Editing Nationalism

{{short description|Political ideology that promotes the interests of a nation}}
{{Distinguish|Patriotism}}
{{about|the ideology||Nationalist (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2022}}
{{nationalism sidebar|all}}
{{politics}}
'''Nationalism''' is an idea or movement that holds that the [[nation]] should be congruent with the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Hechter|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3jnCwAAQBAJ|title=Containing Nationalism|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198297420|pages=7|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last=Gellner|first=Ernest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPHpUSUAsF0C|title=Nations and Nationalism|date=1983|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801475009 |pages=1|language=en}}</ref> As a movement, it presupposes the existence<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brubaker|first=Rogers|title=Nationalism reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the New Europe|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57649-9|pages=15 |language=en}}</ref> and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,<ref name="Smith1">[[Anthony D. Smith|Smith, Anthony]]. ''Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History''. [[Polity (publisher)|Polity]], 2010. pp. 9, 25–30; {{cite book | last= James | first= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | title= Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community | url= https://www.academia.edu/40353321 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London | year= 1996 | access-date= 15 September 2019 | archive-date= 6 October 2021 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211006234455/https://www.academia.edu/40353321 | url-status= live }}</ref> especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining its [[sovereignty]] ([[self-governance]]) over its perceived [[homeland]] to create a [[nation-state]]. It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference ([[self-determination]]), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a [[polity]],<ref name="Finlayson">{{cite book|last=Finlayson|first=Alan|chapter=5. Nationalism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PsjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|editor1-last=Geoghegan|editor1-first=Vincent|editor2-last=Wilford|editor2-first=Rick|title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PsjAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317804338|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4PsjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100–102]}}</ref> and that the nation is the only rightful source of [[Politics|political]] power.<ref name="Smith1" /><ref>Yack, Bernard. ''Nationalism and the Moral Psychology of Community''. University of Chicago Press, 2012. p. 142</ref> It further aims to build and maintain a single [[national identity]], based on a combination of shared social characteristics such as [[culture]], [[ethnicity]], [[geographic location]], [[language]], [[politics]] (or the [[government]]), [[religion]], [[traditions]] and belief in a shared singular [[history]],<ref name = Triandafyllidou>{{cite journal | last1 = Triandafyllidou | first1 = Anna | year = 1998 | title = National Identity and the Other | journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–612 | doi=10.1080/014198798329784}}</ref><ref name = Smith>{{cite book | last1 = Smith | first1 = A.D. | year = 1981 | title = The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref> and to promote national unity or [[solidarity]].<ref name="Smith1"/> There are various definitions of a "nation", which leads to different [[types of nationalism]].<ref name=":12" /> The two main divergent forms are [[ethnic nationalism]] and [[civic nationalism]].

Beginning in the late 18th century, particularly with the [[French Revolution]] and the spread of the principle of [[popular sovereignty]] or [[self determination]], the idea that "the people" should rule is developed by political theorists.<ref name="oxford_dict">{{cite book |last1=Adeney |first1=Katharine |editor1-last=Iain |editor1-first=McLean |editor2-last=McMillan |editor2-first=Alistair |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780191727191 |edition=3rd |chapter=Nationalism}}</ref> Three main theories have been used to explain the emergence of nationalism:
#[[Primordialism]] developed alongside nationalism during the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]] and held that there have always been nations. This view has since been rejected by most scholars,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coakley |first1=John |title='Primordialism' in nationalism studies: theory or ideology?: 'Primordialism' in nationalism studies |journal=Nations and Nationalism |date=April 2018 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=327–347 |doi=10.1111/nana.12349 |s2cid=149288553 |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/primordialism-in-nationalism-studies-theory-or-ideology(28e99592-2d86-421f-9fd3-2c4517aa7278).html |access-date=22 November 2021 |archive-date=17 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217061210/https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/primordialism-in-nationalism-studies-theory-or-ideology |url-status=live |issn=1354-5078 }}</ref> who view nations as [[Social constructionism|socially constructed]] and historically contingent.<ref name="Mylonas" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Mylonas |first1=Harris |last2=Tudor |first2=Maya |date=2023 |title=Varieties of Nationalism: Communities, Narratives, Identities |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/varieties-of-nationalism/479019877D9D7F0504AD64F6D9AF102B |journal=Cambridge University Press |language=en |doi=10.1017/9781108973298 |isbn=9781108973298 |s2cid=259646325 |quote=a broad scholarly consensus that the nation is a recent and imagined identity dominates political science |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707110553/https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/varieties-of-nationalism/479019877D9D7F0504AD64F6D9AF102B |url-status=live }}</ref> Perennialism, a softer version of primordialism which accepts that nations are modern phenomena but with long historical roots, is subject to academic debate.<ref>{{Citation |last=Garner |first=Renaud-Philippe |title=Nationalism |date=2022-05-18 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |url=https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-2039 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.2039 |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7}}</ref>
#[[Modernization theory (nationalism)|Modernization theory]], currently the most commonly accepted theory of nationalism,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woods |first1=Eric Taylor |last2=Schertzer |first2=Robert |last3=Kaufmann |first3=Eric |title=Ethno-national conflict and its management |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |date=April 2011 |volume=49 |issue=2 |page=154 |doi=10.1080/14662043.2011.564469|s2cid=154796642 }}</ref> adopts a [[constructivism (ethnic politics)|constructivist]] approach and proposes that nationalism emerged due to processes of [[Modernization theory|modernization]], such as industrialization, urbanization, and mass education, which made national consciousness possible.<ref name="Mylonas"/><ref name="Deanna Smith">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Deanna |year=2007 |title=Nationalism |edition=2nd |publisher=Polity |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0745651286}}</ref> Proponents of this theory describe nations as "[[imagined communities]]" and nationalism as an "[[invented tradition]]" in which shared sentiment provides a form of collective identity and binds individuals together in political solidarity.<ref name="Mylonas">{{cite journal |last1=Mylonas |first1=Harris |last2=Tudor |first2=Maya |date=2021 |title=Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=109–132 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Anderson"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hobsbawm |first1=E. |title=The Invention of Tradition |last2=Ranger |first2=T. |date=1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> 
#[[Ethnosymbolism]] explains nationalism as a product of symbols, myths, and traditions, and is associated with the work of [[Anthony D. Smith]].<ref name="oxford_dict"/> 

The moral value of nationalism, the relationship between nationalism and [[patriotism]], and the compatibility of nationalism and [[cosmopolitanism]] are all subjects of philosophical debate.<ref name="Mylonas"/> Nationalism can be combined with diverse political goals and ideologies such as [[conservatism]] ([[national conservatism]] and [[right-wing populism]]) or [[socialism]] ([[left-wing nationalism]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bunce |first=Valerie |date=2000 |title=Comparative Democratization: Big and Bounded Generalizations |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=33 |issue=6–7 |pages=703–734 |doi=10.1177/001041400003300602 |s2cid=153875363 |issn=0010-4140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kocher |first1=Matthew Adam |last2=Lawrence |first2=Adria K. |last3=Monteiro |first3=Nuno P. |date=2018|title=Nationalism, Collaboration, and Resistance: France under Nazi Occupation |journal=International Security |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=117–150 |doi=10.1162/isec_a_00329 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/709436 |s2cid=57561272 |issn=1531-4804 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonikowski |first1=Bart |last2=Feinstein |first2=Yuval |last3=Bock |first3=Sean |date=2021 |title=The Partisan Sorting of "America": How Nationalist Cleavages Shaped the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/717103 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |language=en |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=492–561 |doi=10.1086/717103 |s2cid=246017190 |issn=0002-9602 |access-date=20 July 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119152427/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/717103 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="varieties">Bonikowski, Bart and [[Paul DiMaggio|DiMaggio, Paul]] (2016) [http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bonikowski/files/bonikowski_and_dimaggio_-_varieties_of_american_popular_nationalism.pdf "Varieties of American Popular Nationalism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307231645/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bonikowski/files/bonikowski_and_dimaggio_-_varieties_of_american_popular_nationalism.pdf |date=7 March 2021 }}. ''[[American Sociological Review]]'', 81(5): 949–980.</ref> In practice, nationalism is seen as positive or negative depending on its ideology and outcomes. Nationalism has been a feature of movements for freedom and justice,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wimmer |first=Andreas |date=2019 |title=Why Nationalism Works |language=en-US |work=Foreign Affairs |issue=March/April 2019 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2019-02-12/why-nationalism-works |issn=0015-7120 |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406053542/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2019-02-12/why-nationalism-works |url-status=live }}</ref> has been associated with cultural revivals,<ref name="Smith-culture">[[Anthony D. Smith|Smith, Anthony]]. ''Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History''. [[Polity (publisher)|Polity]], 2010. pp. 6–7, 30–31, 37</ref> and encourages pride in national achievements.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nairn |first1=Tom |last2=James |first2=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism |url=https://www.academia.edu/1642325 |year=2005 |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London and New York |access-date=2 December 2017 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818025820/https://www.academia.edu/1642325 |url-status=live}}</ref> It has also been used to legitimize racial, ethnic, and religious divisions, suppress or attack minorities, undermine human rights and democratic traditions,<ref name="Mylonas" /> and start wars, being frequently cited as a cause of both world wars.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2012/06/19/how-significant-is-nationalism-as-a-cause-of-war/ |title=How Significant is Nationalism as a Cause of War? |author=James Bingham |date=June 19, 2012 |quote=Direct causality can be drawn between nationalism and war. |access-date=19 January 2024 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119124848/https://www.e-ir.info/2012/06/19/how-significant-is-nationalism-as-a-cause-of-war/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Terminology ==
[[File:"Onward to Victory", World War I Allied propaganda postcard.jpg|thumb|A postcard from 1916 showing [[national personification]]s of some of the [[Allies of World War I]], each holding a national flag]]
[[File:381px-Grotius de jure 1631.jpg|thumb|Title page from the second edition (Amsterdam 1631) of ''De jure belli ac pacis'']]
The terminological use of "nations", "sovereignty" and associated concepts were significantly refined with the writing by [[Hugo Grotius]] of ''[[De jure belli ac pacis]]'' in the early 17th century.{{How|date=November 2023}} Living in the times of the [[Eighty Years' War]] between [[Spain]] and the Netherlands and the [[Thirty Years' War]] between Catholic and Protestant European nations, Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations in the context of oppositions stemming from religious differences. The word ''nation'' was also applied before 1800 in Europe in reference to the inhabitants of a country as well as to collective identities that could include shared history, law, language, political rights, religion and traditions, in a sense more akin to the modern conception.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gat |first=Azar |date=2012 |title=Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=214|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HK8TulTJpGAC|isbn=978-1107007857 }}</ref>

