea (Munich)]] (1854–1862) by Leo von Klenze
File:AlteNationalgalerie 1a.jpg|[[Alte Nationalgalerie]] in Berlin (1862–1876) by [[Friedrich August Stüler]] and [[Heinrich Strack]]
</gallery>

Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany, mostly in what was then [[Prussia]]. [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] built many prominent buildings in this style, including the [[Altes Museum]] in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.

His [[Bauakademie]] is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined [[façade]] of the building

=== Italy ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Palazzo Grassi Canal Grande Venezia.jpg|alt=|[[Palazzo Grassi]], on the Grand Canal in [[Venice]], by [[Giorgio Massari]], 1748–1772

File:Milano - Teatro la Scala.JPG|alt=|[[La Scala]] Opera House, [[Milan]], by [[Giuseppe Piermarini]], completed in 1778

File:8859 - Milano - P.za Belgiojoso - Palazzo Belgiojoso - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 14-Apr-2007.jpg|alt=|[[Palazzo Belgioioso]], Milan, by [[Giuseppe Piermarini]], 1781

File:Milano - Villa Reale - facciata sud - 06.jpg|alt=|[[Villa Belgiojoso Bonaparte]], Milan, by [[Leopoldo Pollack]], 1790–1796

File:Napoli 2010 -Piazza del Plebiscito- by-RaBoe 056.jpg|alt=|[[Piazza del Plebiscito]], Naples, unknown architect, 1809–1846

File:Roma Piazza del Popolo due.jpg|alt=|[[Piazza del Popolo]] (Rome), redesigned between 1811 and 1822, by [[Giuseppe Valadier]]

Education of the Infant Bacchus MET DP150925.jpg|Education of the Infant Bacchus; by [[Niccolò Amastini]]; first half 19th century; onyx with gold frame; overall (in setting): 6.5 x 4.8&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
</gallery>
From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in [[Italian unification]] in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.

Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around {{circa|1750}} and lasted until {{circa|1850|lk=no}}. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the [[Grand Tour]] in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as [[Antonio Canova]] and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of [[Veduta|Vedute]], like [[Canaletto]] and [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of [[Andrea Palladio]] and saw in [[Luigi Vanvitelli]] the main interpreters of the style.

Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include [[Vittorio Alfieri]], [[Giuseppe Parini]], [[Vincenzo Monti]] and [[Ugo Foscolo]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]] and [[Alessandro Manzoni]] (nephew of [[Cesare Beccaria]]), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist [[Paganini]] and the operas of [[Rossini]], [[Donnizetti]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] and, later, [[Verdi]] dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music.

The art of [[Francesco Hayez]] and especially that of the [[Macchiaioli]] represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.

===Romania===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">

Biserica rotunda Letcani 04.JPG|Round church of Saint Demetrius, [[Lețcani, Iași|Lețcani]], unknown architect, 1795<ref name="Clasicismul în Arta Românească">{{cite book|last1=Ispir|first1=Mihai|title=Clasicismul în Arta Românească|date=1984|publisher=Editura Meridiane|isbn=|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Palatul Știrbei, Bucuresti.jpg|Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by [[Michel Sanjouand]], {{circa}}1835; with a new level with [[caryatid]]s added in 1882 by [[Joseph Hartmann]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Florea|first1=Vasile|title=Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent|date=2016|publisher=Litera|isbn=978-606-33-1053-9|pages=296, 297|url=|language=}}</ref>

The University Building of Bucharest, circa 1869, photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|The old building of the [[University of Bucharest]], designed by [[Alexandru Orăscu]] and decorated with sculptures by [[Karl Storck]], 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s<ref name="Oltean 2009 p113">{{cite book|last1=Oltean|first1=Radu|title=București 550 de ani de la prima atestare documentată 1459-2009|date=2009|publisher=ArCuB|isbn=978-973-0-07036-1|page=113|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Ateneo Rumano, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 73.jpg|[[Romanian Athenaeum]] on [[Calea Victoriei]], Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895{{sfn|Celac|Carabela|Marcu-Lapadat|2017|p=65}}

3-5 Strada Icoanei, Bucharest (24).jpg|Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of the [[Școala Centrală National College|Central Girls' School]], Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890
</gallery>

During the 19th century, the predominant style in [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]], later the [[Kingdom of Romania]], was [[Classicist architecture|Classicism]] which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they started building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects studied in Western European schools as well. One example is [[Alexandru Orăscu]], one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.

Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on [[Calea Victoriei]] ([[Bucharest]]), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect [[Michel Sanjouand]]. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect [[Joseph Hartmann]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Florea|first1=Vasile|title=Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent|date=2016|publisher=Litera|isbn=978-606-33-1053-9|pages=294, 296, 297|url=|language=}}</ref>{{sfn|Lăzărescu|Cristea|Lăzărescu|1972|p=67, 68}}

=== Ukraine ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Kherson gromads'ka biblioteka.jpg|Building of the former library, Kherson
File:Кропивницький вул. Дворцова, 17.jpg|Resttant "Prima", Kropyvnytskyi
File:Вул. Дворцова.jpg|Teatral'na street (earlier Dvortsova) Kropyvnytskyi
</gallery>

In some Ukrainian cities, the rich architectural heritage of the times of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires has been preserved, reflecting the fact that the Ukrainian ethnic lands for most of history were under control of other states.
A vivid example is Teatralna atreet in the city of [[Kropyvnytskyi]], all buildings  of which were built in the 19th century in the neoclassical style by invited European architects.<ref>Кіровоградська римо-католицька парафія Святого Духа // Місто і люди. Єлисаветград — Кіровоград, 1754—2004. Ілюстрована енциклопедія., Кіровоград: , «Імекс-ЛТД», 2004, стор. 296—297</ref><ref>Місто і люди. Єлисаветград — Кіровоград, 1754—2004. Ілюстрована енциклопедія., Кіровоград: , «Імекс-ЛТД», 2004, стор.</ref>

=== Russia and the Soviet Union ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Дворец Шереметьева.jpg|[[Ostankino Palace]], Moscow, Russia, by [[Francesco Camporesi]], completed in 1798

Arkhangelskoe Estate Aug2012 buildings 03.jpg|[[Arkhangelskoye Estate]], Krasnogorsky District, Moscow Oblast, by [[Jacob Guerne]], unknown date
</gallery>
In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of [[Russian neoclassical revival|Neoclassical revival]]; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexandrine]] period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, [[palladian architecture|Palladian]] and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like [[Ivan Fomin]], [[Vladimir Shchuko]] and [[Ivan Zholtovsky]]. When the economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily [[modernism (architecture)|modernist]] environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, [[Ilya Golosov]]) developed their own modernized styles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft1g5004bj&brand=eschol |title=The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture |publisher=Content.cdlib.org |access-date=2012-02-12}}</ref>

With the crackdown on architect's independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the [[Palace of Soviets]], Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in [[Stalinist architecture]], although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of [[Boris Iofan]], bordering with contemporary [[Art Deco]] (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for [[Constructivist architecture|constructivist]] leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the [[Soviet Union]] since it did not rely on modern construction technologies ([[steel frame]] or [[reinforced concrete]]) and could be reproduced in traditional [[masonry]]. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material [[rationing]]. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of [[Palace of Culture and Science]], Warsaw and the [[Shanghai]] International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when [[Nikita Khrushchev]] put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Adam style|Wedgwood}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Kedleston Hall 20080730-06.jpg|[[Kedleston Hall]], Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by [[Robert Adam]], 1760–1770{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=103}}

Osterley House The Dinning Room (22773780472).jpg|Eating Room, [[Osterley Park]], London, by Robert Adam, 1761{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=226}}

Syon House (33741948060).jpg|[[Syon House]], Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=103}}

Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg|The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=274}}

Carpet MET DP299026.jpg|Carpet; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.5 x 473.1&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City

Jasperware plaque by Wedgwood (c. 1776), Harris Museum.JPG|''Apotheosis of Virgil''; by [[John Flaxman]]; {{circa}}1776; jasperware; diameter: 41&nbsp;cm; [[Harris Museum]], Preston, Lancashire, UK<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=260|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Somerset House (42160916102).jpg|[[Somerset House]], London, by [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], 1776-1801{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=104}}

File:Pair of urns and pedestals MET DP-14204-180.jpg|Urn on pedestal; {{circa}}1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; height: 49.8&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Side table MET DP-14204-045.jpg|Side table with many [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leafs and two [[Bucranium|bucrania]]; by [[Robert Adam]]; {{circa}}1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.6 × 141.3 × 57.1&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Wedgwood Factory (British) - Covered Urn - 1951.301.2 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg|Covered Wedgwood urn; {{circa}}1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7&nbsp;cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], Cleveland, Ohio, US<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1951.301.2|title=Covered Urn - Cleveland Museum of Art| date=30 October 2018 |access-date=6 May 2022}}</ref>
</gallery>

The Adam style was created by two brothers, [[Robert Adam|Adam]] and [[James Adam (architect)|James]], who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with [[stucco]]s and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include [[festoon]]s, pearls, [[egg-and-dart]] bands, [[Medallion (architecture)|medallions]], and any other motifs used during the [[Classical antiquity]] (especially the [[Etruscan architecture|Etruscan]] ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a [[pediment]] above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a [[Venetian window]], with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to [[Louis XVI furniture]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=253, 255 & 256|language=ro}}</ref>

Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer [[Josiah Wedgwood]] (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called [[jasperware]], a hard and fine-grained type of [[stoneware]]. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.

