Editing Natural disaster

{{Short description|Type of adverse event}}
{{Other uses}}
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{{Use American English|date=September 2024}}
[[File:Global Multihazard Proportional Economic Loss Risk Deciles (5457317101).jpg|thumb|right|300x300px|Economic loss risk for six natural disasters: [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[drought]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[flood]]s, [[landslide]]s, and [[volcano]]es.]]

A '''natural disaster''' is the very harmful impact on a [[society]] or [[community]] brought by [[natural phenomenon]] or [[Hazard#Natural hazard|hazard]]. Some examples of natural hazards include [[avalanche]]s, [[drought]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[flood]]s, [[heat wave]]s, [[landslide]]s - including [[submarine landslide]]s, [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[volcanism|volcanic activity]] and [[wildfire]]s.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Natural Hazards {{!}} National Risk Index |url=https://hazards.fema.gov/nri/natural-hazards |publisher=[[Federal Emergency Management Agency|FEMA]] |website=hazards.fema.gov |access-date=2022-06-08}}</ref> Additional natural hazards include [[blizzard]]s, [[dust storm]]s, [[firestorm]]s, [[hail]]s, [[ice storm]]s, [[sinkhole]]s, [[thunderstorm]]s, [[tornado]]es and [[tsunami]]s.<ref name=":3" /> 

A natural disaster can cause [[list of natural disasters by death toll|loss of life]] or [[property damage|damage property]]. It typically causes economic damage. How bad the damage is depends on how well people are [[Emergency management|prepared for disasters]] and how strong the buildings, roads, and other [[Infrastructure|structures]] are.<ref>{{cite book |editor=G. Bankoff |editor2=G. Frerks |editor3=D. Hilhorst |year=2003 |title=Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=1-85383-964-7}}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> 

Scholars have argued the term "natural disaster" is unsuitable and should be abandoned.<ref name=":1" /> Instead, the simpler term ''[[disaster]]'' could be used. At the same time, the type of hazard would be specified.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Cannon, Terry. (1994). [https://researchgate.net/publication/248360551_Vulnerability_Analysis_and_The_Explanation_Of_'Natural'_Disasters Vulnerability Analysis and The Explanation Of 'Natural' Disasters]. Disasters, Development and Environment.</ref><ref name=":2" /> A disaster happens when a natural or [[Hazard#Anthropogenic hazard|human-made hazard]] impacts a [[Social vulnerability|vulnerable community]]. It results from the combination of the hazard and the exposure of a vulnerable society.

Nowadays it is hard to distinguish between "natural" and "human-made" disasters.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Why natural disasters aren't all that natural |website=openDemocracy |date=2020-11-26 |url=https://opendemocracy.net/en/why-natural-disasters-arent-all-that-natural |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-date=2020-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129131113/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/why-natural-disasters-arent-all-that-natural/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gould|first1=Kevin A. |last2=Garcia|first2=M. Magdalena |last3=Remes|first3=Jacob A.C. |title=Beyond 'natural-disasters-are-not-natural': the work of state and nature after the 2010 earthquake in Chile |journal=Journal of Political Ecology |date=1 December 2016 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=93 |doi=10.2458/v23i1.20181 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Smith|first=Neil | title=There's No Such Thing as a Natural Disaster |website=Items |date=2006-06-11 |url=https://items.ssrc.org/understanding-katrina/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-natural-disaster/ |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-date=2021-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122104324/https://items.ssrc.org/understanding-katrina/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-natural-disaster/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The term "natural disaster" was already challenged in 1976.<ref name=":2" /> Human choices in architecture,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coburn |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Spence |first2=Robin JS |last3=Pomonis |first3=Antonios |chapter=Factors determining human casualty levels in earthquakes: mortality prediction in building collapse |pages=5989–5994 |chapter-url=https://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/10_vol10_5989.pdf |title=Proceedings of the tenth world conference on earthquake engineering |volume=10 |year=1992 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-90-5410-060-7 |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112013312/http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/10_vol10_5989.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> fire risk,<ref>{{cite web | title=Wildfire Causes and Evaluations | publisher=National Park Service | date=2018-11-27 | url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildfire-causes-and-evaluation.htm | access-date=2020-12-29 | archive-date=2021-01-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101030717/https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildfire-causes-and-evaluation.htm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web | last=DeWeerdt | first=Sarah | title=Humans cause 96% of wildfires that threaten homes in the U.S. | website=Anthropocene | date=2020-09-15 | url=https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2020/09/humans-cause-most-wildfires-that-threaten-homes-in-the-united-states/ | access-date=2020-12-29 | archive-date=2020-12-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210055715/https://www.anthropocenemagazine.org/2020/09/humans-cause-most-wildfires-that-threaten-homes-in-the-united-states/ | url-status=live }}</ref> and resource management<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smil |first1=Vaclav |title=China's great famine: 40 years later |journal=The BMJ |date=18 December 1999 |volume=319 |issue=7225 |pages=1619–1621 |doi=10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1619 |pmid=10600969 |pmc=1127087 }}</ref> can cause or worsen natural disasters. [[Climate change]] also affects how often disasters due to [[extreme weather]] hazards happen. These "[[climate hazards]]" are floods, heat waves, wildfires, tropical cyclones, and the like.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGuire |first1=Bill |url=https://1lib.eu/book/2583950/77162a |title=Waking the Giant: How a changing climate triggers earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-959226-5 |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418223658/http://ww25.1lib.eu/book/2583950/77162a?subid1=20220419-0836-58aa-a5d2-62fa1ec4a512 |archive-date=2022-04-18 |url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>

