Editing Nature conservation

{{Short description|Movement to protect the biosphere}}
{{redirect|Natural conservation|the study of biodiversity management|Conservation biology||Conservation (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of industrial deforestation in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia, using [[skyline logging]] and replacement of forests by agriculture]]
[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], Australia, while allowing access for visitors]]
'''Nature conservation''' is the ethic/moral philosophy and [[conservation movement]] focused on protecting species from [[extinction]], maintaining and restoring [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]], enhancing [[ecosystem services]], and protecting [[biological diversity]]. A range of values underlie conservation, which can be guided by [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], [[anthropocentrism]], [[ecocentrism]], and [[sentientism]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman, Varner, Lunquist |title=Defending Biodiversity |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139024105 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/defending-biodiversity/9B7C54CA64EB0F71072AD4C80E505F5A}}</ref> environmental ideologies that inform ecocultural practices and identities.<ref>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840</ref> There has recently been a movement towards [[evidence-based conservation]] which calls for greater use of scientific evidence to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. As of 2018 15% of land and 7.3% of the oceans were protected. Many environmentalists set a target of protecting 30% of land and marine territory by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MARRIS |first1=EMMA |title=To keep the planet flourishing, 30% of Earth needs protection by 2030 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303031917/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/conservation-groups-call-for-protecting-30-percent-earth-2030 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |website=National Geographic |date=31 January 2019 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Australian Marine Parks Protect an Area Twice the Size of the Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/australia-marine-parks-conservation-2652985201.html |access-date=18 May 2021 |agency=Ecowatch |publisher=Mongabay |date=14 May 2021}}</ref> In 2021, 16.64% of land and 7.9% of the oceans were protected.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2021 |title=Governments achieve target of protecting 17% of land globally |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/may/19/governments-achieve-10-year-target-of-protecting-17-percent-land-aoe |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2021 |title=2021's top ocean news stories (commentary) |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/12/2021s-top-ocean-news-stories-commentary/ |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> The 2022 IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation, underlines the need to conserve 30% to 50% of the Earth's land, freshwater and ocean areas – echoing the 30% goal of the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|U.N.'s Convention on Biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Januta |first=Andrea |date=1 March 2022 |title=Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate impacts and adaptation |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/03/key-takeaways-ipcc-report-climate-impacts-adaptation/ |access-date=2 March 2022 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 December 2022 |title=Negotiators agree to historic biodiversity deal at COP15 |url=https://www.euronews.com/2022/12/19/negotiators-agree-to-historic-biodiversity-deal-at-cop15 |access-date=19 December 2022 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref>

== Introduction ==
Conservation goals include [[habitat conservation|conserving habitat]], preventing [[deforestation]], maintaining [[soil organic matter]], halting species [[extinction]], reducing [[overfishing]], and mitigating [[climate change]]. Different philosophical outlooks guide conservationists towards these different goals.

The principal value underlying many expressions of the conservation ethic is that the natural world has intrinsic and intangible worth along with utilitarian value &ndash; a view carried forward by parts of the scientific [[conservation movement]] and some of the older [[Romanticism|Romantic]] schools of the [[ecology movement]]. Philosophers have attached intrinsic value to different aspects of nature, whether this is individual organisms ([[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]]) or ecological wholes such as species or ecosystems (ecoholism).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gardiner and Thompson |title=The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Ethics |date=2017 |publisher=OUP }}</ref>