===United States===
{{Main|Federal style}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Maple Secretary LACMA 60.46.3a-b.jpg|Maple secretary; {{circa|1790}}; maple and brass; height: 242.57&nbsp;cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], US

Candlestand LACMA M.2006.51.13 (1 of 2).jpg|Candlestand; 1790–1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 x 49.21 x 48.9&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Writing Desk LACMA M.2006.51.24a-b.jpg|Writing desk; 1790–1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 x 90.17 x 51.44&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

White House north and south sides.jpg|[[White House]], Washington, D.C., by [[James Hoban]], 1792-1829{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=112}}

US Capitol west side.JPG|[[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]], Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by [[William Thornton]] and [[Thomas Ustick Walter]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=112}}

Armchair LACMA 54.141.2.jpg|Armchair; possibly by [[Ephraim Haines]]; 1805–1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77&nbsp;cm, width: 52.07&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Four-Column Pedestal Card Table with Pineapple Finial LACMA M.2006.51.29.jpg|Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815–1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67&nbsp;cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art

University of Virginia Rotunda 2006.jpg|[[The Rotunda (University of Virginia)]], Charlottesville, Virginia, by [[Thomas Jefferson]], 1822-1826{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=31}}

SC State House at evening.jpg|[[South Carolina State House]], Columbia, South Carolina, by [[John Rudolph Niernsee]], 1855

File:Brevard-Rice House.jpg|Brevard-Rice House, [[Garden District, New Orleans]], by [[James Calrow]], 1857<ref>{{cite book|last1=Irving|first1=Mark|title=1001 BUILDINGS You Must See Before You Die|date=2019|publisher=Cassel Illustrated|isbn=978-1-78840-176-0|page=281|url=|language=en}}</ref>

</gallery>
On the [[Americas|American continent]], architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the [[French Revolution]] some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes [[Islamic art|Islamic]], [[Turkish art|Turkish]] or [[Asian art|Asian]], were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the [[Queen Anne style architecture#American Queen Anne|Queen Anne style]], and an [[Thomas Chippendale|Chippendale]] one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate [[Baroque]] and [[Rococo]] influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. [[Stucco]] or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral [[marquetry]] and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes [[gilding|gilded]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|pages=269, 270, & 271|language=ro}}</ref>

==Gardens==
In England, [[Augustan literature]] had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the work of [[Alexander Pope]]. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are [[Chiswick House]], [[Stowe House]] and [[Stourhead]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Turner|first=Turner|title=British gardens: history, philosophy and design, Chapter 6 Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730–1800|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415518789|pages=456}}</ref>

==Fashion==

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Hamilton Palmyra.JPG|''[[James Dawkins (1722-1757)|James Dawkins]] and [[Robert Wood (antiquarian)|Robert Wood]] Discovering the Ruins of [[Palmyra]]'', by [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]], 1758

Gallery of Fashion, vol. I- April 1, 1794- March 1, 1795 Met DP889224.jpg|Dresses from the ''[[Gallery of Fashion]]'', 1794–1802

File:5th Duke of Bedford.png|[[Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford]] in a [[Bedford Crop]], by [[William Grimaldi]] after [[John Hoppner]], early 19th century, based on a work of 1796–1797

File:Jacques-Louis David Henriette de Verninac 1799.jpg|''[[Madame Raymond de Verninac]]'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]], with clothes and chair in [[Directoire style]]. "Year 7": that is, 1798–1799

File:Thérésa Cabarrus.JPG|Revolutionary socialite [[Thérésa Tallien]], by [[Marie-Guillemine Benoist]], {{circa}}1799
File:Jacques-Louis David 016.jpg|''[[Portrait of Madame Récamier]]'', by Jacques-Louis David, 1800
File:Madame Fouler, comtesse de Relingue.jpg|Henriette Victoire Elisabeth d’Avrange, comtesse de Relingue, with a ''[[Titus haircut|coiffure à la Titus]]'', by [[Louis-Léopold Boilly]], 1810

Boilly-Point-de-Convention-ca1797.jpg|''Point de Convention'', by Louis-Léopold Boilly, {{circa}}1801

Le Volant.jpg|Illustration showing women playing [[badminton]], hand-colored etching from the series ''Le Bon Genre'', by [[François Joseph Bosio]], 1801

François Gérard - Madame Récamier - WGA08597.jpg|''[[Portrait of Juliette Récamier]]'', by [[François Gérard]], 1802

Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, unknown illustrator, 1808.jpg|Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, 1808
</gallery>
{{Clear}}
In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]] from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and [[masquerade ball]]s until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits by [[Juliette Récamier]], [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]], [[Thérésa Tallien]] and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand|Talleyrand]] quipped that: "''Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!''" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist [[Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]] had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.<ref>Hunt, 244</ref> Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, [[bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]]s or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.

Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the [[Empire silhouette]] although it predates the [[First French Empire]] of Napoleon, but his first Empress [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.<ref>Hunt, 244–245</ref>  By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.

Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or [[trousers|pantaloon]], over the ''culotte'' or [[knee-breeches]] of the [[Ancien Régime]]. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.