Some things can make natural disasters worse. Examples are inadequate building norms, [[marginalization]] of people and poor choices on [[Land-use planning|land use planning]].<ref name=":1" /> Many [[Developing country|developing countries]] do not have proper [[disaster risk reduction]] systems.<ref name=":5">{{Citation |last=Zorn |first=Matija |title=Natural Disasters and Less Developed Countries |date=2018 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59002-8_4 |work=Nature, Tourism and Ethnicity as Drivers of (De)Marginalization: Insights to Marginality from Perspective of Sustainability and Development |series=Perspectives on Geographical Marginality |volume=3 |pages=59–78 |editor-last=Pelc |editor-first=Stanko |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-59002-8_4 |isbn=978-3-319-59002-8 |access-date=2022-06-08 |editor2-last=Koderman |editor2-first=Miha}}</ref> This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters than [[high income countries]]. An adverse event only becomes a disaster if it occurs in an area with a [[Social vulnerability|vulnerable population]].<ref>{{cite book |author=D. Alexander |title=Principles of Emergency planning and Management |publisher=Harpended: Terra publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1-903544-10-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=B. Wisner |title=At Risk – Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters |author2=P. Blaikie |author3=T. Cannon |author4=I. Davis |publisher=Wiltshire: Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-25216-4 |name-list-style=amp}}{{page needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}}

== Terminology ==

A ''natural disaster'' is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural [[hazard]] event. The term "[[disaster]]" itself is defined as follows: "Disasters are serious disruptions to the functioning of a community that exceed its capacity to cope using its own resources. Disasters can be caused by natural, man-made and technological [[hazard]]s, as well as various factors that influence the exposure and [[vulnerability]] of a community."<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a disaster? |url=https://www.ifrc.org/our-work/disasters-climate-and-crises/what-disaster |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=ifrc.org – IFRC|language=en}}</ref>

The US [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] (FEMA) explains the relationship between natural disasters and natural hazards as follows: "Natural hazards and natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community.<ref name=":3" /> An example of the distinction between a natural hazard and a [[disaster]] is that an [[earthquake]] is the [[hazard]] which caused the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]] disaster.

A ''natural hazard''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Organization of American States, Department of Regional Development|last2=Organization of American States, Natural Hazards Project|last3=United States Agency for International Development, Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance|title=Disaster, planning and development: managing natural hazards to reduce loss|date=1990|publisher=Organization of American States|location=Washington, D.C.|url=http://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea54e/oea54e.pdf|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> is a [[list of natural phenomena|natural phenomenon]] that might have a negative effect on [[human]]s and other [[animal]]s, or the [[Environment (biophysical)|environment]]. Natural hazard events can be classified into two broad categories: [[geophysics|geophysical]] and [[biology|biological]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burton|first1=I.|title=The environment as hazard|last2=Kates|first2=R.W.|last3=White|first3=G.F.|date=1993|publisher=[[Guilford Press]]|isbn=978-0898621594}}</ref> Natural hazards can be provoked or affected by [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic processes]], e.g. [[land-use change]], drainage and construction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gill |first1=Joel C. |last2=Malamud |first2=Bruce D. |date=2017-03-01 |title=Anthropogenic processes, natural hazards, and interactions in a multi-hazard framework |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=166 |pages=246–269 |bibcode=2017ESRv..166..246G |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.01.002 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

There are 18 natural hazards included in the National Risk Index of FEMA: [[avalanche]], [[coastal flooding]], [[cold wave]], [[drought]], [[earthquake]], [[hail]], [[heat wave]], [[tropical cyclone]], [[ice storm]], [[landslide]], [[lightning]], riverine flooding, strong wind, [[tornado]], [[tsunami]], [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[wildfire]], winter weather.<ref name=":3" /> In addition, there are also [[dust storm]]s.

=== Critique ===
The term ''natural disaster'' has been called a misnomer already in 1976.<ref name=":2" /> A disaster is a result of a natural [[hazard]] impacting a [[Social vulnerability|vulnerable community]]. But disasters can be avoided. Earthquakes, droughts, floods, storms, and other events lead to disasters because of human action and inaction. Poor land and policy planning and deregulation can create worse conditions. They often involve development activities that ignore or fail to reduce the [[Disaster risk reduction|disaster risks]]. Nature alone is blamed for disasters even when disasters result from failures in development. Disasters also result from failure of societies to prepare. Examples for such failures include inadequate building norms, marginalization of people, inequities, overexploitation of resources, extreme [[urban sprawl]] and [[climate change]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Why natural disasters aren't all that natural |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/why-natural-disasters-arent-all-natural |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=preventionweb.net |date=14 September 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

Defining disasters as solely natural events has serious implications when it comes to understanding the causes of a disaster and the distribution of political and financial responsibility in [[disaster risk reduction]], [[Emergency management|disaster management]], compensation, insurance and disaster prevention.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Time to say goodbye to "natural" disasters |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/blog/time-say-goodbye-natural-disasters |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=preventionweb.net |date=16 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Using ''natural'' to describe disasters misleads people to think the devastating results are inevitable, out of our control, and are simply part of a natural process. Hazards (earthquakes, hurricanes, pandemics, drought etc.) are inevitable, but the impact they have on society is not.

Thus, the term ''natural disaster'' is unsuitable and should be abandoned in favor of the simpler term ''disaster'', while also specifying the category (or type) of hazard.<ref name=":4">Kevin Blanchard [https://www.preventionweb.net/blog/nonaturaldisasters-changing-discourse-disaster-reporting #NoNaturalDisasters – Changing the discourse of natural disaster reporting] (16 November 2018)</ref>

==Scale==
{{main|List of natural disasters by death toll|List of countries by natural disaster risk}}
[[File:Number-of-natural-disaster-events-Our World In Data.png|thumb|Number of recorded natural disaster events (1900–2022)]]

=== By region and country ===
As of 2019, the countries with the highest share of disability-adjusted life years ([[Disability-adjusted life year|DALY]]) lost due to natural disasters are [[The Bahamas|Bahamas]], [[Haiti]], [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Armenia]] (probably mainly due to the [[1988 Armenian earthquake|Spitak Earthquake]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Global health estimates: Leading causes of DALYs |url=https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/global-health-estimates-leading-causes-of-dalys |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106063038/https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/global-health-estimates-leading-causes-of-dalys |archive-date=2021-01-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2019 WHO DALY report data |url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/gho-documents/global-health-estimates/ghe2019_dalys-2019-country.xlsx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331221157/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/gho-documents/global-health-estimates/ghe2019_dalys-2019-country.xlsx |archive-date=2022-03-31 }}</ref> The Asia-Pacific region is the world's most disaster prone region.<ref>Asia-Pacific World's Most Disaster-Prone Region</ref> A person in Asia-Pacific is five times more likely to be hit by a natural disaster than someone living in other regions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia-Pacific: the world's most disaster-prone region – World |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/factbox-asia-pacific-worlds-most-disaster-prone-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103905/https://reliefweb.int/report/world/factbox-asia-pacific-worlds-most-disaster-prone-region |archive-date=2018-10-04 |access-date=2018-10-04 |publisher=ReliefWeb|date=10 October 2017 }}</ref>