''Nationalism'' as derived from the noun designating 'nations' is a newer word; in the English language, dating to around 1798.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Bertier de Sauvigny |first1=Guillaume |title=Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism: The Birth of Three Words |journal=The Review of Politics |date=April 1970 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=147–166 |jstor=1406513}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nationalism |title=Nationalism|website=merriam-webster.com|access-date=9 November 2016|archive-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107175319/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nationalism|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=This is a dictionary|date=November 2023}} The term gained wider prominence in the 19th century.<ref>See Norman Rich, ''The age of nationalism and reform, 1850–1890'' (1970).</ref> The term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. [[Glenda Sluga]] notes that "The twentieth century, a time of profound disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of [[globalism]]."<ref>Glenda Sluga, ''Internationalism in the Age of Nationalism'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013) ch 1</ref>

Academics define nationalism as a political principle that holds that the nation and state should be congruent.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorski|first=Philip S.|date=2000|title=The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of Modernist Theories of Nationalism |journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=105|issue=5|pages=1432–1433|doi=10.1086/210435 |jstor=3003771|s2cid=144002511 |issn=0002-9602}}</ref> According to Lisa Weeden, nationalist ideology presumes that "the people" and the state are congruent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wedeen|first=Lisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vENa-ZYneFYC|title=Peripheral Visions: Publics, Power, and Performance in Yemen |date=2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226877921|pages=8|language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
{{further|Nationalist historiography}}
===Intellectual origins===
[[Anthony D. Smith]] describes how intellectuals played a primary role in generating [[Cultural nationalism|cultural perceptions of nationalism]] and providing the ideology of political nationalism:{{Blockquote |text=Wherever one turns in Europe, their seminal position in generating and analysing the concepts, myths, symbols and ideology of nationalism is apparent. This applies to the first appearance of the core doctrine and to the antecedent concepts of national character, genius of the nation and national will.<ref>Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.94.</ref>}}

Smith posits the challenges posed to traditional religion and society in the [[Age of Revolution]] propelled many intellectuals to "discover alternative principles and concepts, and a new mythology and symbolism, to legitimate and ground human thought and action".<ref>Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.96.</ref> He discusses the simultaneous concept of 'historicism' to describe an emerging belief in the birth, growth, and decay of specific peoples and cultures, which became "increasingly attractive as a framework for inquiry into the past and present and [...] an explanatory principle in elucidating the meaning of events, past and present".<ref>Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.87.</ref>

The Prussian scholar [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] (1744–1803) originated the term{{clarify|which term?|date=March 2024}} in 1772 in his "Treatise on the Origin of Language" stressing the role of a common language.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Christopher Dandeker |title=Nationalism and Violence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GlBEwplB1r4C&pg=PA52 |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=52 |isbn=978-1412829359}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Herder on Language |url=http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/sstopics/slovaklawsonlanguage/Herder_on_Language.pdf |access-date=30 June 2010 |last=Votruba |first=Martin |work=Slovak Studies Program |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |archive-date=24 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124020036/http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/sstopics/slovaklawsonlanguage/Herder_on_Language.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> He attached exceptional importance to the concepts of nationality and of patriotism {{spaced ndash}} "he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole world about himself", whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national".<ref>{{Cite book|title= The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3qCIzooCRlwC&q=nationalism+pejorative&pg=PA260| author= T.C.W. Blanning|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2003|pages= 259–260 | isbn= 978-0199265619}}</ref> [[Erica Benner]] identifies Herder as the first philosopher to explicitly suggest "that identities based on language should be regarded as the primary source of legitimate political authority or locus of political resistance".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benner |first1=Erica |editor1-last=Breuilly |editor1-first=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-876820-3 |page=42 |chapter=Nationalism: Intellectual Origins}}</ref> Herder also encouraged the creation of a common cultural and language policy amongst the [[Holy Roman Empire|separate German states]].{{sfn|Benner|2013|p=43}}

===Dating the emergence of nationalism===
Scholars frequently place the beginning of nationalism in the late 18th century or early 19th century with the [[United States Declaration of Independence|American Declaration of Independence]] or with the [[French Revolution]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Roeder |first=Philip G. |title=Where Nation-States Come From: Institutional Change in the Age of Nationalism |date=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691134673 |pages=5–6 |jstor=j.ctt7t07k}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Lloyd |title=Nationalism in Europe and America: Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 |date=2011 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0807872000 |jstor=10.5149/9780807869055_kramer}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Hans |date=1939 |title=The Nature of Nationalism |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400037618/type/journal_article |journal=American Political Science Review |language=en |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1001–1021 |doi=10.2307/1948728 |jstor=1948728 |s2cid=144176353 |issn=0003-0554 |quote=Nationalism as we understand it is not older than the second half of the eighteenth century. Its first great manifestation was the French Revolution}}</ref> though there is ongoing debate about its existence in varying forms during the [[Nationalism in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] and [[Nationalism in Antiquity|even antiquity]].<ref name=":13">{{Citation |title=Theoretical Considerations: Nationalism and Ethnicity in Antiquity |date=2006 |work=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |pages=3, 11–13 |editor-last=Goodblatt |editor-first=David |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/theoretical-considerations-nationalism-and-ethnicity-in-antiquity/CB4441D91310FB3557F79891F6AE8564 |access-date=2024-06-14 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511499067.002 |isbn=978-0-521-86202-8}}</ref> 

The consensus is that nationalism as a concept was firmly established by the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gregorio F. Zaide|title=World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kq512SmGMIsC&pg=PA274|year=1965|publisher=.|page=274|isbn=978-9712314728}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Calhoun |first=Craig |date=1993 |title=Nationalism and Ethnicity |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=19 |pages=211–239 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.19.1.211}}</ref><ref name="Zimmer 2003 p. 5">{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=O. |title=Nationalism in Europe, 1890–1940 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |series=Studies in European History |year=2003 |isbn=978-1403943880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FWIdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=14 May 2020 |page=5}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In histories of nationalism, the [[French Revolution]] (1789) is seen as an important starting point, not only for its impact on [[French nationalism]] but even more for its impact on Germans and Italians and on European intellectuals.<ref>Raymond Pearson, ed., ''The Long-man companion to European nationalism 1789–1920'' (2014) p. xi, with details on each country large and small.</ref> The template of nationalism, as a method for mobilizing public opinion around a new state based on popular sovereignty, went back further than 1789: philosophers such as [[Rousseau]] and [[Voltaire]], whose ideas influenced the French Revolution, had themselves been influenced or encouraged by the example of earlier constitutionalist liberation movements, notably the [[Corsican Republic]] (1755–1768) and [[American Revolution]] (1775–1783).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nationalism in Europe and America {{!}} Lloyd S. Kramer {{!}} University of North Carolina Press|language=en-US|work=University of North Carolina Press|url=https://www.uncpress.org/book/9780807872000/nationalism-in-europe-and-america/|access-date=12 October 2017|archive-date=13 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013013941/https://www.uncpress.org/book/9780807872000/nationalism-in-europe-and-america/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to the [[Industrial Revolution]], there was an emergence of an integrated, nation-encompassing economy and a national [[public sphere]], where British people began to mobilize on a state-wide scale, rather than just in the smaller units of their province, town or family.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Sources of Social Power, Volume 2|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-DmpXJ60UzsC|author= Michael Mann|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 2012| isbn=9781107031180 }}</ref>  The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century and was actively promoted by the British government and by the writers and intellectuals of the time.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UiTYQ_9ZhakC|author= Gerald Newman|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|year= 1997|isbn=978-0312176990}}</ref> [[National symbol]]s, anthems, [[national myth|myths]], flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The [[Union Jack]] was adopted in 1801 as the national one.<ref>Nick Groom, ''The Union Jack: The Story of the British Flag'' (2007).</ref> [[Thomas Arne]] composed the patriotic song "[[Rule, Britannia!]]" in 1740,<ref>{{cite book | last = Scholes| first = Percy A| title = The Oxford Companion to Music| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]| year = 1970| page = 897 | title-link = The Oxford Companion to Music| edition = tenth}}</ref> and the cartoonist [[John Arbuthnot]] invented the character of [[John Bull]] as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712.<ref>{{cite book |last= Newman |first= Gerald G. |title= The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740–1830 |year= 1987 |publisher= St. Martin's Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0312682477 |url= https://archive.org/details/riseofenglishnat00newm }}</ref>

The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution|French]] revolutions massively augmented the widespread appeal of patriotic nationalism.<ref name="Smith 1998">{{Cite book|last= Smith|first= Anthony D.|author-link= Anthony D. Smith|title= Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism| publisher= Routledge| location= London|year= 1998|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4O0w3ZH57KkC|isbn= 978-0415063418
}}</ref><ref>Iain McLean, Alistair McMillan, ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', "'''French Revolution'''...&nbsp;It produced the modern doctrine of nationalism, and spread it directly throughout Western Europe&nbsp;...", Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0199205165}}.</ref> Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power further established nationalism when he invaded much of Europe. Napoleon used this opportunity to spread revolutionary ideas, resulting in much of the 19th-century European Nationalism.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=171}}

Some scholars argue that variants of nationalism emerged prior to the 18th century. American philosopher and historian [[Hans Kohn]] wrote in 1944 that nationalism emerged in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=Hans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qnwbviylg6wC|title=The Idea Of Nationalism: A Study In Its Origins And Background|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1967|isbn=978-1412837293|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qnwbviylg6wC&q=%22emergence%20of%20nationalism%22 1i]|orig-date=1944}}</ref> In ''[[Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837|Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837]]'', [[Linda Colley]] explores how the role of nationalism emerged in about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. Writing shortly after [[World War I]], the popular British author [[H.G. Wells|H. G. Wells]] traced the origin of European nationalism to the aftermath of the [[Reformation]], when it filled the moral void left by the decline of Christian faith:<blockquote>[A]s the idea of Christianity as a world brotherhood of men sank into discredit because of its fatal entanglement with priestcraft and the Papacy on the one hand and with the authority of princes on the other, and the age of faith passed into our present age of doubt and disbelief, men shifted the reference of their lives from the kingdom of God and the brotherhood of mankind to these apparently more living realities, France and England, Holy Russia, Spain, Prussia.... **** In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the general population of Europe was religious and only vaguely patriotic; by the nineteenth it had become wholly patriotic.<ref name=Wells>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/45368/45368-h/45368-h.htm |title=Wells, H.G., ''The Outline of History'', Vol.2, Ch.36, §6 (New York 1920). |access-date=29 May 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521201312/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/45368/45368-h/45368-h.htm |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

