Editing Nehushtan

{{short description|Brass serpent in Torah}}
{{redirect|Brazen Serpent|the historic bookseller in London|Paternoster Row#Brazen Serpent}}

In the biblical [[Books of Kings]] ([[2 Kings 18:4]]; written c. 550 BC), the '''Nehushtan''' ({{IPAc-en|n|@|'|h|U|S|t|@|n}}; {{langx|he|נְחֻשְׁתָּן|Nəḥuštān}} {{IPA|he|nəħuʃtaːn|}}) is the [[bronze]] image of a [[snake|serpent]] on a pole. The image is described in the [[Book of Numbers]], where [[Yahweh]] instructed [[Moses]] to erect it so that the [[Israelites]] who saw it would be cured and be protected from dying from the bites of the "[[Fiery flying serpent|fiery serpents]]", which Yahweh had sent to punish them for speaking against Him and Moses ({{bibleverse|Numbers|21:4–9|KJV}}).

According to [[2 Kings 18]]:4, King [[Hezekiah]] instituted an [[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] reform: "He abolished the shrines, smashed the pillars, and cut down the sacred post. He also broke into pieces the bronze serpent that Moses had made, for until that time, the Israelites had been offering sacrifices to it; it was called Nehushtan."<ref>{{cite web |title=II Kings 18:4 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/II_Kings.18.4?lang=bi |website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>

==Etymology==

"Nehushtan" is a pun off either the Hebrew word for "snake" ({{lang|he|[[:wikt:נָחָשׁ|נָחָשׁ]]}}, ''nāḥāš'') or "brass" ({{lang|he|[[:wikt:נחושת|נְחשֶׁת]]}}, ''nəḥošeṯ''), and thus may mean "The (Great) Serpent" or "The (Great) Brass".<ref name=Easton>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/nehushtan/|title=Nehushtan Definition and Meaning – Bible Dictionary|website=Bible Study Tools|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref>

==Alternative translations==
The [[English Standard Version]] of the Bible and the majority of contemporary [[Bible translations into English|English translations]] refer to the serpent as made of "bronze", whereas the [[King James Version]] and a number of other versions state "brass". 2 Kings 18:4 is translated as "brasen" in the King James Version.<ref>BibleGateway.com https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/2%20Kings%2018:4 accessed 15 September 2015</ref> The [[Douay–Rheims Bible|Douay-Rheims]] 1899 edition has "brazen". [[Eugene H. Peterson]], in his paraphrase of the Bible [[The Message (Bible)|''The Message'']] (2002), opted for "a snake of fiery copper".<ref>All translations of Numbers 21:9 taken from [[BibleGateway.com]] https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/Numbers%2021:9 accessed 15 September 2015</ref>

==Serpent image==
[[Snake worship|Snake cults]] had been well established in [[Canaan]] in the [[Bronze Age]]: archaeologists have uncovered serpent [[cult object]]s in Bronze Age strata at several pre-Israelite cities in Canaan: two at [[Tel Megiddo|Megiddo]],<ref>Gordon Loud, ''Megiddo II: Plates'' plate 240: 1, 4, from Stratum X (dated by Loud 1650–1550 BC) and Statum VIIB (dated 1250–1150 BC), noted by Joines 1968:245f.</ref> one at [[Gezer]],<ref>R.A.S. Macalister, ''Gezer II'', p. 399, fig. 488, noted by Joines 1968:245 note 3, from the high place area, dated Late Bronze Age.</ref> one in the [[sanctuary]] of the Area H temple at [[Tel Hazor]]<ref>Yigael Yadin et al. ''Hazor III-IV: Plates'', pl. 339, 5, 6, dated Late Bronze Age II (Yadiin to Joines, in Joines 1968: 245 note 4).</ref> and two at [[Shechem]].<ref>Callaway and Toombs to Joines (Joines 1968: 246 note 5).</ref> Cultic serpent imagery was not isolated to Canaan. It appeared in surrounding areas, including the [[Esagila]] or temple of [[Marduk]] as [[tutelary deity]] in [[Babylon]], where pairs of bronze serpents were erected beside each entrance to the temple. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joines |first=Karen Randolp |date=1968-09-01 |title=The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3263536 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |language=en |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.2307/3263536 |jstor=3263536 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref>