Between 1995 and 2015, the greatest number of natural disasters occurred in America, China and India.<ref name="vecono">{{cite news |date=29 Aug 2017 |title=Weather-related disasters are increasing |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/08/daily-chart-19 |url-status=live |access-date=30 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830021140/https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2017/08/daily-chart-19 |archive-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> In 2012, there were 905 natural disasters worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs were US$170&nbsp;billion and insured losses $70&nbsp;billion. 2012 was a moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological (floods), 12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7% were geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for 14% of all natural catastrophes.<ref>[http://www.worldwatch.org/natural-catastrophes-2012-dominated-us-weather-extremes-0 Natural Catastrophes in 2012 Dominated by U.S. Weather Extremes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702190117/http://www.worldwatch.org/natural-catastrophes-2012-dominated-us-weather-extremes-0|date=2013-07-02}} [[Worldwatch Institute]] May 29, 2013</ref>

[[Developing country|Developing countries]] often have ineffective communication systems as well as insufficient support for [[disaster risk reduction]] and [[emergency management]].<ref name=":5" /> This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters than [[high income countries]].

=== Slow and rapid onset events ===
Natural hazards occur across different time scales as well as area scales. Tornadoes and flash floods are rapid onset events, meaning they occur with a short warning time and are short-lived. Slow onset events can also be very damaging, for example [[drought]] is a natural hazards that develops slowly, sometimes over years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-01 |title=Natural hazards and disaster risk reduction |url=https://public-old.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/focus-areas/natural-hazards-and-disaster-risk-reduction |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218182313/https://public-old.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/focus-areas/natural-hazards-and-disaster-risk-reduction |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 18, 2023 |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=public.wmo.int |language=en}}</ref>

== Impacts ==
A natural disaster may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

=== On death rates ===
[[File:Number-of-deaths-from-natural-disasters.png|thumb|Global death rate from natural disasters (1900–2022)]]Globally, the total number of deaths from natural disasters has been reduced by 75% over the last 100 years, due to the increased development of countries, increased preparedness, better education, better methods, and aid from international organizations. Since the global population has grown over the same time period, the decrease in number of deaths per capita is larger, dropping to 6% of the original amount.<ref name="Rosling2018">{{cite book | last1=Rosling | first1=H. | last2=Rosling | first2=O. | last3=Rönnlund | first3=A.R. | title=Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About the World – and Why Things Are Better Than You Think | publisher=Flatiron Books | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-250-10781-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpZNDwAAQBAJ | pages=107–109, 299–325}}</ref>

The death rate from natural disasters is highest in [[Developing country|developing countries]] due to the lower quality of building construction, infrastructure, and medical facilities.<ref name="Rosling2018" />

=== On the economy ===
[[File:Damage-costs-from-natural-disasters.png|thumb|Global damage cost from natural disasters (1980–2022)]]Global economic losses due to extreme weather, climate and water events are increasing. Costs have increased sevenfold from the 1970s to the 2010s.<ref>World Meteorological Society (WMO) (2021). [https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/57564 WMO Atlas of Mortality and Economic Losses from Weather, Climate and Water Extremes (1970–2019)]. https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/57564</ref>{{rp|16}} Direct losses from disasters have averaged above US$330 billion annually between 2015 and 2021.<ref name=":132">UNDRR (2023). [https://sendaiframework-mtr.undrr.org/publication/report-midterm-review-implementation-sendai-framework-disaster-risk-reduction-2015-2030 The Report of the Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030]. UNDRR: Geneva, Switzerland.</ref>{{rp|21}} [[Socioeconomics|Socio-economic]] factors have contributed to this trend of increasing losses, such as population growth and increased wealth.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bouwer |first=Laurens M. |title=Observed and Projected Impacts from Extreme Weather Events: Implications for Loss and Damage |date=2019 |work=Loss and Damage from Climate Change: Concepts, Methods and Policy Options |pages=63–82 |editor-last=Mechler |editor-first=Reinhard |series=Climate Risk Management, Policy and Governance |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-72026-5_3 |isbn=978-3-319-72026-5 |editor2-last=Bouwer |editor2-first=Laurens M. |editor3-last=Schinko |editor3-first=Thomas |editor4-last=Surminski |editor4-first=Swenja |doi-access=free}}</ref> This shows that increased exposure is the most important driver of economic losses. However, part of these are also due to human-induced [[Economic analysis of climate change|climate change]].<ref>Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021: [[doi:10.1017/9781009157896.013|Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766, {{doi|10.1017/9781009157896.013}}</ref>{{rp|1611}}<ref name=":12">Newman, R., Noy, I. [[doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41888-1|The global costs of extreme weather that are attributable to climate change]]. ''Nat Commun'' 14, 6103 (2023). {{doi|10.1038/s41467-023-41888-1}}</ref>

=== On the environment ===
During emergencies such as natural disasters and armed conflicts more waste may be produced, while waste management is given low priority compared with other services. Existing waste management services and infrastructures can be disrupted, leaving communities with unmanaged waste and increased littering. Under these circumstances human health and the environment are often negatively impacted.<ref name="UNEP">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-21 |title=Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics |url=http://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321122658/https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics |archive-date=2022-03-21 |access-date=2022-03-23 |publisher=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}{{CC-notice|by4}}</ref>

Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes) have the potential to generate a significant amount of waste within a short period. [[Waste management]] systems can be out of action or curtailed, often requiring considerable time and funding to restore. For example, the [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|tsunami in Japan in 2011]] produced huge amounts of debris: estimates of 5 million tonnes of waste were reported by the [[Ministry of the Environment (Japan)|Japanese Ministry of the Environment]]. Some of this waste, mostly plastic and [[styrofoam]] washed up on the coasts of Canada and the United States in late 2011. Along the west coast of the United States, this increased the amount of litter by a factor of 10 and may have transported alien species. Storms are also important generators of plastic litter. A study by Lo et al. (2020) reported a 100% increase in the amount of [[microplastics]] on beaches surveyed following a typhoon in [[Hong Kong]] in 2018.<ref name="UNEP" />