=== 19th century ===
{{main|International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)}}
[[File:JV Snellman.jpg|thumb|Senator [[Johan Vilhelm Snellman]] (1806–1881), who also possessed the professions of [[philosopher]], [[journalist]] and [[author]], was one of the most influential [[Fennoman]]s and [[Finnish nationalism|Finnish nationalists]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kansallisbiografia.fi/english/person/3639|title=Etusivu|website=kansallisbiografia.fi|access-date=29 June 2020|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612210644/https://kansallisbiografia.fi/english/person/3639|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreigner.fi/opinion/mahmudul-islam/the-man-who-inspired-finns-to-be-finns/20200402183442005129.html|title=Snellman, the man who inspired Finns to be Finns|website=Foreigner.fi|date=2 April 2020|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202213/https://www.foreigner.fi/opinion/mahmudul-islam/the-man-who-inspired-finns-to-be-finns/20200402183442005129.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://valtioneuvosto.fi/-/prime-minister-vanhanen-at-the-celebration-of-j-v-snellman|title=Prime Minister Vanhanen at the Celebration of J.V. Snellman|website=Valtioneuvosto|date=12 May 2006|access-date=29 June 2020|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319081838/https://valtioneuvosto.fi/-/prime-minister-vanhanen-at-the-celebration-of-j-v-snellman|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://finlandtoday.fi/five-facts-that-you-didnt-know-about-j-v-snellman/|title=Five Facts That You Didn't Know About J.V. Snellman|first=Tony|last=Öhberg|access-date=29 June 2020|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319081838/https://finlandtoday.fi/five-facts-that-you-didnt-know-about-j-v-snellman/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Andrew Nestingen: Crime and Fantasy in Scandinavia: Fiction, Film and Social Change. University of Washington Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-8763507936}}.</ref>]]
The political development of nationalism and the push for [[popular sovereignty]] culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of [[World War I]].<ref>{{cite book|author=John Horne|title=A Companion to World War I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&pg=PA21|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pages=21–22|isbn=978-1119968702|access-date=22 November 2016|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427155357/https://books.google.com/books?id=EjZHLXRKjtEC&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gillette | first1 = Aaron | year = 2006 | title = Why Did They Fight the Great War? A Multi-Level Class Analysis of the Causes of the First World War | journal = The History Teacher | volume = 40 | issue = 1| pages = 45–58 | doi=10.2307/30036938| jstor = 30036938 }}</ref>

Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–1806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1875877|title = Napoleon and the Age of Nationalism|journal = The Journal of Modern History|volume = 22|issue = 1|pages = 21–37|last1 = Kohn|first1 = Hans|year = 1950|doi = 10.1086/237315|s2cid = 3270766}}</ref>

English historian J. P. T. Bury argues:
<blockquote>Between 1830 and 1870 nationalism had thus made great strides. It inspired great literature, quickened scholarship, and nurtured heroes. It had shown its power both to unify and to divide. It had led to great achievements of political construction and consolidation in Germany and Italy; but it was more clear than ever a threat to the Ottoman and Habsburg empires, which were essentially multi-national. European culture had been enriched by the new vernacular contributions of little-known or forgotten peoples, but at the same time such unity as it had was imperiled by fragmentation. Moreover, the antagonisms fostered by nationalism had made not only for wars, insurrections, and local hatreds—they had accentuated or created new spiritual divisions in a nominally Christian Europe.<ref>J. P. T. Bury, "Nationalities and Nationalism," in J. P. T. Bury, ed. "The New Cambridge Modern History Vol. 10 (1830–70)" (1960) pp. 213–245 [245] [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.110153 online].</ref></blockquote>

==== France ====
{{main|French nationalism}}
{{further|French–German enmity|Revanchism}}
[[File:The Geography Lesson or "The Black Spot".jpg|thumb|A painting by [[Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville]] from 1887 depicting French students being taught about the lost provinces of [[Alsace-Lorraine]], taken by Germany in 1871]]
Nationalism in France gained early expressions in France's revolutionary government. In 1793, that government declared a mass conscription (''levée en masse'') with a call to service:
<blockquote>Henceforth, until the enemies have been driven from the territory of the Republic, all the French are in permanent requisition for army service. The young men shall go to battle; the married men shall forge arms in the hospitals; the children shall turn old linen to lint; the old men shall repair to the public places, to stimulate the courage of the warriors and preach the unity of the Republic and the hatred of kings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The People in Arms: Military Myth and National Mobilization since the French Revolution|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|editor-last=Moran|editor-first=Daniel|location=Cambridge|pages=14|editor-last2=Waldron|editor-first2=Arthur}}</ref></blockquote>

This nationalism gained pace after the French Revolution came to a close. Defeat in war, with a loss in territory, was a powerful force in nationalism. In France, revenge and return of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] was a powerful motivating force for a quarter century after their defeat by Germany in 1871. After 1895, French nationalists focused on Dreyfus and internal subversion, and the Alsace issue petered out.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Varley|title=Under the Shadow of Defeat: The War of 1870–71 in French Memory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJGFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0230582347|page=54}}</ref>

The French reaction was a famous case of [[Revanchism|''Revanchism'' ("revenge")]] which demands the return of lost territory that "belongs" to the national homeland. Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and it is often motivated by economic or geo-political factors. Extreme revanchist ideologues often represent a hawkish stance, suggesting that their desired objectives can be achieved through the positive outcome of another war. It is linked with irredentism, the conception that a part of the cultural and ethnic nation remains "unredeemed" outside the borders of its appropriate nation state. Revanchist politics often rely on the identification of a nation with a nation state, often mobilizing deep-rooted sentiments of ethnic nationalism, claiming territories outside the state where members of the ethnic group live, while using heavy-handed nationalism to mobilize support for these aims. Revanchist justifications are often presented as based on ancient or even autochthonous occupation of a territory since "time immemorial", an assertion that is usually inextricably involved in revanchism and irredentism, justifying them in the eyes of their proponents.<ref>Karine Varley, "The Taboos of Defeat: Unmentionable Memories of the Franco-Prussian War in France, 1870–1914." in Jenny Macleod, ed., ''Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) pp. 62–80.</ref>

The [[Dreyfus Affair]] in France 1894–1906 made the battle against treason and disloyalty a central theme for conservative Catholic French nationalists. Dreyfus, a Jew, was an outsider, that is in the views of intense nationalists, not a true Frenchman, not one to be trusted, not one to be given the benefit of the doubt. True loyalty to the nation, from the conservative viewpoint, was threatened by liberal and republican principles of liberty and equality that were leading the country to disaster.<ref name="google_2016_pg173">{{cite book|author=Jeremy D. Popkin|title=A History of Modern France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAk3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173|year=2016|page=173|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1315508207}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{Main|Russian nationalism}}
[[File:Памятник Тысячелетие России в Новгороде.JPG|thumb|upright|The [[Millennium of Russia]] monument which was built in 1862 in celebration of one thousand years of [[History of Russia|Russian history]]]]
Before 1815, the sense of Russian nationalism was weak—what sense there was focused on loyalty and obedience to the [[Emperor of all the Russias|tsar]]. The Russian motto "[[Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality]]" was coined by Count [[Sergey Uvarov]] and it was adopted by Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] as the official ideology of the [[Russian Empire]].<ref>Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, ''Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia 1825–1855'' (1969)</ref> Three components of Uvarov's triad were:
* [[Orthodoxy]]{{snd}}Orthodox Christianity and protection of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].
* [[Tsarist autocracy|Autocracy]]{{snd}}unconditional loyalty to the [[House of Romanov]] in return for [[paternalism|paternalist]] protection for all [[Social estates in the Russian Empire|social estates]].
* [[Nationality]] (''Narodnost'', has been also translated as ''national spirit'')<ref>{{cite book|last=Hutchings|first=Stephen C.|title=Russian Literary Culture in the Camera Age: The Word as Image|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|page=86}}</ref>{{snd}}recognition of the state-founding role on Russian nationality.

By the 1860s, as a result of educational indoctrination, and due to conservative resistance to ideas and ideologies which were transmitted from [[Western Europe]], a [[pan-Slavism|pan-Slavic movement]] had emerged and it produced both a sense of Russian nationalism and a nationalistic mission to support and protect pan-Slavism. This [[Slavophilia|Slavophile]] movement became popular in 19th-century Russia. Pan-Slavism was fueled by, and it was also the fuel for Russia's numerous [[History of the Russo-Turkish wars|wars against the Ottoman Empire]] which were waged in order to achieve the alleged goal of liberating Orthodox nationalities, such as [[Bulgarians]], [[Romanians]], [[Serbs]] and [[Greeks]], from [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]]. Slavophiles opposed the Western European influences which had been transmitted to Russia and they were also determined to protect [[Culture of Russia|Russian culture]] and traditions. [[Aleksey Khomyakov]], [[Ivan Kireyevsky]], and [[Konstantin Aksakov]] are credited with co-founding the movement.<ref>Astrid S. Tuminez, '' Russian Nationalism since 1856: Ideology and the Making of Foreign Policy'' (2000)</ref>

==== Latin America ====
{{expand section|date=January 2019}}
{{main|Latin American Wars of Independence}}
An upsurge in nationalism in Latin America in the 1810s and 1820s sparked revolutions that cost Spain nearly all of its [[Spanish Empire|colonies]] which were located there.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Nicola | year = 2006 | title = The historiography of nationalism and national identity in Latin America | journal = Nations and Nationalism | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 201–221 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2006.00237.x}}</ref> Spain was at war with Britain from 1798 to 1808, and the British Royal Navy cut off its contacts with its colonies, so nationalism flourished and trade with Spain was suspended. The colonies set up temporary governments or juntas which were effectively independent from Spain. These juntas were established as a result of Napoleon's resistance failure in Spain. They served to determine new leadership and, in colonies like Caracas, abolished the slave trade as well as the Indian tribute.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1810 Juntas Form in Caracas, Buenos Aires, Bogota and Santiago|url=https://research.kent.ac.uk/warandnation/juntas-form-in-caracas-buenos-aires-bogota-and-santiago/|access-date=20 September 2020|website=War and Nation: identity and the process of state-building in South America (1800–1840)|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411155116/https://research.kent.ac.uk/warandnation/juntas-form-in-caracas-buenos-aires-bogota-and-santiago/|url-status=live}}</ref> The division exploded between Spaniards who were born in Spain (called "peninsulares") versus those of Spanish descent born in [[New Spain]] (called "criollos" in Spanish or "[[Creole peoples|creoles]]" in English). The two groups wrestled for power, with the criollos leading the call for independence. Spain tried to use its armies to fight back but had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain and the United States worked against Spain, enforcing the [[Monroe Doctrine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Monroe Doctrine (1823) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/monroe-doctrine |website=National Archives |date=25 June 2021 |access-date=16 June 2023 |archive-date=21 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621172605/https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/monroe-doctrine |url-status=live }}</ref> Spain lost all of its American colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, in a [[Spanish American wars of independence|complex series of revolts]] from 1808 to 1826.<ref>John Lynch, ''The Spanish American Revolutions 1808–1826'' (2nd ed. 1986)</ref>

==== Germany ====
{{main|German nationalism}}
[[File:Barricade bei der Universität am 26ten Mai 1848 in Wien.jpg|thumb|Revolutionaries in [[Vienna]] with [[Flag of Germany|German tricolor flags]], May 1848]]
In the German states west of Prussia, [[Napoleon]] abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806.<ref>Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds. ''The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).</ref> He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. His organization of the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism.

Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity.<ref>Karen Hagemann, "Of  'manly valor' and 'German Honor': nation, war, and masculinity in the age of the Prussian uprising against Napoleon." ''Central European History'' 30#2 (1997): 187–220.</ref> It was Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] who achieved German unification through a series of highly successful short wars against Denmark, Austria and France which thrilled the pan-German nationalists in the smaller German states. They fought in his wars and eagerly joined the new German Empire, which Bismarck ran as a force for balance and peace in Europe after 1871.<ref>Hagen Schulze, ''The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763–1867'' (Cambridge UP, 1991).</ref>

In the 19th century, German nationalism was promoted by Hegelian-oriented academic historians who saw Prussia as the true carrier of the German spirit, and the power of the state as the ultimate goal of nationalism. The three main historians were [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] (1808–1884), [[Heinrich von Sybel]] (1817–1895) and [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] (1834–1896). Droysen moved from liberalism to an intense nationalism that celebrated Prussian Protestantism, efficiency, progress, and reform, in striking contrast to Austrian Catholicism, impotency and backwardness. He idealized the Hohenzollern kings of Prussia. His large-scale ''History of Prussian Politics'' (14 vol 1855–1886) was foundational for nationalistic students and scholars. Von Sybel founded and edited the leading academic history journal, ''[[Historische Zeitschrift]]'' and as the director of the Prussian state archives published massive compilations that were devoured by scholars of nationalism.<ref>Louis L. Snyder, ''Encyclopedia of Nationalism'' (1990) pp. 77–78, 381–382.</ref>

The most influential of the German nationalist historians, was Treitschke who had an enormous influence on elite students at Heidelberg and Berlin universities.<ref>Adolf Hausrath, ed. ''Treitschke, his doctrine of German destiny and of international relations: together with a study of his life and work'' (1914) [https://books.google.com/books?id=z-yAAAAAMAAJ online edition]</ref> Treitschke vehemently attacked parliamentarianism, socialism, pacifism, the English, the French, the Jews, and the internationalists. The core of his message was the need for a strong, unified state—a unified Germany under Prussian supervision. "It is the highest duty of the State to increase its power," he stated. Although he was a descendant of a Czech family, he considered himself not Slavic but German: "I am 1000 times more the patriot than a professor."<ref>Snyder, ''Encyclopedia of Nationalism'' (1990) pp. 399–401</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-004055, Eger, Besuch Adolf Hitlers.jpg|thumb|[[Adolf Hitler]] being welcomed by a crowd in [[Sudetenland]], where the pro-Nazi [[Sudeten German Party]] gained 88% of ethnic-German votes in May 1938<ref>{{citation|last1=Hruška|first1=Emil|title=Boj o pohraničí: Sudetoněmecký Freikorps v roce 1938|publisher=Nakladatelství epocha, Pražská vydavatelská společnost|place=Prague|edition=1st|year=2013|page=11}}</ref>]]
German nationalism, expressed through the ideology of [[Nazism]], may also be understood as trans-national in nature. This aspect was primarily advocated by [[Adolf Hitler]], who later became the leader of the [[Nazi Party]]. This party was devoted to what they identified as an [[Aryan race]], residing in various European countries, but sometime mixed with alien elements such as Jews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hochman|first=Adam|date=2015|title=Of Vikings and Nazis: Norwegian contributions to the rise and the fall of the idea of a superior Aryan race.|url=https://philarchive.org/archive/HOCOVA|journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences|volume=54|pages=84–88|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.09.003}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the Nazis rejected many of the well-established citizens within those same countries, such as the [[Romani people|Romani]] and Jews, whom they did not identify as Aryan. A key Nazi doctrine was {{lang|de|[[lebensraum]]}} (living space), which was a vast undertaking to transplant Aryans throughout [[Poland]], much of [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Baltic nations]], and all of western Russia and Ukraine. {{lang|de|Lebensraum}} was thus a vast project for advancing the Aryan race far outside of any particular nation or national borders. Nazi goals were focused on advancing the Aryan race as they perceived it, the modification of the human race via [[eugenics]], and the eradication of human beings that they deemed inferior. But their goals were trans-national and intended to spread across as much of the world as they could achieve. Although Nazism glorified German history, it also embraced the supposed virtues and achievements of the [[Aryan race]] in other countries,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aryan|title=Aryan people|date=n.d.|website=Encyclopedia Britannica On-line|access-date=9 November 2018|archive-date=14 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614011654/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aryan|url-status=live}}</ref> including India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKay|first=Alex|date=Spring 2001|title=Hitler and the Himalayas: The SS Mission to Tibet 1938–39|url=https://tricycle.org/magazine/hitler-and-himalayas-ss-mission-tibet-1938-39/|journal=[[Tricycle Magazine]]|access-date=4 November 2018|archive-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104125826/https://tricycle.org/magazine/hitler-and-himalayas-ss-mission-tibet-1938-39/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Nazis' Aryanism longed for now-extinct species of superior bulls once used as livestock by Aryans and other features of Aryan history that never resided within the borders of Germany as a nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-nazis-tried-bring-animals-back-extinction-180962739/|title=When the Nazis Tried to Bring Animals Back From Extinction: Their ideology of genetic purity extended to aspirations about reviving a pristine landscape with ancient animals and forests|last=Boissoneault|first=Lorraine|date=31 March 2017|website=[[Smithsonian.com]]|access-date=9 November 2018|archive-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104050340/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-nazis-tried-bring-animals-back-extinction-180962739/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
{{main|Italian Fascism|Italian nationalism|Italian unification}}
[[File:Napoli Castel Nuovo museo civico - ingresso di Garibaldi a Napoli - Wenzel bis.jpg|thumb|People cheering as [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] enters [[Naples]] in 1860]]
Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for [[Italian unification]] or the ''Risorgimento'' (meaning the "Resurgence" or "Revival"). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated the different states of the [[Italian peninsula]] into the single state of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] in 1861. The memory of the ''Risorgimento'' is central to Italian nationalism but it was based in the liberal [[middle class]]es and ultimately proved a bit weak.<ref>Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, eds., ''The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-century Italy'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).</ref> The new government treated the newly annexed South as a kind of underdeveloped province due to its "backward" and poverty-stricken society, its poor grasp of standard Italian (as [[Italo-Dalmatian languages|Italo-Dalmatian]] dialects of [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] were prevalent in the common use) and its local traditions.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} The liberals had always been strong opponents of the [[pope]] and the very well organized [[Catholic Church]]. The liberal government under the Sicilian [[Francesco Crispi]] sought to enlarge his political base by emulating [[Otto von Bismarck]] and firing up [[Italian nationalism]] with an aggressive foreign policy. It partially crashed and his cause was set back. Of his nationalistic foreign policy, historian [[R. J. B. Bosworth]] says:
<blockquote>[Crispi] pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with these suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies.  His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at [[Battle of Adwa|Adowa]] [...] in what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life and personal finances [...] were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.<ref>Bosworth, R. J. B. (2013). ''Italy and the Wider World: 1860–1960''. London: Routledge. p. 29. {{ISBN|978-1134780884}}.</ref></blockquote>

Italy joined the [[Allies of World War I|Allies in the First World War]] after getting promises of territory, but its war effort was not honored after the war and this fact discredited liberalism paving the way for [[Benito Mussolini]] and a political doctrine of his own creation, [[Fascism]]. Mussolini's 20-year dictatorship involved a highly aggressive nationalism that led to a series of wars with the creation of the [[Italian Empire]], an alliance with Hitler's Germany, and humiliation and hardship in the Second World War. After 1945, the Catholics returned to government and tensions eased somewhat, but the former two Sicilies remained poor and partially underdeveloped (by industrial country standards). In the 1950s and early 1960s, Italy had an [[Italian economic miracle|economic boom]] that pushed its economy to the fifth place in the world.

The working class in those decades voted mostly for the [[Communist party|Communist Party]], and it looked to Moscow rather than Rome for inspiration and was kept out of the national government even as it controlled some industrial cities across the North. In the 21st century, the Communists have become marginal but political tensions remained high as shown by [[Umberto Bossi]]'s [[Padanism]] in the 1980s<ref>{{cite book|editor1=Stephen Barbour |editor2=Cathie Carmichael|title=Language and Nationalism in Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&pg=PA181|year=2000|publisher=Oxford UP chapter 8|isbn=978-0191584077}}</ref> (whose party [[Lega Nord]] has come to partially embrace a moderate version of Italian nationalism over the years) and other separatist movements spread across the country.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

==== Spain ====
After the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], rooted in the political position of the [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares|Count-Duke of Olivares]] and the absolutism of [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], the assimilation of the [[Crown of Aragon]] by the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian Crown]] through the [[Nueva Planta decrees|Decrees of Nova planta]] was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state. As in other contemporary European states, political union was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state, in this case not on a uniform [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] basis, but through the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant ethnic group, in this case the Castilians, over those of other ethnic groups, who became [[Minority group|national minorities]] to be assimilated.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sales Vives |first=Pere |title=L'Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808-1932 |date=22 September 2020 |publisher=El Gall editor |isbn=9788416416707 |pages=422 |language=ca |trans-title=The Spanishization of Mallorca: 1808-1932}}</ref><ref>Antoni Simon, [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605094401/https://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 |date=5 June 2022 }}, páginas 45–46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València</ref> In fact, since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards [[Catalan Countries|Catalan-speaking territories]] ([[Catalonia]], [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[La Franja|part]] of [[Aragon]]) and other national minorities, as [[Basques]] and [[Galicians]], have been a historical constant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayans Balcells |first=Pere |title=Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola |publisher=Edicions del 1979 |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-947201-4-7 |edition=del 1979 |pages=230 |language=ca |trans-title=Black Chronicles of Catalan at School}}</ref><ref name="Recopilació d'accions genocides con">{{cite book |last=Lluís |first=García Sevilla |title=Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana |publisher=Base |year=2021 |isbn=9788418434983 |pages=300 |language=ca |trans-title=Compilation of genocidal actions against the Catalan nation}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{cite book |last=Bea Seguí |first=Ignaci |title=En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana |publisher=Cossetània |year=2013 |isbn=9788490341339 |pages=216 |language=ca |trans-title=In Christian! Police and Civil Guard against the Catalan language}}</ref><ref name="galeusca2">{{cite web |title=Enllaç al Manifest Galeusca on en l'article 3 es denuncia l'asimetria entre el castellà i les altres llengües de l'Estat Espanyol, inclosa el català. |trans-title=The link to the Galeusca Manifest in article 3 denounces the asymmetry between Spanish and the other languages of the Estat Espanyol, including Catalan. |url=http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719071429/http://www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788 |archive-date=19 July 2008 |access-date=2 August 2008 |language=ca |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Radatz |first=Hans-Ingo |date=8 October 2020 |title=Spain in the 19th century: Spanish Nation Building and Catalonia's attempt at becoming an Iberian Prussia |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344608600}}</ref>