More [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] schools of conservation have an anthropocentric outlook and seek a proper valuation of [[Human impact on the environment|local and global impacts of human activity]] upon nature in their effect upon human [[measuring well-being|wellbeing]], now and to posterity. How such values are assessed and exchanged among people determines the social, political and personal restraints and imperatives by which conservation is practiced. This is a view common in the modern [[environmental movement]]. There is increasing interest in extending the responsibility for human wellbeing to include the welfare of [[Sentience|sentient]] animals. In 2022 the United Kingdom introduced the [[Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022|Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act]] which lists all vertebrates, decapod crustaceans and cephalopods as sentient beings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animals to be formally recognised as sentient beings in domestic law |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/animals-to-be-formally-recognised-as-sentient-beings-in-domestic-law |access-date=1 December 2022 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Branches of conservation ethics focusing on sentient individuals include [[ecofeminism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hawkins|first=Ronnie Zoe|date=1998|title=Ecofeminism and Nonhumans: Continuity, Difference, Dualism, and Domination|journal=Hypatia|volume=13|issue=1|pages=158–197|doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.1998.tb01356.x|jstor=3810611|s2cid=145174389 |issn=0887-5367}}</ref> and [[compassionate conservation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallach|first1=Arian D.|last2=Batavia|first2=Chelsea|last3=Bekoff|first3=Marc|last4=Alexander|first4=Shelley|last5=Baker|first5=Liv|last6=Ben-Ami|first6=Dror|last7=Boronyak|first7=Louise|last8=Cardilini|first8=Adam P. A.|last9=Carmel|first9=Yohay|last10=Celermajer|first10=Danielle|last11=Coghlan|first11=Simon|title=Recognizing animal personhood in compassionate conservation|journal=Conservation Biology|year=2020|volume=34|issue=5|language=en|pages=1097–1106|doi=10.1111/cobi.13494|pmid=32144823|pmc=7540678|issn=1523-1739|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020ConBi..34.1097W }}</ref>

In the United States of America, the year 1864 saw the publication of two books which laid the foundation for Romantic and Utilitarian conservation traditions in America. The posthumous publication of [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s ''[[Walden]]'' established the grandeur of unspoiled nature as a citadel to nourish the spirit of man. A very different book from [[George Perkins Marsh]], ''[[Man and Nature]]'', later subtitled "The Earth as Modified by Human Action", catalogued his observations of man exhausting and altering the land from which his sustenance derives.

The consumer conservation ethic has been defined as the attitudes and behaviors held and engaged in by individuals and families that ultimately serve to reduce overall societal consumption of energy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=HALDEMAN |first1=VIRGINIA A. |last2=PETERS |first2=JEANNE M. |last3=TRIPPLE |first3=PATRICIA A. |date=1987 |title=Measuring a Consumer Energy Conservation Ethic: An Analysis of Components |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23859354 |journal=The Journal of Consumer Affairs |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=70–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6606.1987.tb00188.x |jstor=23859354 |issn=0022-0078}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leonard-Barton |first=Dorothy |date=1981 |title=Voluntary Simplicity Lifestyles and Energy Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2488881 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1086/208861 |jstor=2488881 |issn=0093-5301}}</ref> The conservation movement has emerged from the advancements of moral reasoning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=VERNEY |first=RALPH |title=Towards a Conservation Ethic |date=1984 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41373777 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Arts |volume=132 |issue=5336 |pages=501–512 |jstor=41373777 |issn=0035-9114}}</ref> Increasing numbers of philosophers and scientists have made its maturation possible by considering the relationships between human beings and organisms with the same rigor.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title=BIOPHILIA 2017 |journal=Biophilia |volume=2017 |issue=3 |pages=v |doi=10.14813/ibra.2017.v |issn=2186-8433|doi-access=free }}</ref> This social ethic primarily relates to [[local purchasing]], [[moral purchasing]], the [[sustainability|sustained]], and efficient use of [[renewable resource]]s, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, and the prevention of harm to common resources such as [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution|water]] quality, the natural functions of a living earth, and cultural values in a [[built environment]]. These practices are used to slow down the accelerating rate in which [[extinction]] is occurring at. The origins of this ethic can be traced back to many different philosophical and religious beliefs; that is, these practices has been advocated for centuries. In the past, conservationism has been categorized under a spectrum of views, including [[Anthropocentrism|anthropocentric]], [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] conservationism, and radical [[Ecocentrism|eco-centric]] green eco-political views.