A significant amount of plastic waste can be produced during disaster relief operations. Following the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|2010 earthquake in Haiti]], the generation of waste from relief operations was referred to as a "second disaster". The United States military reported that millions of water bottles and [[styrofoam]] food packages were distributed although there was no operational waste management system. Over 700,000 plastic tarpaulins and 100,000 tents were required for emergency shelters. The increase in plastic waste, combined with poor disposal practices, resulted in open drainage channels being blocked, increasing the risk of [[disease]].<ref name="UNEP" />

Conflicts can result in large-scale displacement of communities. People living under these conditions are often provided with minimal waste management facilities. [[Burn pit]]s are widely used to dispose of mixed wastes, including plastics. Air pollution can lead to respiratory and other illnesses. For example, [[Sahrawi refugees]] have been living in five camps near [[Tindouf|Tindouf, Algeria]] for nearly 45 years. As waste collection services are underfunded and there is no recycling facility, plastics have flooded the camps' streets and surroundings. In contrast, the Azraq camp in Jordan for refugees from Syria has waste management services; of 20.7 tonnes of waste produced per day, 15% is recyclable.<ref name="UNEP" />

=== On women and vulnerable populations ===
Because of the social, political and cultural context of many places throughout the world, women are often disproportionately affected by disaster.<ref name="pmid21629495">{{cite journal |last1=Nour |first1=Nawal N |date=2011 |title=Maternal Health Considerations During Disaster Relief |journal=Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=22–27 |pmc=3100103 |pmid=21629495}}</ref> In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, more women died than men, partly due to the fact that fewer women knew how to swim.<ref name="pmid21629495" /> During and after a natural disaster, women are at increased risk of being affected by [[gender based violence]] and are increasingly vulnerable to sexual violence. Disrupted police enforcement, lax regulations, and displacement all contribute to increased risk of gender based violence and sexual assault.<ref name="pmid21629495" />

In addition to [[LGBT people]] and [[immigrants]], women are also disproportionately victimized by religion-based [[scapegoating]] for natural disasters: fanatical religious leaders or adherents may claim that a [[deity|god or gods]] are angry with women's independent, freethinking behavior, such as dressing 'immodestly', having sex or abortions.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Lord |first=Leighann |date=1 October 2019 |title=The easiest way to respond to a natural disaster? Blame God or global warming |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2015/sep/01/easiest-way-respond-natural-disaster-blame-god-global-warming |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928143012/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/commentisfree/2015/sep/01/easiest-way-respond-natural-disaster-blame-god-global-warming |archive-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> For example, [[Hindutva]] party [[Hindu Makkal Katchi]] and others blamed [[Entry of women to Sabarimala|women's struggle for the right to enter]] the [[Sabarimala]] temple for the August [[2018 Kerala floods]], purportedly inflicted by the angry god [[Ayyappan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 August 2018 |title=Kerala flood blamed on women's entry into Sabarimala by Hindu Makkal Katchi |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2018/aug/15/kerala-flood-blamed-on-womens-entry-into-sabarimala-by-hindu-makkal-katchi-1858022.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928144328/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2018/aug/15/kerala-flood-blamed-on-womens-entry-into-sabarimala-by-hindu-makkal-katchi-1858022.html |archive-date=28 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=Asmita Nandy |date=20 August 2018 |title=Hate Mongers on Twitter Blamed Women, Beef, Muslims, Christians and Communism for Causing the Kerala Floods |work=[[The Quint]] |url=https://www.thequint.com/videos/kerala-floods-women-in-sabarimala-beef-muslims-christians |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928145554/https://www.thequint.com/videos/kerala-floods-women-in-sabarimala-beef-muslims-christians |archive-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>

During and after natural disasters, routine health behaviors become interrupted. In addition, health care systems may have broken down as a result of the disaster, further reducing access to contraceptives.<ref name="pmid21629495" /> Unprotected intercourse during this time can lead to increased rates of childbirth, unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).<ref name="pmid21629495" /><ref name="pmid21375788">{{cite journal |last1=Harville |first1=Emily |last2=Xiong |first2=Xu |last3=Buekens |first3=Pierre |date=November 2010 |title=Disasters and Perinatal Health: A Systematic Review |journal=Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey |volume=65 |issue=11 |pages=713–728 |doi=10.1097/OGX.0b013e31820eddbe |pmc=3472448 |pmid=21375788}}</ref>

Pregnant women are one of the groups disproportionately affected by natural disasters. Inadequate nutrition, little access to clean water, lack of health-care services and psychological stress in the aftermath of the disaster can lead to a significant increase in maternal morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, shortage of healthcare resources during this time can convert even routine obstetric complications into emergencies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Meyers |first=Talya |date=23 December 2019 |title=Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to disasters. |work=Direct Relief |url=https://www.directrelief.org/2019/12/pregnant-women-are-particularly-vulnerable-to-disasters/ |url-status=live |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001050314/https://www.directrelief.org/2019/12/pregnant-women-are-particularly-vulnerable-to-disasters/ |archive-date=1 October 2020}}</ref>

Once a vulnerable population has experienced a disaster, the community can take many years to repair and that repair period can lead to further vulnerability. The disastrous consequences of natural disaster also affect the mental health of affected communities, often leading to post-traumatic symptoms. These increased emotional experiences can be supported through collective processing, leading to resilience and increased community engagement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kieft |first1=J. |last2=Bendell |first2=J |year=2021 |title=The responsibility of communicating difficult truths about climate influenced societal disruption and collapse: an introduction to psychological research |url=https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/5950 |url-status=live |journal=Institute for Leadership and Sustainability (IFLAS) Occasional Papers |volume=7 |pages=1–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310074519/https://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/5950/ |archive-date=2021-03-10 |access-date=2021-04-03}}</ref>