The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary [[history painting]]s; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In ''[[James Dawkins (antiquarian)|James Dawkins]] and [[Robert Wood (antiquarian)|Robert Wood]] Discovering the Ruins of [[Palmyra]]'' (1758) by [[Gavin Hamilton (artist)|Gavin Hamilton]], the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in [[toga]]-like Arab robes.  In ''[[Watson and the Shark]]'' (1778) by [[John Singleton Copley]], the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a single [[breeches|breeched]] leg prominently.  However the Americans Copley and [[Benjamin West]] led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West's ''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' (1770) and Copley's ''[[The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781]]'' (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hairstyles included the [[Bedford Crop]], arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician [[Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford]] as a protest against a [[Duty on Hair Powder Act 1795|tax on hair powder]]; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "[[coiffure à la Titus]]" after [[Titus Junius Brutus]] (not in fact the Roman Emperor [[Titus]] as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both [[Napoleon]] and [[George IV]] of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor [[François-Joseph Talma]], who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Brutus (tragedy)|Brutus]]'' (about [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], who orders the execution of his son Titus).  In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,<ref>Hunt, 243</ref> and the style was also worn by women, the {{Lang|fr|[[Journal de Paris]]}} reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig ''à la Titus''.<ref>Rifelj, 35</ref>

==Music==
[[Neoclassicism (music)|Neoclassicism in music]] is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is the [[classical music|Classical]] and [[baroque music|Baroque]] musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-[[Romantic music|Romanticism]] and [[Impressionism in music|Impressionism]], emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in [[ballet]] and [[physical education]].

The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before [[World War I]] but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. [[Ottorino Respighi]]'s ''Ancient Airs and Dances'' (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. [[Igor Stravinsky]] is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-like [[Octet (Stravinsky)|Octet for Wind Instruments]] (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is [[Prokofiev]]'s [[Classical Symphony]] No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of [[Haydn]] or [[Mozart]]. [[Neoclassical ballet]] as innovated by [[George Balanchine]] de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.

==Later Neoclassicism and continuations==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">

Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|[[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-Arts]] - Exterior of the [[Palais Garnier]], Paris, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Opera Garnier Grand Escalier.jpg|Beaux-Arts - Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Image-Grand central Station Outside Night 2.jpg|Beaux-Arts - [[Grand Central Terminal]],  New York City,  by [[Reed and Stem]] and [[Warren and Wetmore]], 1903{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=135}}

29 avenue Bugeaud Paris.jpg|Beaux-Arts - Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by [[André Arfvidson]]

File:National-Gallery-of-Art-West-Building-John-Russell-Pope-National-Mall-Washington-DC-04-2014.jpg|Late Neoclassical - The West building of the [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C., US, by [[John Russell Pope]], 1941
</gallery>
After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced by [[Eclecticism in architecture|Eclecticism]] of [[Classical architecture|Classical styles]]. The [[Palais Garnier]] in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken from [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] and [[Renaissance architecture]]. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, before [[World War I]]. Besides Neoclassicism, the {{Lang|fr|[[Beaux-Arts de Paris]]|italic=no}} well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles.

[[Pablo Picasso]] experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.<ref name="SIMETRIA">{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat – Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=79|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the [[American Renaissance]] movement, ''ca.'' 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], and its final large public projects were the [[Lincoln Memorial]] (highly criticized at the time), the [[National Gallery of Art]] in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and the [[American Museum of Natural History]]'s [[Equestrian Statue of Theodore Roosevelt (New York City)|Roosevelt Memorial]]. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir [[Edwin Lutyens]]' monumental city planning for [[New Delhi]] marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.

There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see [[20th-century classical music#Neoclassicism|20th-century classical music]] and [[Neoclassicism (music)|Neoclassicism in music]]. For information on the philosophical aspects, see [[Great Books]].)

This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) [[Dada]], in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in [[English literature]] were laid by [[T. E. Hulme]], the most famous Neoclassicists were [[T. S. Eliot]] and [[Wyndham Lewis]]. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of [[Acmeism]], with [[Anna Akhmatova]] and [[Osip Mandelshtam]] as the leading representatives.

===Art Deco===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="190px">

Clément mère, comodino, francia 1910 ca. 01.JPG|Chest of drawers, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the [[Louis XVI style]]; by [[Clément Mère]]; 1910; maple, ebony, leather and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37&nbsp;cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]], Paris<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/oeuvres/commode-deux-vantaux-cabinet-de-milieu-163331|website=musee-orsay.fr|title=Commode à deux vantaux, cabinet de milieu|author=|access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref>

File:Art Deco dressing table (1919-20).jpg|Dressing table and chair, a reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by [[Paul Follot]]; 1919; marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood; unknown dimensions; [[Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris]]

The Gulbenkian Museum (40658606370).jpg|''Hommage à Jean Goujon''; by [[Alfred Janniot]]; 1919–1924; limestone partially coloured; 220 x 235 x 129&nbsp;cm; [[Calouste Gulbenkian Museum]], Lisbon, Portugal<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulbenkian.pt/museu/works_museu/a-primavera-homenagem-a-jean-goujon/|website=gulbenkian.pt|title=A Primavera: Homenagem a Jean Goujon|author=|access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref>

Plate from the collection of projects Architectures by Louis Süe and André Mare, 1921, prefaced by Paul Valéry's text Eupalions ou l'architecte.jpg|Plate with design for an interior from the collection of projects ''Architectures'', by [[Louis Süe]] and [[André Mare]], 1921

File:Boudoir from the Hôtel du Collectionneur, at the 1925 Paris Exhibition, by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann.jpg|[[Boudoir]] from the [[Hôtel du Collectionneur]], a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, at the [[International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts|1925 Paris Exhibition]], by [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]]