According to Lowell K. Handy, the Nehushtan may have been the symbol of a deity for [[snakebite]] cure within the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&q=The+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transformation+of+religious+tradition|title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms|first=D. V.|last=Edelman|date=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=9789039001240|access-date=Sep 9, 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref>

==In scriptures==

===Hebrew Bible===
{{see also|Serpents in the Bible#Serpent of bronze}}

[[File:MosesandSnake.JPG|thumb|Moses lifts up the brass snake in a photograph of the stained glass window at St Marks Church, [[Gillingham, Kent|Gillingham]]]]

[[File:Tissot The Brazen Serpent.jpg|thumb|The Brazen Serpent (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by [[James Tissot]])]]

[[File:9647 - Milano - Sant'Ambrogio - Serpente di Basilio II (1007) - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 25-Apr-2007.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio]] in Milan has a Roman column and, on top of it, a bronze serpent donated by emperor [[Basil II]] in 1007. It may be the origin of the {{lang|it|[[biscione]]}}/{{lang|lmo|bissa}} symbol of Milan.<ref>{{harvp| Reina |2018|p=69}}</ref>]]
In the biblical story, following their [[The Exodus|Exodus]] from Egypt, the Israelites set out from [[Mount Hor]] to go to the [[Red Sea]]. However they had to detour around the land of [[Edom]] ([[Numbers 20]]{{bibleverse|Numbers|20:21|9|:21}}, 25). Impatient, they complained against [[Yahweh]] and [[Moses]] ([[Chukat#Fifth_reading—Numbers_20:22–21:9|Numbers 21:4–5]]), and in response God sent "[[Serpent (Bible)#Fiery serpents|fiery serpents]]" among them and many died. The people came to Moses to repent and asked him to ask God to take away the serpents. Verse 9 says, "Moses made a copper serpent and mounted it on a standard; and when bitten by a serpent, anyone who looked at the copper serpent would recover."

The term appears in [[2 Kings 18:4]] in a passage describing reforms made by King [[Hezekiah]], in which he tore down the [[high place]]s, cut down symbols of [[Asherah]], destroyed the Nehushtan,<ref name="Noth, 156">{{harvnb|Noth|1968|p=156}}</ref><ref>"The Mystery of the Nechushtan", [[Hershel Shanks]], [[Biblical Archaeology Review]], pp. 58–63, March/April 2007.</ref><ref name ="JOBL, 87">{{cite book|last=Joines|first=Karen Randolph|title=The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult|year=1968|publisher=JOBL, 87|page=245, note 1}}</ref> and according to many Bible translations, gave it that name.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/2%20Kings%2018%3A4|title=2 Kings 18:4 – Bible Gateway|website=www.biblegateway.com|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref>

Regarding the passage in 2 Kings 18:4,<ref name="auto"/> [[Matthew George Easton|M. G. Easton]] noted that "the lapse of nearly one thousand years had invested the 'brazen serpent' with a mysterious sanctity; and in order to deliver the people from their infatuation, and impress them with the idea of its worthlessness, Hezekiah called it, in contempt, 'Nehushtan', a brazen thing, a mere piece of brass".<ref name=Easton>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/nehushtan/|title=Nehushtan Definition and Meaning – Bible Dictionary|website=Bible Study Tools|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref>