=== On governments and voting processes ===
Disasters stress government capacity, as the government tries to conduct routine as well as emergency operations.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Daniel J. |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32368 |title=Dull Disasters? How planning ahead will make a difference |last2=Dercon |first2=Stefan |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |hdl=20.500.12657/32368 |isbn=978-0-19-878557-6 |language=English |access-date=2021-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004224335/https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/32368 |archive-date=2021-10-04 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some theorists of voting behavior propose that citizens update information about government effectiveness based on their response to disasters, which affects their vote choice in the next election.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ashworth |first1=Scott |last2=Bueno de Mesquita |first2=Ethan |last3=Friedenberg |first3=Amanda |date=May 2017 |title=Accountability and Information in Elections |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/mic.20150349 |url-status=live |journal=American Economic Journal: Microeconomics |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=95–138 |doi=10.1257/mic.20150349 |s2cid=17843113 |issn=1945-7669 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004225730/https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257%2Fmic.20150349 |archive-date=2021-10-04 |access-date=2022-04-18}}</ref> Indeed, some evidence, based on data from the United States, reveals that incumbent parties can lose votes if citizens perceives them as responsible for a poor disaster response<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gasper |first1=John T. |last2=Reeves |first2=Andrew |date=April 2011 |title=Make It Rain? Retrospection and the Attentive Electorate in the Context of Natural Disasters |journal=American Journal of Political Science |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=340–355 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00503.x |jstor=23025055}}</ref> or gain votes based on perceptions of well-executed relief work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Healy |first1=Andrew |last2=Malhotra |first2=Neil |date=August 2009 |title=Myopic Voters and Natural Disaster Policy |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/myopic-voters-and-natural-disaster-policy/039708A3223EC114365ADF56F1D26423 |url-status=live |journal=American Political Science Review |language=en |volume=103 |issue=3 |pages=387–406 |doi=10.1017/S0003055409990104 |issn=1537-5943 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004224325/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/myopic-voters-and-natural-disaster-policy/039708A3223EC114365ADF56F1D26423 |archive-date=2021-10-04 |access-date=2021-10-04 |s2cid=32422707}}</ref> The latter study also finds, however, that voters do not reward incumbent parties for [[disaster preparedness]], which may end up affecting government incentives to invest in such preparedness.<ref name=":0" />

== Disasters caused by geological hazards ==
===Landslides===
[[File:Wikipedia Landslide.jpg|thumb|A landslide in [[San Clemente, California]] in 1966]]
{{see also|List of landslides|List of avalanches}}
{{excerpt|Landslide|file=no}}

=== Avalanches ===
[[File:Avalanche on Everest.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|A powder snow avalanche in the [[Himalayas]] near [[Mount Everest]].]]
{{excerpt|Avalanche|paragraphs=1-2, 5|file=no}}

===Earthquakes===
{{main|Earthquake}}
{{see also|Lists of earthquakes|Soil liquefaction}}
[[File:The ruins of San Francisco, still smoldering after the 1906 earthquake, taken from the tower of the Union Ferry Building - NARA - 531006.jpg|thumb|[[San Francisco]] was devastated by an [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|earthquake]] in 1906]]
[[File:Earthquake-deaths.png|thumb|Global number of deaths from earthquake (1960–2017)]]
An [[earthquake]] is the result of a sudden release of energy in the [[Earth's crust]] that creates [[seismic wave]]s. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking, and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquakes are caused by slippage within geological [[Fault (geology)|faults]]. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the seismic [[Hypocenter|focus]]. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the [[epicenter]]. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife – it is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, [[tsunami]]s and volcanic eruptions, that cause death. Many of these can possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and planning.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

===Sinkholes===
{{main|Sinkhole}}
{{see also|List of sinkholes}}A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. When natural erosion, human mining or underground excavation makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a [[sinkhole]].

=== Coastal erosion ===
{{see also|Coastal management|Landforms#Coastal and oceanic landforms|Coastal development hazards|Coastal geography|Coastal engineering|Coastal morphodynamics|Bioerosion|l2=Coastal and oceanic landforms}}

[[Coastal erosion]] is a physical process by which shorelines in coastal areas around the world shift and change, primarily in response to waves and currents that can be influenced by tides and storm surge.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Komar |first1=Paul D. |title=CRC handbook of coastal processes and erosion |date=1983 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9780849302251}}</ref> Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes (see also [[beach evolution]]) as well as from episodic events such as [[tropical cyclone]]s or other severe storm events. Coastal erosion is one of the most significant coastal hazards. It forms a threat to infrastructure, capital assets and property.

===Volcanic eruptions===
{{see also|Types of volcanic eruptions|List of largest volcanic eruptions}}
[[File:007_Volcano_eruption_of_Litli-Hrútur_in_Iceland_in_2023_Video_by_Giles_Laurent.webm|thumb|Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcano eruption of Litli-Hrútur, 2023]]
[[Volcano]]es can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. One hazard is the [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruption]] itself, with the force of the explosion and falling rocks able to cause harm. [[Lava]] may also be released during the eruption of a volcano; as it leaves the volcano, it can destroy buildings, plants and animals due to its extreme heat. In addition, [[volcanic ash]] may form a cloud (generally after cooling) and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water, this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantities, ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight. Even small quantities will harm humans if inhaled – it has the consistency of ground glass and therefore causes laceration to the throat and lungs. Volcanic ash can also cause abrasion damage to moving machinery such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is [[pyroclastic flows]], consisting of a cloud of hot ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that [[Pompeii]] was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A [[lahar]] is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 [[Tangiwai disaster]] was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 [[Armero tragedy]] in which the town of Armero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

Volcanoes rated at 8 (the highest level) on the [[volcanic explosivity index]] are known as [[supervolcano]]es. According to the [[Toba catastrophe theory]], 75,000 to 80,000 years ago, a supervolcanic eruption at what is now [[Lake Toba]] in [[Sumatra]] reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Human Ancestors Were an Endangered Species |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/human-ancestors-were-endangered-species |work=Science |publisher=AAAS |date=19 January 2010 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=8 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208042514/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/01/human-ancestors-were-endangered-species |url-status=live }}</ref> and killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. However, there is considerable debate regarding the veracity of this theory. The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

===Tsunami===
[[File:1755 Lisbon earthquake.jpg|thumb|right|300x300px|1755 copper engraving depicting [[Lisbon]] in ruins and in flames after the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake]]. A [[tsunami]] overwhelms the ships in the harbor.]]
{{main|Tsunami}}
{{see also|List of historical tsunamis}}

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: 津波, lit. "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: /tsuːˈnɑːmi/), also known as a seismic sea wave or tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes such as the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]], or by landslides such as the [[1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami|one in 1958 at Lituya Bay, Alaska]], or by volcanic eruptions such as the [[Minoan eruption|ancient eruption of Santorini]]. On March 11, 2011, a [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan]] and spread through the Pacific Ocean.