The nationalization process accelerated in the 19th century, in parallel to the origin of [[Spanish nationalism]], the social, political and ideological movement that tried to shape a Spanish national identity based on the Castilian model, in conflict with the other historical nations of the State. Politicians of the time were aware that despite the aggressive policies pursued up to that time, the uniform and monocultural "Spanish nation" did not exist, as indicated in 1835 by [[Antonio Alcalá Galiano|Antonio Alcalà Galiano]], when in the [[Cortes del Estatuto Real]] he defended the effort:<blockquote>"To make the Spanish nation a nation that neither is nor has been until now."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fontana |first=Josep |title=La fi de l'antic règim i la industrialització. Vol. V Història de Catalunya |publisher=Edicions 62 |year=1998 |isbn=9788429744408 |location=Barcelona |pages=453 |language=ca |trans-title=The end of the old regime and industrialization. Flight. V History of Catalonia}}</ref></blockquote>Building the nation (as in [[France]], it was the state that created the nation, and not the opposite process) is an ideal that the Spanish elites constantly reiterated, and, one hundred years later than Alcalá Galiano, for example, we can also find it in the mouth of the fascist [[José Pemartín]], who admired the German and Italian modeling policies:<ref name=":0222">{{cite book |last=Llaudó Avila |first=Eduard |title=Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània |date=2021 |publisher=Parcir |isbn=9788418849107 |edition=7th |location=Manresa |trans-title=Political racism and supremacism in contemporary Spain}}</ref><blockquote>"There is an intimate and decisive dualism, both in Italian fascism and in German National Socialism. On the one hand, the Hegelian doctrine of the absolutism of the state is felt. The State originates in the Nation, educates and shapes the mentality of the individual; is, in Mussolini's words, the soul of the soul."</blockquote>And will be found again two hundred years later, from the socialist [[Josep Borrell]]:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joe |first=Brew |date=26 February 2019 |title=Video of the Conference of Josep Borrell at the Geneva Press Club, 27th February, 2019 |url=https://twitter.com/joethebrew/status/1100466583208632320 |access-date=10 May 2023 |via=[[Twitter]] |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617004923/https://twitter.com/joethebrew/status/1100466583208632320 |url-status=live }}</ref><blockquote>"The modern history of Spain is an unfortunate history that meant that we did not consolidate a modern State. Independentists think that the nation makes the State. I think the opposite. The State makes the nation. A strong State, which imposes its language, culture, education."</blockquote>The creation of the tradition of the political community of Spaniards as common destiny over other communities has been argued to trace back to the [[Cortes of Cádiz]].{{Sfn|Riquer i Permanyer|1994|pp=14–15}} From 1812 on, revisiting the previous history of Spain, Spanish liberalism tended to take for granted the national conscience and the Spanish nation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Riquer i Permanyer |first=Borja de |year=1994 |title=Aproximación al nacionalismo español contemporáneo |url=https://revistas.usal.es/index.php/0213-2087/article/view/5796/5824 |journal=Stvdia Historica. Historia Contemporánea |publisher=[[University of Salamanca]] |volume=12 |pages=14–15 |issn=0213-2087 |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-date=20 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620161041/https://revistas.usal.es/index.php/0213-2087/article/view/5796/5824 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A by-product of 19th-century Spanish nationalist thinking is the concept of ''[[Reconquista]]'', which holds the power of propelling the weaponized notion of Spain being a nation [[Islamophobia|shaped against Islam]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=García-Sanjuán |first=Alejandro |year=2020 |title=Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: the Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism |journal=Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum |location=Lleida |publisher=[[University of Lleida|Universitat de Lleida]] |page=133 |doi=10.21001/itma.2020.14.04 |issn=1888-3931 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10272/19498}}</ref> The strong interface of nationalism with colonialism is another feature of 19th-century nation building in Spain, with the defence of slavery and colonialism in Cuba being often able to reconcile tensions between mainland elites of Catalonia and Madrid throughout the period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schmidt-Nowara |first=Christopher |year=2004 |title='La España Ultramarina': Colonialism and Nation-Building in Nineteenth-Century Spain |journal=[[European History Quarterly]] |volume=34 |issue=2 |page=199 |doi=10.1177/0265691404042507|s2cid=145675694 }}</ref>

During the first half of 20th century (notably during the [[dictatorship of Primo de Rivera]] and the [[Francoist Spain|dictatorship of Franco]]), a new brand of Spanish nationalism with a marked [[Militarism|military flavour]] and an authoritarian stance (as well as promoting policies favouring the Spanish language against [[Languages of Spain|the other languages]] in the country) as a means of modernizing the country was developed by Spanish conservatives, fusing [[Regenerationism|regenerationist]] principles with traditional Spanish nationalism.{{Sfn|Muro|Quiroga|2005|pp=17–18}} The authoritarian national ideal resumed during the Francoist dictatorship, in the form of [[National-Catholicism]],{{Sfn|Muro|Quiroga|2005|pp=17–18}} which was in turn complemented by the myth of [[Hispanidad]].{{Sfn|Núñez|2001|p=720}} 

A distinct manifestation of Spanish nationalism in modern Spanish politics is the interchange of attacks with competing regional nationalisms.{{Sfn|Muro|Quiroga|2005|p=9}} Initially present after the end of Francoism in a rather diffuse and reactive form, the Spanish nationalist discourse has been often self-branded as "[[constitutional patriotism]]" since the 1980s.{{Sfn|Núñez|2001|p=719}} Often ignored as in the case of other State nationalisms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muro |first1=Diego |last2=Quiroga |first2=Alejandro |year=2005 |title=Spanish nationalism. Ethnic or civic? |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00571834/file/PEER_stage2_10.1177%252F1468796805049922.pdf |journal=Ethnicities |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=9–10 |doi=10.1177/1468796805049922 |issn=1468-7968 |s2cid=144193279 |access-date=28 February 2024 |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216121041/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00571834/file/PEER_stage2_10.1177%252F1468796805049922.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> its alleged "non-existence" has been a commonplace espoused by prominent figures in the public sphere as well as the mass-media in the country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Núñez |first=Xosé-Manoel |author-link=Xosé Manoel Núñez Seixas |year=2001 |title=What is Spanish nationalism today? From legitimacy crisis to unfulfilled renovation (1975–2000) |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=719–752 |doi=10.1080/01419870120063954 |s2cid=143787176}}</ref>[[File:Missolonghi.jpg|thumb|Beginning in 1821, the [[Greek War of Independence]] began as a rebellion by Greek revolutionaries against the ruling Ottoman Empire.]]

==== Greece ====
During the early 19th century, inspired by [[romanticism]], [[classicism]], former movements of [[Greek nationalism]] and failed Greek revolts against the Ottoman Empire (such as the Orlofika revolt in southern Greece in 1770, and the Epirus-Macedonian revolt of Northern Greece in 1575), Greek nationalism led to the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek war of independence]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453|last=Vasiliev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|first=Vasiliev|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1952|isbn=978-0299809263 |location=Madison, WI|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti0000vasi/page/582 582] |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti0000vasi/page/582}}</ref> The Greek drive for independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 1820s and 1830s inspired supporters across [[Christian Europe]], especially in Britain, which was the result of western [[Classicism|idealization]] of [[Classical Greece]] and romanticism. France, Russia and Britain critically intervened to ensure the success of this nationalist endeavor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alister E. McGrath|title=Christian History: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIFfXCyAYmoC&pg=PT270|year=2012|isbn=978-1118337837|page=270|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |access-date=23 November 2016|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427155355/https://books.google.com/books?id=gIFfXCyAYmoC&pg=PT270|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Serbia ====
{{main|History of Serbia|History of Serbs|Serbian nationalism}}
[[File:Breakup of Yugoslavia-TRY2.gif|thumb|[[Breakup of Yugoslavia]]]]
For centuries the [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox Christian]] [[Serbs]] were ruled by the Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Birgit Bock-Luna|title=The Past in Exile: Serbian Long-distance Nationalism and Identity in the Wake of the Third Balkan War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6UGrE5dUzQC|year=2007|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9752-9}}</ref> The success of the [[Serbian Revolution]] against [[History of Ottoman Serbia|Ottoman rule]] in 1817 marked the birth of the [[Principality of Serbia]]. It achieved ''[[de facto]]'' independence in 1867 and finally gained [[Berlin Congress|international recognition]] in 1878. Serbia had sought to liberate and unite with Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west and [[Old Serbia]] ([[Kosovo]] and [[Vardar Macedonia]]) to the south. Nationalist circles in both [[Serbia]] and Croatia (part of [[Austria-Hungary]]) began to advocate for a greater [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] union in the 1860s, claiming [[Bosnia]] as their common land based on shared language and tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hajdarpasic|first1=Edin|title=Whose Bosnia? Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840–1914|date=2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca and London|isbn=978-0801453717|pages=1–17, 90–126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZACnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1}}</ref> In 1914, [[Young Bosnia|Serb revolutionaries]] in Bosnia assassinated Archduke Ferdinand. [[Austria-Hungary]], with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914, thus igniting the [[First World War]] in which Austria-Hungary dissolved into nation states.<ref>Christopher Clark, ''The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914'' (2012)</ref>

In 1918, the region of [[Banat, Bačka and Baranja]] came under control of the Serbian army, later the Great National Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs voted to join Serbia; the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] joined the union with [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] on 1 December 1918, and the country was named [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes]]. It was renamed [[Yugoslavia]] in 1929, and a [[Yugoslavism|Yugoslav identity]] was promoted, which ultimately failed. After the Second World War, [[Yugoslav Communists]] established a new [[SFR Yugoslavia|socialist republic of Yugoslavia]]. That state [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|broke up again]]  in the 1990s.<ref>Sabrina P. Ramet, ''Nationalism and federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962–1991'' (Indiana Univ Press, 1992).</ref>