File:1925 unlicensed copy of Madeleine Vionnet’s “Little Horses” dress.jpg|"Little Horses" dress; by [[Madeleine Vionnet]]; 1925; rayon crepe, black and gold seed beads; [[Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology]], New York

Palais de Tokyo, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris.jpg|[[Palais de Tokyo]], Paris, by [[André Aubert]] and [[Marcel Dastugue]], 1937

Beograd - Ambasada Francuske u Srbiji (31092842098).jpg|[[Embassy of France, Belgrade]], Serbia, by [[Roger-Henri Expert]] with [[Josif Najman]] as assistant, designed in 1926, built in 1939<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/21221965|title=Arhitekt Josif Najman (1890-1951), Moment 18, Beograd 1990, 100-106|last1=Kadijevic|first1=Aleksandar}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=81|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>

Photo (50 sur 102).jpg|[[Château de Sept-Saulx]], [[Grand Est]], a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, France, by Louis Süe, 1928-1929<ref name="Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Tempe">{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=91|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>

Daily Telegraph Building (24438959395).jpg|[[Daily Telegraph Building]], London, by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with [[Thomas S. Tait]], 1928<ref>{{cite book|title=The Egyptian Revival: Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West|first=James Stevens|last=Curl|page=412|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-23467-7}}</ref>

File:Design for Severance Hall grand foyer - Walker and Weeks (39638807102).jpg|Design for Severance Hall grand foyer of the [[Severance Hall]], Cleveland, US, by [[Walker and Weeks]], {{circa}}1930

73 Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (01).jpg|Dumitru Săvulescu House ([[Bulevardul Dacia]] no. 73), [[Bucharest]], Romania, by [[Gheorghe Negoescu]], 1933<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woinaroski|first1=Cristina|title=Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european|date=2013|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-30-8|page=216|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

File:Grave of the colonel Paul Străjescu Family in the Bellu Cemetery in Bucharest, Romania (04).jpg|Grave of the Străjescu  Family, [[Bellu Cemetery]], Bucharest, by [[George Cristinel]], 1934<ref name="SIMETRIA"/>

53 avenue Foch Paris.jpg|[[Avenue Foch]] no. 53, Paris, by [[Charles Abella]], 1939<ref name="Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Tempe"/>
</gallery>
Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet. [[Art Deco]] was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including the [[Louis XVI style|Louis XVI]], [[Directorie style|Directoire]] and [[Empire style|Empire]] (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, the French elite was equally capable of appreciating [[Modern art]], like the works of [[Pablo Picasso]] or [[Amedeo Modigliani]]. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. The [[Palais de Tokyo]] from 1937 in Paris, by [[André Aubert]] and [[Marcel Dastugue]], is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only with [[relief]]s, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky [[commode]]s by [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]] or [[Louis Süe]] & [[André Mare]]; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of [[Isadora Duncan]]. Conservative [[modernist]] architects such as [[Auguste Perret]] in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings.

The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them is '''[[eclecticism]]'''. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space ([[Ancient Egypt]], [[Pre-Columbian Americas]], or Sub-Saharian [[African art]]) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century ([[Henri Matisse]], [[Amedeo Modigliani]] or [[Constantin Brâncuși]]). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of the [[International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts]] from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was '''consumer culture'''. Objects and buildings in the puritan [[International style (architecture)|International style]], devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style.

The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators like [[Maurice Dufrêne]], [[Paul Follot]], [[Paul Iribe]], [[André Groult]], [[Léon Jallot]] or [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]], who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire and [[Louis Philippe style|Louis Philippe]]), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is the [[Château de Sept-Saulx]] in [[Grand Est]], France, by [[Louis Süe]], 1928–1929.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat – Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|pages=29, 31, 40, 79, 91|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>

===Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes===
{{Main|Socialist Realism|Nazi architecture|Rationalism (architecture)}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Moscow RussianStateLibrary 0987.jpg|[[Socialist Realism|Socialist Realist]] - [[Russian State Library|Lenin State Library]], Moscow, Russia, by [[Vladimir Shchuko]] and [[Vladimir Helfreich]], 1928-1941<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=880|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Бродский Собрание Реввоенсовета.jpg|Socialist Realist - ''Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov''; by [[Isaak Brodsky]]; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5&nbsp;cm; private collection<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thamed & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5|page=93|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Bucuresti, Romania, Facultatea de Drept, UNIVRSITATEA Bucuresti, B-II-m-A-19003.JPG|Fascist - University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in [[Bucharest]] ([[Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu]] no. 36–46), [[Bucharest]], Romania, by [[Petre Antonescu]], 1933-1935{{sfn|Celac|Carabela|Marcu-Lapadat|2017|p=72}}
Voorzijde van het Duitse paviljoen met een beeldengroep van Josef Thorak, Bestanddeelnr 254-2672.jpg|Nazi - ''Familie'' (The Family); by [[Josef Thorak]]; {{circa}}1937; probably bronze; unknown dimensions; exhibited at the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne|1937 Paris World Fair]]
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R89708, Berlin, Neue Reichskanzlei.jpg|Nazi - [[Reich Chancellery#New Reich Chancellery|New Reich Chancellery]], Berlin, by [[Albert Speer]], 1938-1939{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=175}}
Palazzo della civiltà del lavoro (EUR, Rome) (5904657870).jpg|Fascist - [[Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana]], Rome, by [[Giovanni Guerrini]], [[Ernesto La Padula]], and [[Mario Romano]], 1939-1942{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=176}}
Moscow State University crop.jpg|Socialist Realist - [[Moscow State University|Lomonosov University]], Moscow, by [[Lev Rudnev]], 1947-1952{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=176}}
60-62 Șoseaua Panduri, Bucharest (01).jpg|Socialist Realist - Colonels' Quarter ([[Șoseaua Panduri]] no. 60–62), Bucharest, by I.Novițchi, C.Ionescu, C.Hacker and A.Șerbescu, 1950–1960{{sfn|Celac|Carabela|Marcu-Lapadat|2017|p=181}}
Omagiu, by Constantin Nitescu, circa 1980.jpg|Socialist Realist - ''Homage''; by Constantin Nitescu; {{circa}}1980; unknown technique; unknown dimensions; Romania
</gallery>