== Disasters caused by extreme weather hazards ==
Some of the 18 natural hazards included in the National Risk Index of FEMA<ref name=":3" /> now have a higher probability of occurring, and at higher intensity, due to the [[effects of climate change]]. This applies to heat waves, droughts, wildfire and coastal flooding.<ref>IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge and New York, pp. 3–33, {{doi|10.1017/9781009325844.001}}.</ref>{{rp|9}}

=== Hot and dry conditions ===

==== Heat waves ====
{{main|Heat wave}}

{{see also|List of heat waves}}

A heat wave is a period of unusually and excessively hot weather. Heat waves used to be rare, requiring specific combinations of [[weather]] events to take place, such as [[temperature inversion]]s, [[katabatic winds]], or other phenomena. Since the turn of this century, under the continuing pressure of global warming, many areas have experienced peaks of temperatures, along with more frequent, more intense, more prolonged warming events than ever met on record. This is notably the case in many ocean regions such as the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea and beyond - an overview. 2024. pp. 5-24 in ''CIESM Monograph 51’’ ''(F. Briand, Ed.) ISSN 1726-5886'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384727584]''</ref> On land heat waves coupled with severe winds are now causing hundreds of major wildfires every year, burning thousands of square kilometers of forests, and threatening the very heart of cities as observed in the January 2025 megafires that destroyed several sectors of Los Angeles.

==== Droughts ====
{{main|Drought}}

{{see also|List of droughts}}
{{excerpt|Drought|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

Well-known historical [[drought]]s include the 1997–2009 [[2000s Australian drought|Millennium Drought]] in Australia which led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time ([[List of desalination plants in Australia|see list]]). In 2011, the State of [[Texas]] lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year and suffered severe economic losses.<ref>{{cite web |title=Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Events &#124; National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) |url=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/events |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401025100/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/events |archive-date=2014-04-01 |access-date=2015-03-20 |website=ncdc.noaa.gov}}</ref> The drought caused the [[Bastrop County, Texas|Bastrop]] fires.

==== Duststorms ====
{{excerpt|Duststorm|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

==== Firestorms ====
{{excerpt|Firestorm|paragraphs=1|file=no}}

==== Wildfires ====
[[File:The Rim Fire in the Stanislaus National Forest near in California began on Aug. 17, 2013-0004.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|A [[Wildfires in California|wildfire]] in [[California]].]]
{{main|Wildfire}}

{{see also|List of forest fires}}

[[Wildfire]]s are large fires which often start in [[wildland]] areas. Common causes include [[lightning]] and [[drought]] but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or [[arson]]. They can spread to populated areas and thus be a threat to humans and property, as well as [[wildlife]]. One example for a notable [[wildfire]] is the 1871 [[Peshtigo Fire]] in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people.<ref>{{cite web |last=US Department of Commerce |first=NOAA |title=The Peshtigo Fire |url=https://www.weather.gov/grb/peshtigofire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425083245/https://www.weather.gov/grb/peshtigofire |archive-date=2021-04-25 |access-date=2021-04-25 |website=weather.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Massive fire burns in Wisconsin |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/massive-fire-burns-in-wisconsin |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415163821/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/massive-fire-burns-in-wisconsin |archive-date=2021-04-15 |access-date=2021-04-25 |website=History.com |date=13 November 2009 |language=en}}</ref> Another one is the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia (collectively known as "[[Black Saturday bushfires]]").<ref>{{cite web |title=2009 Victorian Bushfires {{!}} Victorian Government |url=http://www.vic.gov.au/2009-bushfires |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428081631/https://www.vic.gov.au/2009-bushfires |archive-date=2021-04-28 |access-date=2021-04-25 |website=vic.gov.au |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2023-02-07 |title= Black Saturday bushfires |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/black-saturday-bushfires |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423060348/https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/black-saturday-bushfires |archive-date=2021-04-23 |access-date=2021-04-25 |website=National Museum of Australia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bushfire – Black Saturday, Victoria, 2009 |url=http://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/bushfire-black-saturday-victoria-2009/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326082700/https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/bushfire-black-saturday-victoria-2009/ |archive-date=2021-03-26 |access-date=2021-04-25 |website=Australian Disaster Resilience Knowledge Hub}}</ref> In that year, a summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fueled the massive [[2009 Victorian bushfires|bushfires]] in 2009. [[Melbourne]] experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40&nbsp;°C (104&nbsp;°F), with some regional areas sweltering through much higher temperatures.

=== Storms and heavy rain ===

==== Floods ====
{{main|Flood}}
{{see also|List of floods}}[[File:Limpopo.jpg|thumb|The [[Limpopo River]] during the [[2000 Mozambique flood]]]]

A [[flood]] is an overflow of water that 'submerges' land.<ref>MSN Encarta Dictionary. [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861612277 Flood.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204203836/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861612277|date=2011-02-04}} Retrieved on 2006-12-28. 2009-10-31.</ref> The EU [[Floods Directive]] defines a flood as a temporary covering of land that is usually dry with water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Directive 2007/60/EC Chapter 1 Article2 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:288:0027:0034:EN:PDF |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106094442/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:288:0027:0034:EN:PDF |archive-date=2015-11-06 |access-date=2011-11-14}}</ref> In the sense of 'flowing water', the word may also be applied to the inflow of the [[tides]]. Flooding may result from the volume of a body of water, such as a [[river]] or [[lake]], becoming higher than usual, causing some of the water to escape its usual boundaries.<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=flood1 Flood.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824054504/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=flood1|date=2007-08-24}} Retrieved on 2009-01-09.</ref> While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, a flood is not considered significant unless the water covers land used by humans, such as a village, city or other inhabited area, roads or expanses of farmland.