More recently, the three major movements has been grouped to become what we now know as conservation ethic. The person credited with formulating the conservation ethic in the United States is former president, [[Theodore Roosevelt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alphasteward.com/forests/who-is-credited-for-articulating-the-conservation-ethic-and-for-founding-the-us-forest-service/ |title = The Conservation Ethic & The Founding the US Forest Service |publisher = Alpha Steward |date = 10 April 2020 |access-date = 21 June 2020 }}</ref>

== Terminology ==
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|quote=The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others.|source=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]<ref>Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907</ref>
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The term "conservation" was coined by [[Gifford Pinchot]] in 1907. He told his close friend United States President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] who used it for a national conference of governors in 1908.<ref>Carolyn Merchant, ed. ''Major problems in American environmental history: documents and essays'' (1993) pp. 340, 356–357.</ref>

In common usage, the term refers to the activity of systematically protecting natural resources such as forests, including biological diversity. [[Carl F. Jordan]] defines biological conservation as:<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordan|first=Carl|title=Replacing Quantity With Quality As a Goal for Global Management|publisher=Wiley|date=1995|isbn=0-471-59515-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/conservationrepl00jord}}</ref>

{{quote|a philosophy of managing the environment in a manner that does not despoil, exhaust or extinguish.}}

While this usage is not new, the idea of biological conservation has been applied to the principles of ecology, [[biogeography]], [[anthropology]], economy, and sociology to maintain [[biodiversity]].

The term "conservation" itself may cover the concepts such as [[cultural diversity]], [[genetic diversity]], and the concept of movements [[Environmental protection|environmental conservation]], [[seedbank]] curation (preservation of seeds), and [[gene bank]] coordination (preservation of animals' genetic material). These are often summarized as the priority to respect diversity.

Much recent movement in conservation can be considered a resistance to [[commercialism]] and [[globalization]]. [[Slow Food]] is a consequence of rejecting these as moral priorities, and embracing a [[voluntary simplicity|slower and more locally focused lifestyle]].

[[Sustainable living]] is a lifestyle that people are beginning to adopt, promoting to make decisions that would help protect [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cities |first=Sustainable Development Solutions Network Thematic Group on Sustainable |date=2013 |title=Resiliency and Environmental Sustainability |journal=The Urban Opportunity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep15871.7 |pages=28–34}}</ref> The small lifestyle changes that promote [[sustainability]] will eventually accumulate into the proliferation of biological diversity. Regulating the ecolabeling of products from fisheries, controlling for [[Sustainable food system|sustainable food production]], or keeping the lights off during the day are some examples of sustainable living.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaiser |first1=Michel J. |last2=Edwards-Jones |first2=Gareth |date=2006 |title=The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3591347 |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=392–398 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00319.x |jstor=3591347 |pmid=16903100 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20..392K |hdl=1912/843 |s2cid=30842161 |issn=0888-8892|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bale |first1=J.S |last2=van Lenteren |first2=J.C |last3=Bigler |first3=F |date=6 September 2007 |title=Biological control and sustainable food production |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=363 |issue=1492 |pages=761–776 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2182 |pmid=17827110 |pmc=2610108 |issn=0962-8436}}</ref> However, sustainable living is not a simple and uncomplicated approach. A 1987 Brundtland Report expounds on the notion of sustainability as a process of change that looks different for everyone: "It is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Development. |first=World Commission on Environment and |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/732496026 |title=Our common future |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-282080-X |oclc=732496026}}</ref> Simply put, sustainable living does make a difference by compiling many individual actions that encourage the protection of [[biological diversity]].

== Practice ==
[[File:Daintree Rainforest.JPG|thumb|[[Daintree Rainforest]] in [[Queensland]], Australia]]
Distinct trends exist regarding conservation development. The need for conserving land has only recently intensified during what some scholars refer to as the [[Capitalocene]] epoch. This era marks the beginning of [[colonialism]], [[globalization]], and the [[Industrial Revolution]] that has led to global land change as well as [[climate change]].