==== Poland ====
{{main|History of Poland|Polish nationalism}}
The cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, the [[Habsburg monarchy]], [[Prussia]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]
invaded, annexed, and subsequently [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned Poland]]. Napoleon set up the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as [[Congress Poland]] with the tsar proclaimed as "King of Poland". Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted [[November Uprising|in 1830]] and [[January Uprising|1863–64]] but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to make the [[Polish language]], [[Culture of Poland|culture]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|religion]] more like Russia's. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to re-establish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the [[Kulturkampf]] of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new [[Centre Party (Germany)|Centre Party]], and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party.<ref>Richard Blanke, ''Prussian Poland in the German Empire (1871–1900)'' (1981)</ref><ref>Norman Davies, ''God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present'' (2005).</ref>

In the late 19th and early 20th century, many Polish nationalist leaders endorsed the [[Piast Concept]]. It held there was a Polish utopia during the [[Piast dynasty|Piast Dynasty]] a thousand years before, and modern Polish nationalists should restore its central values of Poland for the Poles. Jan Poplawski had developed the "Piast Concept" in the 1890s, and it formed the centerpiece of Polish nationalist ideology, especially as presented by the [[National-Democratic Party (Poland)|National Democracy Party]], known as the "Endecja," which was led by [[Roman Dmowski]]. In contrast with the Jagiellon concept, there was no concept for a multi-ethnic Poland.<ref>{{cite book|author=Geoffrey A. Hosking and George Schöpflin|title=Myths and Nationhood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UoOpBJk52GcC&pg=PA152|year=1997|publisher=Routledge|page=152|isbn=978-0415919746}}</ref>

[[File:Bolivar Arturo Michelena.jpg|thumb|left|upright|General [[Simón Bolívar]] (1783–1830), a leader of independence in Latin America]]
The Piast concept stood in opposition to the "Jagiellon Concept," which allowed for multi-ethnicism and Polish rule over numerous minority groups such as those in the [[Kresy]]. The Jagiellon Concept was the official policy of the government in the 1920s and 1930s. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] dictator [[Josef Stalin]] at Tehran in 1943 rejected the Jagiellon Concept because it involved Polish rule over [[Ukrainians]] and [[Belarusians]]. He instead endorsed the Piast Concept, which justified a massive shift of Poland's frontiers to the west.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sharp | first1 = Tony | year = 1977 | title = The Origins of the 'Teheran Formula' on Polish Frontiers | journal = Journal of Contemporary History | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 381–393 | jstor=260222 | doi=10.1177/002200947701200209| s2cid = 153577101 }}</ref> After 1945 the Soviet-back puppet communist regime wholeheartedly adopted the Piast Concept, making it the centerpiece of their claim to be the "true inheritors of Polish nationalism". After all the killings, including Nazi German occupation, terror in Poland and population transfers during and after the war, the nation was officially declared as 99% ethnically Polish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Davies|title=Heart of Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMQei5CPZUgC&pg=PA286|pages=286–287|isbn=978-0191587719|date=2001|publisher=OUP Oxford }}</ref>

In current Polish politics, Polish nationalism is most openly represented by parties linked in the [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|Liberty and Independence Confederation]] coalition.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}} As of 2020 the Confederation, composed of several smaller parties, had 11 deputies (under 7%) in the [[Sejm]].

====Bulgaria====

{{main|National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgarian National Awakening|Bulgarian National Revival|April Uprising of 1876}}

[[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] modern nationalism emerged [[Ottoman Bulgaria|under Ottoman rule]] in the late 18th and early 19th century, under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French Revolution.

The Bulgarian national revival started with the work of [[Saint Paisius of Hilendar]], who opposed [[Greece|Greek]] domination of Bulgaria's culture and religion. His work ''[[Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya]]'' ("History of the Slav-Bulgarians"), which appeared in 1762, was the first work of Bulgarian historiography. It is considered Paisius' greatest work and one of the greatest pieces of Bulgarian literature. In it, Paisius interpreted Bulgarian medieval history with the goal of reviving the spirit of his nation.

His successor was Saint [[Sophronius of Vratsa]], who started the struggle for an independent Bulgarian church. An autonomous [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was established in 1870/1872 for the Bulgarian diocese wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it.

In 1869 the [[Internal Revolutionary Organization]] was initiated.

The [[April Uprising of 1876]] indirectly resulted in the [[Liberation of Bulgaria|re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878]].

==== Jewish Nationalism ====
Jewish nationalism arose in the latter half of the 19th century, largely as a response to the rise of nation-states. Traditionally Jews lived under uncertain and oppressive conditions. In western Europe, Jews not subject to such restrictions since [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation]] of early 19th century often assimilated into the dominant culture. Both assimilation and the traditional second-class status of Jews were considered as threats to the Jewish identity by Jewish nationalists. The method of combatting these threats were different among different national movements among Jews.

[[Zionism]], ultimately the most successful of Jewish nationalist movements, advocated in the creation of a [[Jewish state]] in the [[Land of Israel]]. [[Labour Zionism]] hoped that the new Jewish state would be based on [[socialist]] principles. They imagined a [[Sabra (person)|new Jew]] that, in contrast to the Jews of the diaspora, was strong, worked the land, and spoke [[Revival of Hebrew|Hebrew]]. [[Religious Zionism]] instead had various religious reasonings for returning to Israel. Although according to historian David Engel, Zionism was more about fear that Jews would end up dispersed and unprotected, rather than fulfilling old prophecies of historical texts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Zionism |last=David |first=Engel |publisher=Pearson Longman Publishing Group |year=2009}}</ref> The efforts of the Zionist movement culminated in the [[establishment of the State of Israel]].

[[Jewish Territorial Organization|Jewish Territorialism]] split from the [[Zionist Movement]] in 1903, arguing for a Jewish state [[Proposals for a Jewish state|no matter where]]. As more Jews [[Aliyah|moved to Palestine]], the main territorialist organization lost support, eventually disbanding in the 1925.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alroey |first=Gur |date=2011 |title="Zionism without Zion"?: Territorialist Ideology and the Zionist Movement, 1882–1956 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/3/article/490806 |journal=Jewish Social Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=18–24 |doi=10.2979/jewisocistud.18.1.1 |s2cid=154121434 |issn=1527-2028}}</ref> Smaller territorialist movements lasted until the [[establishment of the State of Israel]].

[[Jewish Autonomism]] and [[Bundism]] instead advocated for Jewish national autonomy within the territory they already lived in. Most manifestations of this movement were left-wing in nature, and actively [[anti-Zionist]]. While successful among Eastern European Jews in the early 20th century, it lost most of its support due to the [[Holocaust]], although some support lasted through the 20th century.

=== 20th century ===
==== China ====
{{main|Chinese nationalism}}
The awakening of nationalism across Asia helped shape the history of the continent. The key episode was the [[Russo-Japanese War|decisive defeat of Russia]] by Japan in 1905, demonstrating the military advancement of non-Europeans in a modern war. The defeat quickly led to manifestations of a new interest in nationalism in China, as well as Turkey and Persia.<ref>Rotem Kowner, ed., ''The impact of the Russo-Japanese war'' (Routledge, 2006).</ref> In China [[Sun Yat-sen]] (1866–1925) launched his new party the [[Kuomintang]] (National People's Party) in defiance of the decrepit Empire, which was run by outsiders. The Kuomintang recruits pledged:
<blockquote>[F]rom this moment I will destroy the old and build the new, and fight for the self-determination of the people, and will apply all my strength to the support of the Chinese Republic and the realization of democracy through the Three Principles, ... for the progress of good government, the happiness and perpetual peace of the people, and for the strengthening of the foundations of the state in the name of peace throughout the world.<ref>Hans Kohn, ''Nationalism: Its Meaning and History'' (1955) p. 87.</ref></blockquote>

The Kuomintang largely ran China until the Communists took over in 1949. But the latter had also been strongly influenced by Sun's nationalism as well as by the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919. It was a nationwide protest movement about the domestic backwardness of China and has often been depicted as the intellectual foundation for Chinese Communism.<ref>Shakhar Rahav, ''The Rise of Political Intellectuals in Modern China: May Fourth Societies and the Roots of Mass-Party Politics'' (Oxford UP, 2015).</ref> The [[New Culture Movement]] stimulated by the May Fourth Movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Historian [[Patricia Ebrey]] says:
<blockquote>Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; [[imperialism]], [[feudalism]], [[warlordism]], autocracy, [[patriarchy]], and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations.<ref>[[Patricia Buckley Ebrey]], ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'' (1996) p. 271.</ref></blockquote>

In 1911, following the [[1911 Revolution|Xinhai Revolution]], Sun's multicultural form of Chinese nationalism manifested as [[Zhonghua minzu]], a concept that promoted the idea of [[Five Races Under One Union]], that sidelined [[Han Chinese]] [[Sinocentrism|supremacy]] in favor of coexistence alongside [[Manchu people|Manchus]], [[Mongols]], [[Islam in China|Chinese Muslims]] ([[Hui people|Hui]]/[[Uyghurs]]), and [[Tibetans]], all of which were supposedly equal branches of the Chinese nation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Duara|first=Prasenjit|title=Rescuing History from the Nation|date=1995|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-16722-0|pages=142|doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226167237.001.0001}}</ref><ref name="sebok">{{Cite book |last=Šebok |first=Filip |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Historical Legacy |pages=15–28 |doi=10.4324/9781003350064-3 |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=19}} The rhetorical move, as China historian [[Joseph Esherick (historian)|Joseph Esherick]] points out, was based on practical concerns about imperial threats from the international environment and conflicts on the Chinese frontiers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|author1=Esherick, Joseph|author2=Kayalı, Hasan |author3=Van Young, Eric|title=Empire to nation : historical perspectives on the making of the modern world|date=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-7815-9|oclc=1030355615}}</ref>

==== Greece ====
{{main|Greek nationalism}}
Nationalist [[Irredentism|irredentist]] movements Greek advocating for [[Enosis]] (unity of ethnically Greek states with the [[Greece|Hellenic Republic]] to create a unified Greek state), used today in the case of [[Cyprus]], as well as the [[Megali Idea]], the Greek movement that advocated for the reconquering of Greek ancestral lands from the Ottoman Empire (such as [[Crete]], [[Ionia]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Northern Epirus]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Thrace]] among others) that were popular in the late 19th and early to 20th centuries, led to many Greek states and regions that were ethnically Greek to eventually unite with Greece and the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish war of 1919]].