==== Thunderstorms ====
[[File:Cumulonimbus NOAA gov.jpg|thumb|right|A classic anvil-shaped, and clearly-developed [[Cumulonimbus incus]]]]
{{main|Thunderstorm|Lightning}}

Severe storms, dust clouds and volcanic eruptions can generate [[lightning]]. Apart from the damage typically associated with storms, such as winds, hail and flooding, the lightning itself can damage buildings, ignite fires and kill by direct contact. Most deaths from lightning occur in the poorer countries of the Americas and Asia, where lightning is common and [[adobe]] [[mud brick]] housing provides little protection.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 July 2015 |title=Deadly lightning strike in Mexico reveals plight of poorest citizens |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/31/deadly-lightning-mexico-government-failure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106110244/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/31/deadly-lightning-mexico-government-failure |archive-date=6 January 2017 |access-date=17 December 2016 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

==== Tropical cyclone ====
{{see also|Tropical cyclones and climate change}}
[[Typhoon]], [[cyclone]], [[cyclonic storm]] and [[hurricane]] are different names for the same phenomenon: a [[tropical storm]] that forms over an ocean. It is caused by evaporated [[water]] that comes off of the [[ocean]] and becomes a [[storm]]. It is characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall and thunderstorms. The determining factor on which term is used is based on where the storm originates. In the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, the term "hurricane" is used; in the Northwest Pacific, it is referred to as a "typhoon"; a "cyclone" occurs in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

The deadliest hurricane ever was the [[1970 Bhola cyclone]]; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane was the [[Great Hurricane of 1780]], which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is [[Hurricane Katrina]], which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005. Hurricanes may [[Tropical cyclones and climate change|become more intense and produce more heavy rainfall]] as a consequence of human-induced [[climate change]].

==== Tornadoes ====
[[File:Shoal Creek Valley Alabama Tornado April 27, 2011.jpg|thumb|right|A [[2011 Shoal Creek Valley–Ohatchee tornado|killer tornado in Alabama]] photographed during the [[2011 Super Outbreak]], the most intense tornado outbreak on record.]]
{{see also|List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks}}

A [[tornado]] is a violent and dangerous rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a [[cumulonimbus cloud]], or, in rare cases, the base of a [[cumulus cloud]]. It is also referred to as a ''twister'' or a ''cyclone'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of CYCLONE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyclone |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105190603/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyclone |archive-date=2021-01-05 |access-date=2020-12-29 |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}</ref> although the word [[cyclone]] is used in meteorology in a wider sense to refer to any closed [[low pressure area|low pressure]] circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes but typically take the form of a visible [[funnel cloud|condensation funnel]], the narrow end of which touches the Earth and is often encircled by a cloud of [[debris]] and [[dust]]. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large [[tornado outbreak]]s associated with [[supercell]]s or in other large areas of thunderstorm development.

Most tornadoes have wind speeds of less than {{convert|110|mph|km/h|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=on}}, are approximately {{convert|250|ft|m|round=5|order=flip|abbr=on}} across, and travel a few kilometers before dissipating. The [[Tornado records#Largest and most powerful tornadoes|most extreme tornadoes]] can attain wind speeds of more than {{convert|300|mph|km/h|order=flip|abbr=on}}, attain a width exceeding {{convert|2|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} across, and stay on the ground for perhaps more than {{convert|100|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="fastest wind">{{cite web |author=Wurman, Joshua |date=2008-08-29 |title=Doppler on Wheels |url=http://cswr.org/dow/DOW.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205124033/http://www.cswr.org/dow/dow.htm |archive-date=2007-02-05 |access-date=2009-12-13 |publisher=Center for Severe Weather Research}}</ref><ref name="widest tornado">{{cite web |date=2005-10-02 |title=Hallam Nebraska Tornado |url=http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/archive/hallam/hallam.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820095200/http://www.crh.noaa.gov/oax/archive/hallam/hallam.php |archive-date=2014-08-20 |access-date=2009-11-15 |work=[[National Weather Service]] |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref><ref name="SPC FAQ">{{cite web |author=Roger Edwards |date=2006-04-04 |title=The Online Tornado FAQ |url=http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929185156/http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ |archive-date=2006-09-29 |access-date=2006-09-08 |work=[[National Weather Service]] |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref>

=== Cold-weather events ===
{{see also|Ice storm|Cold wave}}

==== Blizzards ====
[[File:Elkton, Maryland 2009 Blizzard.jpg|thumb|right|300x300px|A [[blizzard]] in [[Maryland]] in 2009]]
{{main|Blizzard}}

Blizzards are severe [[winter storm]]s characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir up snow that has already fallen, it is known as a [[ground blizzard]]. Blizzards can impact local economic activities, especially in regions where snowfall is rare. The [[Great Blizzard of 1888]] affected the United States, when many tons of wheat crops were destroyed. In Asia, the [[1972 Iran blizzard]] and the [[2008 Afghanistan blizzard]], were the deadliest blizzards in history; in the former, an area the size of Wisconsin was entirely buried in snow. The [[1993 Storm of the Century|1993 Superstorm]] originated in the Gulf of Mexico and traveled north, causing damage in 26 American states as well as in Canada and leading to more than 300 deaths.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.n-d-a.org/snow-hail-storm.php|title=Natural Hazards – Snow & Hail Storms|website=n-d-a.org|access-date=2017-02-26|archive-date=2017-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203144851/http://www.n-d-a.org/snow-hail-storm.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Hailstorms ====
[[File:Granizo.jpg|thumb|right|A large [[hail]]stone, about {{cvt|6|cm|in|frac=2}} in diameter]]
{{main|Hail}}

{{see also|List of costly or deadly hailstorms}}

Hail is precipitation in the form of ice that does not melt before it hits the ground. Hailstorms are produced by thunderstorms. Hailstones usually measure between {{convert|5|and|150|mm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} in diameter. These can damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to [[farm]] fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit [[Munich]], Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about $2 billion in [[insurance]] claims.