In [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], [[Nazi Germany]], Romania under the rule of [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] and the [[Soviet Union]], during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are the [[Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana]] in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in [[Bucharest]] ([[Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu]] no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of the [[Soviet Union]], known as [[Socialist Realism]], was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles like [[Art Deco]] or [[Modern architecture|Modernism]]. The [[Moscow State University|Lomonosov University]] in Moscow is a good example of this. [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'.

In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of [[Art Deco]] and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). In [[fine art]]. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying around [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]] or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competing  [[avant-garde]] movements were present, notably [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]]. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. After [[Boris Iofan]] won the competition for the design of the [[Palace of the Soviets]] with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thamed & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5|pages=92, 93|url=|language=en}}</ref> Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strong [[personality cult]] of the leader in power, like in the case of [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)|China]], [[Kim Il Sung]]'s [[North Korea]], or [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]]'s Romania.

The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrant [[avant-garde]] culture once they gained control of the government in 1933. [[Albert Speer]] was set as [[Adolf Hitler]]'s architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riddled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from [[Vernacular architecture|local vernaculars]], trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term '[[Degenerate art]]' for [[Modern art]], a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to '[[Cultural Bolshevism]]', the [[conspiracy theory]] that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the '[[Degenerate Art exhibition]]' ({{langx|de|Die Ausstellung "Entartete Kunst"}}). This exhibition was displayed next to the [[Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung|Great Exhibition of German Art]], which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar atitude, the regime closed in 1931 the [[Bauhaus]], an avant-garde art school in [[Dessau]] that was extremely influential post-war. It reopened in Berlin in 1932, but was closed again in 1933.

Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union, in Italy the avant-garde contributed to state architecture. Classical architecture was also an influence, echoing [[Benito Mussolini]]'s far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and [[ancient Rome]]. Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between [[Modern architecture|Modernism]] and [[Classical architecture|Classicism]], like [[Marcello Piacentini]] with the [[Sapienza University of Rome]], or [[Giuseppe Terragni]] with [[Casa del Fascio (Como)|Casa del Fascio]] in [[Como]].{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=174, 175, 176}}

In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]], multiple state buildings were erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples in [[Bucharest]] include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building ([[Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu]] no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building ([[Calea Victoriei]] no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or the [[Victoria Palace]] ([[Victory Square, Bucharest|Piața Victoriei]] no. 1). The [[Royal Palace of Bucharest|Royal Palace]], whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-[[Adam style]], stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before World War I.