While many countries' efforts to preserve [[species]] and their [[habitats]] have been government-led, those in the North Western Europe tended to arise out of the middle-class and aristocratic interest in [[natural history]], expressed at the level of the individual and the national, regional or local [[learned society]]. Thus countries like Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, etc. had what would be called [[non-governmental organization]]s – in the shape of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and County Naturalists' Trusts (dating back to 1889, 1895, and 1912 respectively) Natuurmonumenten, Provincial Conservation Trusts for each Dutch province, Vogelbescherming, etc. – a long time before there were [[national parks]] and [[national nature reserve]]s.<ref name=Webb>{{Citation | author1=Webb, L. J. (Leonard James) | author-link=Leonard Webb (academic) | title=Nature protection in Europe | year=1970 | publication-date=1968 | publisher=Wildlife Preservation Society of Australia | isbn=978-0-909971-01-4}}</ref> This in part reflects the absence of wilderness areas in heavily cultivated Europe, as well as a longstanding interest in [[laissez-faire]] government in some countries, like the UK, leaving it as no coincidence that [[John Muir]], the Scottish-born founder of the National Park movement (and hence of government-sponsored conservation) did his sterling work in the US, where he was the motor force behind the establishment of such national parks as [[Yosemite]] and [[Yellowstone]]. Nowadays, officially more than 10 percent of the world is legally protected in some way or the other, and in practice, private fundraising is insufficient to pay for the effective management of so much land with protective status.

Protected areas in developing countries, where probably as many as 70–80 percent of the species of the world live, still enjoy very little effective management and protection. Some countries, such as Mexico, have non-profit civil organizations and landowners dedicated to protecting vast private property, such is the case of Hacienda Chichen's Maya Jungle Reserve and Bird Refuge in [[Chichen Itza]], [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]].<ref>[http://www.haciendachichen.com/eco-design.htm Haciendachichen.com], "The Importance of Eco-Design"</ref> The Adopt A Ranger Foundation has calculated that worldwide about 140,000 rangers are needed for the protected areas in developing and transition countries. There are no data on how many rangers are employed at the moment, but probably less than half the protected areas in developing and transition countries have any rangers at all and those that have them are at least 50% short. This means that there would be a worldwide ranger deficit of 105,000 rangers in the developing and transition countries.{{Cn|date=October 2022}}

The terms ''conservation'' and ''preservation'' are frequently conflated outside the academic, scientific, and professional kinds of literature. The United States' [[National Park Service]] offers the following explanation of the important ways in which these two terms represent very different conceptions of [[environmental protection]] [[Environmental ethics|ethics]]:

{{quote|Conservation and preservation are closely linked and may indeed seem to mean the same thing. Both terms involve a degree of protection, but how that protection is carried out is the key difference. Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes. Put simply, ''conservation seeks the proper use of nature, while preservation seeks protection of nature from use''.|United States National Park Service<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/conservation-preservation-and-the-national-park-service.htm | title=Conservation, Preservation, and the National Park Service - Teachers (U.S. National Park Service) }}</ref>}}

During the [[environmentalism|environmental movement]] of the early 20th century, two opposing factions emerged: conservationists and preservationists. Conservationists sought to regulate human use while preservationists sought to eliminate [[Human impact on the environment|human impact]] altogether."<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/klgo/learn/education/classrooms/conservation-vs-preservation.htm National Park Service: Conservation versus preservation]</ref>

C. Anne Claus presents a distinction for conservation practices.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Claus |first1=C. Anne |title=Drawing the sea near : satoumi and coral reef conservation in Okinawa |date=2020 |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-1-5179-0662-7}}</ref> Claus divides conservation into conservation-far and conservation-near. Conservation-far is the means of protecting nature by separating it and safeguarding it from humans.<ref name=":0" /> Means of doing this include the creation of preserves or national parks. They are meant to keep the flora and fauna away from human influence and have become a staple method in the west. Conservation-near however is conservation via connection. The method of reconnecting people to nature through traditions and beliefs to foster a desire to protect nature.<ref name=":0" /> The basis is that instead of forcing compliance to separate from nature onto the people, instead conservationists work with locals and their traditions to find conservation efforts that work for all.<ref name=":0" /> 

===Evidence-based conservation ===
{{Main|Evidence-based conservation}}
Evidence-based conservation is the application of evidence in conservation management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, [[peer-review]]ed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] knowledge on a specific conservation topic.  This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems, and economic factors.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Basics|publisher = Conservation Evidence|url=http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index |access-date = 7 March 2015}}</ref>