The [[4th of August Regime|4th of August regime]] was a [[Fascism|fascist]] or fascistic nationalist authoritarian dictatorship inspired by [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini's]] [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and led by Greek general [[Ioannis Metaxas]] from 1936 to his death in 1941. It advocated for the Third Hellenic Civilization, a culturally superior Greek civilization that would be the successor of the First and Second Greek civilizations, that were [[Ancient Greece]] and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine empire]] respectively. It promoted [[Culture of Greece|Greek traditions]], [[Greek folk music|folk music]] and [[Greek dances|dances]], [[classicism]] as well as [[medievalism]].

==== Africa ====
{{main|African nationalism|History of Africa}}
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-124-8.jpg|thumb|[[Kenneth Kaunda]], an anti-colonial political leader from [[Zambia]], pictured at a nationalist rally in colonial [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]) in 1960]]
In the 1880s the European powers divided up almost all of Africa (only [[Ethiopia]] and [[Liberia]] were independent). They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger. In the 1950s and the 1960s, colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria,<ref>Alistair Horne, ''A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962'' (1977).</ref> Kenya<ref>David Anderson, ''Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire'' (2005).</ref> and elsewhere.

Across Africa, nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives had learned in the British and French, and other armies during the world wars. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers or the traditional local power structures that had been collaborating with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off. These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.<ref>Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, ''The Politics of the Developing Areas'' (1971)</ref><ref>Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, ''Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa'' (University Press of America, 1977).</ref><ref>Thomas Hodgkin, ''Nationalism in Colonial Africa'' (1956)</ref>

[[South Africa]], a British colony, was exceptional in that it became virtually independent by 1931. From 1948, it was controlled by white [[Afrikaner]] nationalists, who focused on racial segregation and white minority rule, known as [[apartheid]]. It lasted until 1994, when [[1994 South African general election|multiracial elections were held]]. The international anti-apartheid movement supported black nationalists until success was achieved,{{Verify source|date=October 2022}} and [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected president.<ref>Nancy L. Clark and William H. Worger, ''South Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref>

==== Middle East ====
[[Arab nationalism]], a movement toward liberating and empowering the Arab peoples of the Middle East, emerged during the late 19th century, inspired by other independence movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. As the [[Ottoman Empire]] declined and the Middle East was carved up by the Great Powers of Europe, Arabs sought to establish their own independent nations ruled by Arabs, rather than foreigners. [[Syria]] was established in 1920; Transjordan (later [[Jordan]]) gradually gained independence between 1921 and 1946; [[Saudi Arabia]] was established in 1932; and [[Egypt]] achieved gradually gained independence between 1922 and 1952. The [[Arab League]] was established in 1945 to promote Arab interests and cooperation between the new Arab states.

The [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement, emerged among European Jews in the 19th century. In 1882, Jews, from Europe, began to emigrate to [[Ottoman Palestine]] with the goal of establishing a new Jewish homeland. The majority and local population in Palestine, [[Palestinian]] Arabs were demanding independence from the British Mandate.

==== Breakup of Yugoslavia ====
{{Main|Breakup of Yugoslavia}}
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{{Original research section|date=March 2023}}
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There was a rise in extreme nationalism after the [[Revolutions of 1989]] had triggered the collapse of [[communism]] in the 1990s. That left many people with no identity. The people under communist rule had to integrate, but they now found themselves free to choose. That made long-dormant conflicts rise and create sources of serious conflict.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Berg|first=Steven|date=1993|title=Nationalism Redux: Through the Glass of the Post-Communist States Darkly.|journal=Ethnic Conflicts WorldWide, Current History|pages=162–166}}</ref> When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to a rise in extreme nationalism.

In his 1992 article ''Jihad vs. McWorld,'' [[Benjamin Barber]] proposed that the fall of communism would cause large numbers of people to search for unity and that small-scale wars would become common, as groups will attempt to redraw boundaries, identities, cultures and ideologies.<ref name="barber">{{Cite journal |last=Barber |first=Benjamin |date=1992 |title=Jihad vs. McWorld: the two axial principles of our age—tribalism and globalism—clash at every point except one: they may both be threatening to democracy |journal=The Atlantic}}</ref> The fall of communism also allowed for an "us vs. them" mentality to return.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Huntington |first=Samuel |date=1993 |title=The Clash of Civilizations |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=22–49 |doi=10.2307/20045621 |jstor=20045621}}</ref> Governments would become vehicles for social interests, and the country would attempt to form national policies based on the majority culture, religion or ethnicity.<ref name=":0"/> Some newly sprouted democracies had large differences in policies on matters, which ranged from immigration and human rights to trade and commerce.

The academic Steven Berg felt that the root of nationalist conflicts was the demand for autonomy and a separate existence.<ref name=":0"/> That nationalism can give rise to strong emotions, which may lead to a group fighting to survive, especially as after the fall of communism, political boundaries did not match ethnic boundaries.<ref name=":0"/> Serious conflicts often arose and escalated very easily, as individuals and groups acted upon their beliefs and caused death and destruction.<ref name=":0"/> When that happens, states unable to contain the conflict run the risk of slowing their progress at democratization.

Yugoslavia was established after the First World War and joined three acknowledged ethnic groups: [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes|Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]. The national census numbers from 1971 to 1981 measured an increase from 1.3% to 5.4% in the population that ethnically identified itself as [[Yugoslavs]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=Steven |date=2004 |title=Why Yugoslavia Fell Apart |journal=Current History |volume=92 |issue=577 |pages=357–363 |s2cid=151283265 |doi=10.1525/curh.1993.92.577.357}}</ref> That meant that the country, almost as a whole, was divided by distinctive religious, ethnic and national loyalties after nearly 50 years.

Nationalist separatism of Croatia and Slovenia from the rest of Yugoslavia has basis in historical imperialist conquests of the region ([[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]) and existence within separate spheres of religious, cultural and industrial influence – Catholicism, Protenstantism, [[Central Europe]]an cultural orientation in the northwest, versus Orthodoxy, Islam and [[Orientalism]] in the southeast. Croatia and Slovenia were subsequently more economically and industrially advanced and remained as such throughout existence of both forms of Yugoslavia.<ref name=":2" />

In the 1970s, the leadership of the separate territories in Yugoslavia protected only territorial interests, at the expense of other territories. In Croatia, there was almost a split within the territory between Serbs and Croats so that any political decision would kindle unrest, and tensions could cross adjacent territories: Bosnia and Herzegovina.<ref name=":3" /> Bosnia had no group with a majority; Muslim, Serb, Croat, and Yugoslavs stopped leadership from advancing here as well. Political organizations were not able to deal successfully with such diverse nationalisms. Within the territories, leaderships would not compromise. To do so would create a winner in one ethnic group and a loser in another and raise the possibility of a serious conflict. That strengthened the political stance promoting ethnic identities and caused intense and divided political leadership within Yugoslavia.

[[File:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|[[List of national border changes since World War I|Changes in national boundaries]] in post-Soviet and post-Yugoslav states after the [[revolutions of 1989]] were followed by a resurgence of nationalism.]]
In the 1980s, Yugoslavia began to break into fragments.<ref name=":1" /> Economic conditions within Yugoslavia were deteriorating. Conflict in the disputed territories was stimulated by the rise in mass nationalism and ethnic hostilities.<ref name=":3" /> The per capita income of people in the northwestern territory, encompassing Croatia and Slovenia, was several times higher than that of the southern territory. That, combined with escalating violence from ethnic Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, intensified economic conditions.<ref name=":3" /> The violence greatly contributed to the rise of extreme nationalism of Serbs in Serbia and the rest of Yugoslavia. The ongoing conflict in Kosovo was propagandized by a communist Serb, [[Slobodan Milošević]], to increase Serb nationalism further. As mentioned, that nationalism gave rise to powerful emotions which grew the force of Serbian nationalism by highly nationalist demonstrations in Vojvodina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. Serbian nationalism was so high that Slobodan Milošević ousted leaders in Vojvodina and Montenegro, repressed Albanians within Kosovo and eventually controlled four of the eight regions/territories.<ref name=":3" /> Slovenia, one of the four regions not under communist control, favoured a democratic state.

In Slovenia, fear was mounting because Milošević would use the militia to suppress the country, as had occurred in Kosovo.<ref name=":3" /> Half of Yugoslavia wanted to be democratic, the other wanted a new nationalist authoritarian regime. In fall of 1989, tensions came to a head, and Slovenia asserted its political and economic independence from Yugoslavia and seceded. In January 1990, there was a total break with Serbia at the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, an institution that had been conceived by Milošević to strengthen unity and later became the backdrop for the fall of communism in Yugoslavia.

In August 1990, a warning to the region was issued when ethnically divided groups attempted to alter the government structure. The republic borders established by the Communist regime in the postwar period were extremely vulnerable to challenges from ethnic communities. Ethnic communities arose because they did not share the identity with everyone within the new post-communist borders,<ref name=":3" /> which threatened the new governments. The same disputes were erupting that were in place prior to Milošević and were compounded by actions from his regime.

Also, within the territory, the Croats and the Serbs were in direct competition for control of government. Elections were held and increased potential conflicts between Serbian and Croat nationalism. Serbia wanted to be separate and to decide its own future based on its own ethnic composition, but that would then give Kosovo encouragement to become independent from Serbia. Albanians in Kosovo were already practically independent from Kosovo, but Serbia did not want to let Kosovo become independent. Albanian nationalists wanted their own territory, but that would require a redrawing of the map and threaten neighboring territories. When communism fell in Yugoslavia, serious conflict arose, which led to the rise in extreme nationalism.

Nationalism again gave rise to powerful emotions, which evoked, in some extreme cases, a willingness to die for what one believed, a fight for the survival of the group.<ref name=":0"/> The end of communism began a long period of conflict and war for the region. For six years, 200,000–500,000 people died in the Bosnian War.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina|date=1996|title=Eastern Europe's Painful Transition |journal=Current History|volume=95 |issue=599 |pages=97–102|doi=10.1525/curh.1996.95.599.97 |s2cid=249691639 }}</ref> All three major ethnicities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian Muslims, Croats, Serbs) suffered at the hands of each other.<ref name=":2" />{{verify source|date=February 2022}} The war garnered assistance from groups, Muslim, Orthodox, and Western Christian, and from state actors, which supplied all sides; Saudi Arabia and Iran supported Bosnia; Russia supported Serbia; Central European and the West, including the US, supported Croatia; and the Pope supported Slovenia and Croatia.