===Postmodernism===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170">
File:060807-002-GettyVilla001.jpg|[[J. Paul Getty Museum]], Malibu, California, US, by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with [[Edward Genter]] as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr [[Norman Neuerberg]], 1970-1975<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|pages=663, 664|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Les Arcades du Lac interior courtyard.jpg|Interior courtyard of [[Les Arcades du Lac]], Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France, by [[Ricardo Bofill]], 1975-1981<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=663|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg|[[Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans)]], US, by [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]], 1978
File:Robert venturi e denise scott brown per knoll international inc., sedia sheraton (mod. 664), 1979-83 (1984-90).jpg|Sheraton chair with applied decoration; by [[Robert Venturi]] for [[Knoll, Inc.|Knoll]]; 1978–1984, bent laminated wood; unknown dimensions; [[Milwaukee Art Museum]], Milwaukee, USA<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=53|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Bucureşti June 1996 (3402685900).jpg|Apartment buildings on [[Bulevardul Unirii]], Bucharest, Romania, unknown architects, 1980s
File:Robert venturi per paul downs cabinetmakers, comodino louis xvi, 1984.jpg|Louis XVI, lowboy; by Robert Venturi for Arc International; {{circa}}1985; laminated wood; unknown dimensions; [[Indianapolis Museum of Art]], Indianapolis, USA<ref name="Postmodern Design Complete">{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=121|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:National Gallery London Sainsbury Wing 2006-04-17.jpg|[[Sainsbury Wing]], National Gallery, London, by [[Robert Venturi]], 1987-1991<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=665|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Pumping station, Stewart Street (geograph 4678320).jpg|[[Isle of Dogs Pumping Station]], London, [[John Outram]], 1988<ref name="Postmodern Design Complete"/>
File:77 West Wacker Drive May 2016 (2).jpg|[[77 West Wacker Drive]], Chicago, US, by Ricardo Bofill, 1990-1992<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.are.na/block/14220675|website=are.na|title=77 West Wacker Drive Interior (1992)|author=|access-date=3 September 2023}}</ref>
File:Harold Washington Library - Chicago Public Library (51574883428).jpg|[[Harold Washington Library]], Chicago, by [[Thomas H. Beeby|Hammond, Beeby & Babka]], 1991<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=77|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Chicago Public Library (CPL) (14756610392).jpg|Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
File:M2ビル (世田谷区).jpeg|M2 Building, [[Tokyo]], Japan, by [[Kengo Kuma]], 1991<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=65|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Montpellier, France - panoramio (210).jpg|[[Antigone, Montpellier]], France, by [[Ricardo Bofill]], completed in 1992
File:HoustonChildrenMuseum.JPG|[[Children's Museum of Houston]], Houston, US, by Robert Venturi, 1992<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/19/robert-venturi-best-postmodern-architecture-projects/|website=dezeen.com|title=Seven of Robert Venturi's best postmodern projects|author=Eleanor Gibson|date=19 September 2018 |access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref>
File:Fountain of the Gods, Caesars Palace (Las Vegas) (2).jpg|Forum Shops in [[Caesars Palace]], Las Vegas, US, by [[Marnell Corrao Associates]], 1992<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.are.na/block/14220899|website=are.na|title=The Forum Shops at Caesars Palace (1992)|author=|access-date=3 September 2023}}</ref>
File:Trafford Centre main entrance05.jpg|Exterior of the [[Trafford Centre]], Manchester, UK, designed by [[Chapman Taylor]] and [[Leach Rhodes Walker]], with sculptures by [[Colin Spofforth]] and [[Guy Portelli]], 1998<ref name="Sunway University Press">{{cite book |last1=Gray |first1=George T. |url= |title=An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design |date=2022 |publisher=Sunway University Press |isbn=978-967-5492-24-2 |page=265 |language=en}}</ref>
File:Trafford Centre The Dome 01.jpg|Interior of the Trafford Centre, by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, 1998<ref name="Sunway University Press" />
File:Philippe starck per kartell spa, poltrona masters, 2009.jpg|Louis Ghost, a simplified reinterpretation of armchairs in the [[Louis XVI style]]; by [[Philippe Starck]]; 2009; [[polycarbonate]]; height: 94&nbsp;cm; various locations<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smow.com/philippe-starck/louis-ghost.html|website=smow.com|author=|title=Philippe Starck, a pair of 'Louis Ghost' armchairs, Kartell. - Bukowskis|access-date=19 June 2023}}</ref>
File:15 Strada Arthur Verona, Bucharest (27).jpg|[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] table with different legs, some of which are reminiscent of Neoclassical furniture; unknown designer; {{circa}}2010; painted wood; unknown dimensions; Cărturești Verona (Strada Arthur Verona no. 15), [[Bucharest]], Romania
</gallery>

An early text questioning [[Modernism]] was by architect [[Robert Venturi]], ''Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture'' (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=660|url=|language=en}}</ref> Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known as [[Postmodernism]]. Robert Venturi parodies [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]]'s well-known maxim '[[Less is more (architecture)|less is more]]' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, some [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodern]] architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or '[[kitsch]]'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism is [[Ricardo Bofill]]. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known as [[Les Arcades du Lac]] from 1975 to 1981, and [[Les Espaces d'Abraxas]] from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is the [[J. Paul Getty Museum]], in [[Malibu, California]], from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient Roman [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]]. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like the [[Pompejanum]] in [[Aschaffenburg]], Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|pages=660, 661, 663|url=|language=en}}</ref>

===Architecture in the 21st century===
{{Main|New Classical Architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">

Entrance of Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace (cropped).jpg|[[Queen's Gallery]], Buckingham Palace, London, by [[John Simpson (architect)|John Simpson]], 2000-2002<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=673|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Schermerhorn.jpg|[[Schermerhorn Symphony Center]], Nashville, Tennessee, US, by [[Earl Swensson]] Associates, [[David M. Schwarz]] Architects, and Hastings Architecture Associates, 2006