[[Evidence-based]] conservation was organized based on the observations that [[decision making]] in conservation was based on [[:wikt:intuition|intuition]] and/or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<ref name=Sutherland>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J|last2=Pullin|first2=Andrew S.|last3=Dolman|first3=Paul M.|last4=Knight|first4=Teri M.|title=The need for evidence-based conservation|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=June 2004|volume=19|issue=6|pages=305–308|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018|pmid=16701275}}</ref> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=William J.|title= Evidence-based Conservation|journal= Conservation in Practice|date=July 2003|volume=4|issue=3|pages=39–42|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x}}</ref>

The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in [[Evidence-based medicine|medicine]] and later spread to [[Evidence Based Nursing|nursing]], [[Evidence based education|education]],<ref>[[David G. Hebert]], (2022), [https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/1708/1061 "Nature Conservation and Music Sustainability: Fields with Shared Concerns"], ''Canadian Journal of Environmental Education'', 25, p.175–189.</ref> [[psychology]], and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]].

== See also ==
* {{annotated link|Conservation biology}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation community}}
* {{annotated link|Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources}}
* {{annotated link|Dark green environmentalism}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental history of the United States}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental protection}}
* {{annotated link|Forest conservation}}
* {{annotated link|Geoconservation}}
* {{annotated link|Index of environmental articles}}
* {{annotated link|List of environmental issues}}
* {{annotated link|List of environmental organizations}}
* {{annotated link|Natural capital}}
* {{annotated link|Natural environment}}
* {{annotated link|Natural resource}}
* {{annotated link|Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics}}
* {{annotated link|Sustainable agriculture}}
* {{annotated link|Trail ethics}}
* {{annotated link|Water conservation}}
* {{annotated link|Wildlife conservation}}
* {{annotated link|30 by 30}}
* {{annotated link|Artificialization}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last1=Frankel |first1=O. H. |last2=Soulé |first2=Michael E.|title=Conservation and evolution |date=1981 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England |isbn=0-521-23275-9}}
* Glacken, C.J. (1967) Traces on the Rhodian Shore. University of California Press. Berkeley
* Grove, R.H. (1992) 'Origins of Western Environmentalism', [[Scientific American]] 267(1): 22–27.
* {{cite book |last1=Grove |first1=Richard |title=Ecology, climate, and empire : colonialism and global environmental history, 1400-1940 |date=1997 |publisher=White Horse Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9781874267188}}
* Grove, R.H. (1995) ''Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600–1860'' New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]
* Pinchot, G. (1910) ''[https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/11238 The Fight for Conservation]'' New York: [[Harcourt Brace]].
* ''"Why Care for Earth's Environment?"'' (in the series ''"The Bible's Viewpoint"'') is a two-page article in the December 2007 issue of the magazine [[Awake!]].
* {{cite book
| author= Sutherland, W.
|editor4-first=Rebecca K
|editor4-last=Smith
|editor3-first=Nancy
|editor3-last=Ockendon
|editor2-first=Lynn V
|editor2-last=Dicks
|editor1-first=William J
|editor1-last=Sutherland
|year=2015
|title= What Works in Conservation
|publisher= Open Book Publishers
|doi=10.11647/OBP.0060
|isbn=978-1-78374-157-1
|url=http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/347/what-works-in-conservation|display-authors=etal
|doi-access=free
}} A  '''free''' textbook for download.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Conservation}}
{{commons category|Nature conservation}}
* [https://ourworldindata.org/protected-areas-and-conservation Protected Areas and Conservation] at [[Our World in Data]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909070826/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-59 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Conservation of Natural Resources
* [http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/ ''For Future Generations'', a Canadian documentary on how the conservation ethic influenced national parks]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100612201702/http://religion-online.org/listbycategory.asp?Cat=45 Category List  --- Religion-Online.org] "Ecology/Environment"

{{conservation of species}}
{{World topic|prefix=Conservation in|title=Conservation by country|link_Thailand=Thailand#Biodiversity_and_conservation|noredlinks=y}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nature conservation| ]]
[[Category:Natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitat]]
[[Category:Natural resource management]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental ethics]]