The tradition of naming it Nehushtan is not considered older than Hezekiah's time.<ref>"Modern exegesis holds two different opinions in regard to the meaning of the word "Nehushtan," which is explained either as denoting an image of bronze, and as entirely unconnected with the word "naḥash" (serpent), or as a lengthened form of "naḥash" (comp. νεεσθάν in the Septuagint), and thus as implying that the worship of serpents was of ancient date in Israel. The assumption that the tradition about "Nehushtan" is not older than the time of Hezekiah is, however, not contested." [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=N&artid=177 ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', ''s.v.'' "Nehushtan"]; [[H. H. Rowley]], "Zadok and Nehushtan" ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' '''58'''.2 (June 1939: 113–141) p. 132 observes, "We have no record of this Brazen Serpent before this time, save for the obvious [[Etiology|aetiological story]] in Num. 8 f, which states that this sacred symbol had its origin in the Mosaic age".</ref>

===New Testament===
In the [[Gospel of John]], [[Jesus]] makes a comparison between the raising up of the [[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]] and the act of the serpent being raised by Moses for the healing of the people.<ref>{{harvnb|Olson|1996|p=137}}</ref> Jesus says "And just as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so must the Son of Man be lifted up". ({{bibleverse|John|3:14}})

[[Charles Spurgeon]] preached a famous sermon on "the Mysteries of the Brazen Serpent" and this passage from John's Gospel in 1857.<ref>C. H. Spurgeon, [https://www.spurgeon.org/resource-library/sermons/the-mysteries-of-the-brazen-serpent#flipbook/ "The Mysteries of the Brazen Serpent"], 1857</ref>

===Book of Mormon===
In the [[Book of Mormon]], three prophets make reference to this event. The first is the prophet [[Nephi, son of Lehi|Nephi]], son of [[Lehi (Book of Mormon prophet)|Lehi]] in a general discourse,<ref>2 Nephi 25:20</ref><ref>1 Nephi 17:41</ref> the second is many years later by the prophet [[Alma the Younger|Alma]],<ref>Alma 33:19–23</ref> and the third is years later by Alma's great-grandson also named Nephi. Nephi tells the people that many of the Israelites perished because of the simplicity and faith required i.e., "and the labor which they had to perform was to look; and because of the simpleness of the way, or the easiness of it, there were many who perished." In the latter narrative, Alma tells the people of Antionum that many of the Israelites died because they lacked the faith to look at the brazen serpent. He then compared the brazen serpent to a type of Christ and exhorted the people to look to Christ and spiritually live.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cook|first1=Carl B.|title=It Is Better to Look Up – Carl B. Cook|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2011/10/it-is-better-to-look-up?lang=eng|website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org|access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref> These same themes from Alma were reiterated by Nephi in the Book of Helaman.

==Rabbinic literature==
[[File:Monument of the bronze serpent erected by Moses.jpg|thumb|A modern monument of the bronze serpent (which Moses erected in the [[Negev]] desert) on [[Mount Nebo]], in front of the church of Saint Moses (2018).]]
Inasmuch as the serpent in the [[Talmud]] stands for such evils as talebearing and defamation of character (Genesis 3:4–5), the [[Midrash]] finds in the plague of the fiery serpents a punishment for sins of the [[Lashon Hara|evil tongue]] (Numbers 21:5). God said: "Let the serpent who was the first to offend by 'evil tongue' inflict punishment on those who were guilty of the same sin and did not profit by the serpent's example".

One of the complaints in this case was dissatisfaction with the [[manna]]. Whereas the manna is said to have had any taste desired by the person eating it (Shemot Rabbah 25:3), to the serpent all things had the taste of dust, in accordance with the words: "And dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life" (Genesis 3:14). It was very appropriate, therefore, that they who loathed the food which had given any taste desired, should be punished by means of that creature to which everything has the same taste (Tan., ed. Buber, Ḥuḳḳat, xlv. [337]; Midrash R. Num. xix. 22). The [[Mishnah]] does not take literally the words "Every one who was bitten by a serpent would look at the serpent and live", but interprets them symbolically. The people should look up to the God of heaven, for it is not the serpent that either brings to life or puts to death, but it is God (Mishnah R. H. 3:8, B. Talmud R.H. 29a). In the course of time, however, the people lost sight of the symbolical meaning and regarded the serpent itself as the seat of the healing power, and they made it an object of worship, so that Hezekiah found it necessary to destroy it ([[2 Kings 18:4]]; see also Ber. 10a).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3660-brazen-serpent|title=Brazen Serpent |website=jewishencyclopedia.com|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref>