Berlin James-Simon-Galerie asv2019-07 img2.jpg|[[James Simon Gallery]], entrance of the [[Neues Museum]], Berlin, by [[David Chipperfield]], 2009–2018
</gallery>
After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of [[New Classical Architecture]]. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arch-tour.blogspot.com/2009/03/neo-classicist-architecture.html|title=Neo-classicist Architecture. Traditionalism. Historicism}}</ref> Also, a number of pieces of [[postmodern architecture]] draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, [[Antigone District]] and the [[National Theatre of Catalonia]] in [[Barcelona]] among them. [[Postmodern architecture]] occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term [[Vernacular architecture|Traditional Architecture]] (or vernacular) is mostly used. The [[Driehaus Architecture Prize]] is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist [[Pritzker Prize]].<ref>[http://architecture.nd.edu/about/driehaus-prize/ Driehaus Prize for New Classical Architecture at Notre Dame SoA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210100930/http://architecture.nd.edu/about/driehaus-prize/ |date=2017-02-10 }} – ''Together, the $200,000 Driehaus Prize and the $50,000 Reed Award represent the most significant recognition for classicism in the contemporary built environment.''; retained March 7, 2014</ref>

In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 [[Schermerhorn Symphony Center]] in [[Nashville]] being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: [[Quinlan Terry]]'s Maitland Robinson Library at [[Downing College]] and Robert Adam Architects' [[Sackler Library]].

==See also==
{{Div col}}
*[[1795–1820 in Western fashion]]
*[[American Empire (style)]]
*[[Antiquization]]
*[[Nazi architecture]]
*[[Neoclassical architecture]]
*[[Neoclassicism in France]]
*[[Neo-Grec]], the late Greek-Revival style
*[[Skopje 2014]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Gauvin Alexander|title=Baroque & Rococo|date=2012|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-5742-8}}
<!-- C -->
* {{cite book |last1=Celac |first1=Mariana |last2=Carabela |first2=Octavian |last3=Marcu-Lapadat |first3=Marius |title=Bucharest Architecture – an annotated guide |publisher=Order of Architects of Romania |year=2017 |isbn=978-973-0-23884-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Clark |first=Kenneth |author-link=Kenneth Clark |title=The Romantic Rebellion: Romantic versus Classic Art |year=1976 |publisher=Omega |isbn=0-86007-718-7}}
<!-- d -->
* {{cite book |last=de Martin |first=Henry |title=Le Style Louis XVI |year=1925 |publisher=Flammarion |language=fr}}
<!-- F -->
* {{cite book |last=Fortenberry |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon Press |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |edition=Revised |location=London |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- G -->
* {{cite web |last=Gontar |first=Cybele |title=Neoclassicism |location=New York |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=October 2003 |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neoc_1/hd_neoc_1.htm }}
<!-- H -->
* {{cite book |last1=Hodge |first1=Susie |title=The Short Story of Architecture |date=2019 |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |isbn=978-1-7862-7370-3 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|date=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-178067-163-5 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Honour |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh Honour |title=Neo-classicism. Style and Civilisation |year=1968  |publisher=Penguin}}. Reprinted 1977.
* {{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Lynn |chapter=Freedom of Dress in Revolutionary France |title=From the Royal to the Republican Body: Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France |editor-first1=Sara E. |editor-last1=Melzer |editor-first2=Kathryn |editor-last2=Norberg |year=1998 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520208070}}
<!-- J -->
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Jones |editor-first1=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
<!-- L -->
* {{cite book |last1=Lăzărescu |first1=Cezar |last2=Cristea |first2=Gabriel |last3=Lăzărescu |first3=Elena |title=Arhitectura Românească în Imagini |year=1972 |language=ro |publisher=Editura Meridiane}}
<!-- N -->
* {{cite book |last=Novotny |first=Fritz |author-link=Fritz Novotny |title=Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 |edition=2nd (reprinted 1980)}}
<!-- R -->
* {{cite book |last=Rifelj |first=Carol De Dobay |title=Coiffures: Hair in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture |year=2010  |publisher=University of Delaware Press |isbn=9780874130997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFdBoGMJktgC}}

==Further reading==
* Brown, Kevin (2017). ''Artist and Patrons: Court Art and Revolution in Brussels at the end of the Ancien Regime'', [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03096564.2017.1299964 Dutch Crossing, Taylor and Francis]
* Eriksen, Svend. ''Early Neoclassicism in France'' (1974)
* Friedlaender, Walter (1952). ''David to Delacroix'' (originally published in German; reprinted 1980)
* Gromort, Georges, with introductory essay by [[Richard Sammons]] (2001). [http://www.books-by-isbn.com/0-393/0393730514-The-Elements-of-Classical-Architecture-Georges-Gromort-Henry-Hope-Reed-0-393-73051-4.html ''The Elements of Classical Architecture'' (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture)]
* Harrison, Charles; Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger (eds) (2000; repr. 2003). ''Art in Theory 1648–1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas''
* Hartop, Christopher, with foreword by [[Tim Knox]] (2010).
*''The Classical Ideal: English Silver, 1760–1840'', exh. cat. Cambridge: [[John Adamson (publisher)|John Adamson]] {{ISBN|978-0-9524322-9-6}}.
* Irwin, David (1966). ''English Neoclassical Art: Studies in Inspiration and Taste''
* Johnson, James William. “What Was Neo-Classicism?” ''Journal of British Studies'', vol. 9, no. 1, 1969, pp.&nbsp;49–70. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/175167 online]
* Rosenblum, Robert (1967). ''Transformations in Late Eighteenth-Century Art''

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Westernart}}
{{Revivals}}

{{Authority control}}

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