== Multi-hazard analysis ==
Each of the natural hazard types outlined above have very different characteristics, in terms of the spatial and temporal scales they influence, hazard frequency and [[return period]], and measures of intensity and impact. These complexities result in "single-hazard" assessments being commonplace, where the hazard potential from one particular hazard type is constrained. In these examples, hazards are often treated as isolated or independent. An alternative is a "multi-hazard" approach which seeks to identify all possible natural hazards and their interactions or interrelationships.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kappes |first1=Melanie S. |last2=Keiler |first2=Margreth |last3=von Elverfeldt |first3=Kirsten |last4=Glade |first4=Thomas |year=2012 |title=Challenges of analyzing multi-hazard risk: a review |url=https://boris.unibe.ch/17542/1/Kappes2012_Article_ChallengesOfAnalyzingMulti-haz.pdf |journal=Natural Hazards |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=1925–1958 |doi=10.1007/s11069-012-0294-2 |bibcode=2012NatHa..64.1925K |s2cid=108636952}}</ref><ref name="Gilletal2014">{{cite journal |last1=Gill |first1=Joel C. |last2=Malamud |first2=Bruce D. |date=December 2014 |title=Reviewing and visualizing the interactions of natural hazards |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/reviewing-and-visualizing-the-interactions-of-natural-hazards(614b146d-63d1-48a0-944a-e87a4a6ed464).html |journal=[[Reviews of Geophysics]] |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=680–722 |bibcode=2014RvGeo..52..680G |doi=10.1002/2013RG000445 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Many examples exist of one natural hazard triggering or increasing the probability of one or more other natural hazards. For example, an [[earthquake]] may trigger [[landslides]], whereas a [[wildfire]] may increase the probability of landslides being generated in the future.<ref name="Gilletal2014" />  A detailed review of such interactions across 21 natural hazards identified 90 possible interactions, of varying likelihood and spatial importance.<ref name="Gilletal2014" />  There may also be interactions between these natural hazards and [[anthropic]] processes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reviewing and visualising relationships between anthropic processes and natural hazards within a multi-hazard framework |url=https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2014/EGU2014-3049.pdf |access-date=10 September 2023 |website=Copernicus Office}}</ref>  For example, [[groundwater]] abstraction may trigger [[groundwater-related subsidence]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Land Subsidence |url=http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwlandsubside.html |access-date=11 May 2017 |publisher=USGS Water Science School}}</ref>

Effective [[hazard analysis]] in any given area (e.g., for the purposes of [[disaster risk reduction]]) should ideally include an examination of all relevant hazards and their interactions. To be of most use for risk reduction, hazard analysis should be extended to [[risk assessment]] wherein the vulnerability of the built environment to each of the hazards is taken into account. This step is well developed for [[seismic risk]], where the possible effect of future earthquakes on structures and infrastructure is assessed, as well as for risk from [[Wind engineering|extreme wind]] and to a lesser extent [[Flood risk assessment|flood risk]]. For other types of natural hazard the calculation of risk is more challenging, principally because of the lack of functions linking the intensity of a hazard and the probability of different levels of damage (fragility curves).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douglas |first=J. |date=2007-04-05 |title=Physical vulnerability modelling in natural hazard risk assessment |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00330925/file/nhess-7-283-2007.pdf |journal=Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=283–288 |bibcode=2007NHESS...7..283D |doi=10.5194/nhess-7-283-2007 |issn=1684-9981 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Responses ==
{{Main|Disaster response|Emergency management}}

Disaster management is a main function of [[Civil defense|civil protection (or civil defense)]] authorities. It should address all four of the [[Emergency management#Phases and personal activities|phases of disasters]]: mitigation and prevention, disaster response, recovery and preparedness.[[File:Haiti earthquake damage.jpg|thumb|Haiti earthquake damage]]

=== Mitigation and prevention ===
{{Excerpt|Emergency management#Mitigation strategy|paragraphs=2|file=0}}

==== Disaster risk reduction ====
{{excerpt|Disaster risk reduction}}

===Response===
{{Excerpt|Disaster response|paragraphs=1|file=0}}

=== Recovery ===
[[File:Driving through flash flood.jpg|thumb|A car driving on a flooded road in [[Melbourne]], Australia.]]
{{Excerpt|Emergency management#Recovery|paragraphs=1,2|file=0}}

=== Preparedness ===
{{Excerpt|Emergency management#Preparedness|paragraphs=1|file=0}}

== Society and culture ==

=== International law ===

The [[1951 Refugee Convention]]<ref>{{cite web |title=The 1951 Refugee Convention |url=https://www.unhcr.org/us/about-unhcr/overview/1951-refugee-convention |website=unhcr.org |publisher=UNHCR US |access-date=23 December 2024 |language=en-us}}</ref> and its 1967 Protocol are the cornerstone documents for refugee protection and population displacement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law and policy for protection and climate action |url=https://www.unhcr.org/us/what-we-do/build-better-futures/climate-change-and-displacement/law-and-policy-protection |website=unhcr.org |publisher=UNHCR US |access-date=23 December 2024 |language=en-us}}</ref> The 1998 UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and 2009 [[Kampala Convention]] protect people displaced due to natural disasters.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-329056 |title=Towards recognition and protection of forced environmental migrants in the public international law: Refugee or IDPs umbrella? |last1=Terminski |first1=Bogumil |date=2012 |access-date=2020-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418223713/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/32905 |archive-date=2022-04-18 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=May 2019 |title=2009 Kampala Convention on IDPs |url=https://www.unhcr.org/5cd569877.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211144624/https://www.unhcr.org/5cd569877.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2021 |access-date=3 September 2021 |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees }}</ref>

==See also==

* {{annotated link|Act of God}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental disaster}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental emergency}}
* {{annotated link|Global catastrophic risk}}
* {{annotated link|List of environmental disasters}}
* {{annotated link|World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction}}
* {{annotated link|Wild animal suffering}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Natural disasters}}
{{commons}}
* {{cite web
 | url=http://go.worldbank.org/BCQUXRXOW0
 | archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100409011106/http://go.worldbank.org/BCQUXRXOW0
 | url-status=dead
 | archive-date=2010-04-09
 | title=World Bank's Hazard Risk Management
 | publisher=World Bank
 | access-date=2007-06-30
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions
 | title=Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
 | publisher=NCDC
}}
* {{cite web
 | url=http://www.gdacs.org
 | title=Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System
 | publisher=[[European Commission]] and [[United Nations]] website initiative
}}
{{Disasters}}
{{Natural disasters}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Natural disasters| ]]
[[Category:Natural hazards| ]]
[[Category:Disasters]]