The question that puzzled [[Heinrich Ewald]] ("Gesch. des Volkes Israel," iii. 669, note 5) and others, "Where was the brazen serpent till the time of Hezekiah?" occupied the Talmudists also. They answered it in a very simple way: Asa and Joshaphat, when clearing away the idols, purposely left the brazen serpent behind, in order that Hezekiah might also be able to do a praiseworthy deed in breaking it (Ḥul. 6b).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7668-hezekiah#anchor4|title=Hezekiah |website=jewishencyclopedia.com|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref>

== Debated origins ==
Old Testament scholar [[H. H. Rowley]] proposed that Nehushtan, as it was known during Hezekiah’s reign, had no origins in [[Yahwism]] despite being regarded as a symbol of Yahweh at the time of its destruction. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=H. H. |date=June 1939 |title=Zadok and Nehushtan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3259856 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=137 |doi=10.2307/3259856 |jstor=3259856}}</ref> Instead, Rowley theorized that the bronze serpent destroyed by King Hezekiah was a sacred pre-Israelite symbol of serpent worship associated with a [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite god]] and was adapted by the Israelites following the occupation of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=H. H. |date=1939 |title=Zadok and Nehushtan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3259856 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=137 |doi=10.2307/3259856 |jstor=3259856 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> W.W.G. Baudissin was also of the belief that the Canaanite bronze serpent was adapted by the Israelites between 850–750 B.C.E following their settlement in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joines |first=Karen Randolp |date=1968 |title=The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3263536 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=87 |issue=3 |page=253 |doi=10.2307/3263536 |jstor=3263536 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref>

Egyptologist [[Henry Hall (Egyptologist)|Henry Hall]] supports the theory that the Nehushtan destroyed by Hezekiah was not associated with Yahweh, but Hall alternately suggests that it was an ancient serpent image carried from Egypt by the ancestors of the Israelites.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=H. R. |title=The Ancient History of the Near East: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Salamis |publisher=Methuen & Co. Ltd. |year=1927 |edition=7th, Revised |location=London |page=485}}</ref> This theory is supported by acknowledging the standard [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian practice]] of using the image of a serpent as to defend themselves against snake bites,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joines |first=Karen Randolp |date=September 1968 |title=The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3263536 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=87 |issue=3 |page=251 |doi=10.2307/3263536 |jstor=3263536 }}</ref> in a form of [[sympathetic magic]].

In his notion that the brazen serpent existed within Jerusalem before the arrival of the Israelites, Rowley argues that there is no record of Nehushtan before the reign of Hezekiah, aside from the Numbers 21 story of the bronze serpent. Rowley states that had Nehushtan been brought into Jerusalem at any time as a genuine [[relic]], there would be a documented record of its arrival or transfer. In his argument, Rowley also inserts that the arrival of Moses's sacred rod would be a public spectacle with an honorary procession, which would be well documented.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=H. H. |date=1939 |title=Zadok and Nehushtan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3259856 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=133 |doi=10.2307/3259856 |jstor=3259856 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> Instead, he proposes that the bronze serpent became associated with Nehushtan through process of [[religious syncretism]], citing that the gradual fusion of Canaanite and Israelite beliefs and customs. He hypothesized that symbols representing both religions may have been erected side by side within a sanctuary or public space as a political maneuver following the Israelite settlement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=H. H. |date=1939 |title=Zadok and Nehushtan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3259856 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=139 |doi=10.2307/3259856 |jstor=3259856 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref>

[[Hebraist]] and Old Testament scholar [[R. H. Kennett]] hypothesized that Moses made the Brazen Serpent and that the [[Ark of the Covenant]] was created specifically to contain it despite no known written reference made to the Ark's contents. Kennett also theorized that should Nehushtan truly date back to the time of Moses, it was either maintained by priests after fleeing to [[Nob, Israel|Nob]] from [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] or accompanied the Ark as it was carried off by the [[Philistines]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=James |title=Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1908 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=791–793}}</ref> This is not widely accepted due to no known tradition or association between the Serpent and Ark.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley |first=H. H. |date=1939 |title=Zadok and Nehushtan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3259856 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=58 |issue=2 |page=135 |doi=10.2307/3259856 |jstor=3259856 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref>

==In art==
[[File:Michelangelo Buonarroti 024.jpg|thumb|right|In 1508 [[Michelangelo]]'s image of the Israelites deliverance from the plague of serpents by the creation of the bronze serpent, on the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]].]]
There is a Brazen Serpent Monument on [[Mount Nebo]] in [[Jordan]] created by Italian artist Giovanni Fantoni.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.seetheholyland.net/tag/brazen-serpent-monument/|title=Brazen Serpent monument « See The Holy Land|access-date=Sep 9, 2019}}</ref> 
Similarly, on the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], [[Michelangelo]] painted a mural of the Israelites' deliverance from the plague of serpents by the creation of the bronze serpent.

==See also==
* [[Caduceus]]
* [[Naassenes]]
* [[Nāga]]
* [[Nahusha]] in Hindu mythology, a king who became a serpent
* [[Ningishzida]]
* [[Ophites]]
* [[Rod of Asclepius]]
* [[Serpent Column]]
* [[Serpent (symbolism)|Serpent symbolism]]
* [[Snake worship]]
* [[Staff of Moses]]
* [[Teraphim]]
* [[Uraeus]]
* [[Wadjet]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{JewishEncyclopedia
|article=Brazen serpent
|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1425&letter=B
|author=[[Kaufmann Kohler]], [[Isaac Husik]], [[Morris Jastrow]] Jr., [[J. Frederic McCurdy]]}}
* {{cite book|last=Noth|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Noth|title=Numbers: A Commentary|year=1968|publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]]|isbn=978-0-664-22320-5|edition=Issue 613, Vol. 7|pages=155–8}}
* {{cite book|last=Olson|first=Dennis T.|title=Numbers|year=1996|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|location=Louisville, KY|isbn=978-0-8042-3104-6|pages=135–138}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Joines |first1=Karen Randolph |date=September 1968|title= The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/3263536  |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.2307/3263536  |jstor=3263536 |access-date=5 January 2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Reina |first=Gabriele |title= Le imprese araldiche dei Visconti e degli Sforza (1277–1535): Storia, storia dell'arte, repertorio |trans-title=The heraldic achievements of the Visconti and the Sforza (1277–1535): History, artistic change, and inventory |url= https://serval.unil.ch/resource/serval:BIB_A98C5DF3A7E5.P001/REF.pdf |publisher= Université de Lausanne, Faculté des lettres, Section d'histoire de l'art |location= Lausanne |year=2018 |language=it}}
* Rowley, H. H. “Zadok and Nehushtan.” ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', vol. 58, no. 2, 1939, pp. 113–141. {{doi|10.2307/3259856}}. 
* Hastings, James (1908). ''Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics'' (1st ed.). New York: C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 791–793.
* Hall, H. R. (1927). ''The Ancient History of the Near East: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Salamis'' (7th, Rev.ed.). London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. p. 485. 

==External links==
{{commons category|Brass serpent}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=N&artid=177 ''Jewish Encyclopedia'', ''s.v.'' "Nehushtan"]
* [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/n/nehushtan.html Naassian]. The Mystica.
* [http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Numbers+21:4-9,+John+3:9-15 The Bronze Serpent: Numbers 21:4–9, John 3:9–15]
{{Book of Numbers}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Book of Numbers]]
[[Category:Deities in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible objects]]
[[Category:Serpents in the Bible]]
[[Category:Midian]]
[[Category:Moses]]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]
[[Category:Snake gods]]