=== 21st century ===
{{main|Neo-nationalism}}
[[File:Myanmar civil war.svg|thumb|200px|[[List of ethnic armed organisations in Myanmar|Ethnic armies in Myanmar]] that are involved in the [[Myanmar civil war (2021–present)]]]]
The rise of [[globalism]] in the late 20th century led to a rise in nationalism and [[populism]] in Europe and North America. That trend was further fueled by increased terrorism in the West (the [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States being a prime example), increasing unrest and civil wars in the Middle East, and [[Refugees of the Syrian Civil War|waves of Muslim refugees, especially from the Syrian Civil War]], flooding into Europe ({{as of|2016|lc=y}} the refugee crisis appears to have peaked).<ref>{{cite journal |title=American Nationalism and U.S. Foreign Policy from September 11 to the Iraq War |author=McCartney, Paul T. |date=Fall 2004 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=119 |pages=399–423 |number=3 |jstor=20202389|doi=10.2307/20202389}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Europe's New Identity: The Refugee Crisis and the Rise of Nationalism |author=Postelnicescu, Claudia |date=12 May 2016 |journal=Europe's Journal of Psychology |pmc=4894286 |pmid=27298631 |doi=10.5964/ejop.v12i2.1191 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=203–209}}</ref> Nationalist groups like Germany's [[Pegida]], France's [[National Front (France)|National Front]] and the [[UK Independence Party]] gained prominence in their respective nations advocating [[Opposition to immigration|restrictions on immigration]] to protect the local populations.<ref>{{cite web |title=The New European Nationalism and the Migrant Crisis |author=Clark, Philip |date=12 November 2015 |website=Stanford Politics |url=https://stanfordpolitics.com/the-new-european-nationalism-and-the-migrant-crisis-e989a1a45ac3}}</ref><ref name="WP: Survey">{{cite news |title=Surveys show Russian nationalism is on the rise. This explains a lot about the country's foreign and domestic politics. |author=Arnold, Richard |date=30 May 2016 |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://stanfordpolitics.com/the-new-european-nationalism-and-the-migrant-crisis-e989a1a45ac3}}</ref>

Since 2010, [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalists]] have led a renewed [[Catalan independence movement]] and [[Catalan declaration of independence|declared Catalan independence]]. The movement has been opposed by [[Spanish nationalism|Spanish nationalists]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Why Spanish Nationalism Is on the Rise |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/spain/2018-02-05/why-spanish-nationalism-rise |work=Foreign Affairs |date=5 February 2018 |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501102558/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/spain/2018-02-05/why-spanish-nationalism-rise |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"[https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/1.816185 Madrid Unity Rally Mired by Fascist Salutes From Far-right Falange Party Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117122757/https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/1.816185 |date=17 November 2017 }}". ''[[Haaretz]]''. 8 October 2017.</ref> In the 2010s, the [[Greek government-debt crisis|Greek economic crisis]] and waves of immigration have led to a significant rise of [[Fascism]] and [[Greek nationalism]] across Greece, especially among the youth.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 December 2015|title=Golden Dawn, Austerity and Young People: The Rise of Fascist Extremism Among Young People in Contemporary Greek Society|journal=The Sociological Review |volume=63|pages=231–249|doi=10.1111/1467-954X.12270|last1=Koronaiou|first1=Alexandra|last2=Lagos|first2=Evangelos|last3=Sakellariou|first3=Alexandros|last4=Kymionis|first4=Stelios|last5=Chiotaki-Poulou|first5=Irini|issue=2_suppl|s2cid=145077294}}</ref>

In Russia, exploitation of nationalist sentiments allowed [[Vladimir Putin]] to consolidate power.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Rise of the Russian Nationalism, the Secret of Putin's Survival, and the Return of Stalin |editor=Arshakuni, Nini |date=June 2016 |publisher=Institute of Modern Russia |url=https://imrussia.org/en/the-rundown/media-must-reads/2564-the-rise-of-the-russian-nationalism%2C-the-secret-of-putin%E2%80%99s-survival%2C-and-the-return-of-stalin |access-date=30 July 2017 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019203355/https://imrussia.org/en/the-rundown/media-must-reads/2564-the-rise-of-the-russian-nationalism,-the-secret-of-putin%E2%80%99s-survival,-and-the-return-of-stalin |url-status=live }}</ref> This nationalist sentiment was used in Russia's annexation of [[Crimea]] in 2014 and other actions in Ukraine.<ref name="WP: Survey"/> Nationalist movements gradually began to rise in Central Europe as well, particularly Poland, under the influence of the ruling party, [[Law and Justice]] (led by [[Jarosław Kaczyński]]).<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Problem With Poland's New Nationalism |author=Zamoyski, Adam |date=27 January 2016 |magazine=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/01/27/the-problem-with-polands-new-nationalism/ |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=4 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904202417/https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/01/27/the-problem-with-polands-new-nationalism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Hungary, the anti-immigration rhetoric and stance against foreign influence is a powerful national glue promoted the ruling [[Fidesz]] party (led by [[Viktor Orbán]]).<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/04/05/why-is-hungary-turning-to-nationalism|date=5 April 2018|title=Why is Hungary turning to nationalism?|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025151539/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/04/05/why-is-hungary-turning-to-nationalism|url-status=live}}</ref> Nationalist parties have also joined governing coalitions in [[Bulgaria]],<ref>{{cite news|date=25 April 2017|title=Bulgaria's government will include far-right nationalist parties for the first time|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/25/bulgarias-government-will-include-nationalist-parties-on-the-far-right-heres-why-and-what-this-means/?noredirect=on|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416114424/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/25/bulgarias-government-will-include-nationalist-parties-on-the-far-right-heres-why-and-what-this-means/?noredirect=on|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Slovakia]],<ref>{{cite news|work=[[EUobserver]]|date=13 March 2018|title=Threat to collapse Fico coalition after journalist killing|url=https://euobserver.com/beyond-brussels/141297|access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025150133/https://euobserver.com/beyond-brussels/141297|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Latvia]]<ref>{{cite news|date=14 November 2017|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-11/14/c_136749737.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025190037/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-11/14/c_136749737.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 October 2018|title=Latvia's nationalist party demands right for employees to use Latvian language|access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref> and [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |title=In Ukraine, nationalists gain influence – and scrutiny |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-farright-insight-idUSBREA2H0K620140318 |work=Reuters |date=18 March 2014 |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224041356/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-farright-insight-idUSBREA2H0K620140318 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In India, [[Hindu nationalism]] has grown in popularity with the rise of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], a right-wing party which has been ruling India at the national level since 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Burke|first=Jason|date=16 May 2014|title=Narendra Modi's landslide victory shatters Congress's grip on India|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/16/narendra-modi-victory-congress-india-election|access-date=27 July 2020|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804171103/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/16/narendra-modi-victory-congress-india-election|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Iwanek|first=Krzysztof|title=Narendra Modi Wins Again – What Does That Mean for India?|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/narendra-modi-wins-again-what-does-that-mean-for-india/|access-date=27 July 2020|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804065143/https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/narendra-modi-wins-again-what-does-that-mean-for-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> The rise in religious nationalism comes with the rise of [[right-wing populism]] in India, with the election and re-election of populist leader Narendra Modi as Prime Minister, who promised economic prosperity for all and an end to corruption. Militant [[Buddhism and violence|Buddhist nationalism]] is also on the rise in [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The Regional Reach of Buddhist Nationalism |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2017-11-07/buddhist-nationalism-reaches-beyond-myanmar |work=U.S. News |date=7 November 2017 |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501101055/https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2017-11-07/buddhist-nationalism-reaches-beyond-myanmar |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="myanmarnationalism">{{cite news |title=Review: Myanmar's Enemy Within and the Making of Anti-Muslim Rage |url=https://time.com/4964592/myanmar-rohingya-muslims-francis-wade/ |magazine=Time |date=12 October 2017 |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501101051/http://time.com/4964592/myanmar-rohingya-muslims-francis-wade/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Japan, [[Japanese nationalism|nationalist influences]]  in the government developed over the course of the early 21st century, largely from the [[Far-right politics|far right]]<ref>{{cite book|editor=Yoshio Sugimoto |title=An Introduction to Japanese Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cssDEAAAQBAJ&dq=far-right+Nippon+Kaigi&pg=PA242 |quote=  ... Nippon Kaigi Parts of the Japanese establishment have ties with a large far-right voluntary organization, Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference), whose ranks include grassroots members across the nation as well as national and local ... |date=2020 |page=242 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781108724746 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Michael W. Apple |title=Global Crises, Social Justice, and Education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7KLAgAAQBAJ&dq=far-right+Nippon+Kaigi&pg=PA69 |quote=  In 1997 nationalist intellectuals, politicians, and religious leaders formed the largest far-right advocacy group, Japan Conference (Nippon kaigi), formed as a result of the merger between the two ... |date=2009 |page=69 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781135172787 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=The Passenger |title=The Passenger: Japan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miQlEAAAQBAJ&dq=far-right+Nippon+Kaigi&pg=PT73 |quote= Every year far-right nationalist groups – including Nippon Kaigi – private citizens and government officials visit the Yasukuni Shrine. Many wear uniforms or clothing linked to the Imperial Army and display the Japanese imperial flag. |date=2020 |publisher=Europa Editions |isbn=9781609456429 }}</ref> [[Conservatism|ultra-conservative]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan emperor greets at celebration hosted by conservatives |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/japan-emperor-greets-celebration-hosted-conservatives-66873043 |quote=Abe's key ultra-conservative supporter, Nippon Kaigi, or Japan Conference, was among the organizers Saturday. |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |access-date=9 November 2019 |date=8 July 2020 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120080034/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/japan-emperor-greets-celebration-hosted-conservatives-66873043 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ultra-nationalist school linked to Japanese PM accused of hate speech |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/15/ultra-nationalist-school-moritomo-gakuen-linked-to-japanese-pm-shinzo-abe-accused-of-hate-speech |quote=Abe and Kagoike, who has indicated he will resign as principal, both belong to an ultra-conservative lobby group whose members include more than a dozen cabinet ministers. |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=15 March 2017 |date=8 July 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027132700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/15/ultra-nationalist-school-moritomo-gakuen-linked-to-japanese-pm-shinzo-abe-accused-of-hate-speech |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tokyo's new governor defies more than glass ceiling |url=https://www.dw.com/en/tokyos-new-governor-defies-more-than-glass-ceiling/a-19443490 |quote=In 2008, she made an unsuccessful run at the LDP's chairmanship. Following her defeat, she worked to build an internal party network and became involved in a revisionist group of lawmakers that serves as the mouthpiece of the ultraconservative Nippon Kaigi ("Japan Conference") movement. |website=[[Deutsche Welle]] |access-date=2 August 2016 |date=8 July 2020 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120153349/https://www.dw.com/en/tokyos-new-governor-defies-more-than-glass-ceiling/a-19443490 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nippon Kaigi]] organization.<ref name="apjjf">[http://apjjf.org/2016/21/Mizohata.html Nippon Kaigi: Empire, Contradiction, and Japan’s Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912072355/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8490524.stm |date=12 September 2018 }}. ''Asia-Pacific Journal''. Author – Sachie Mizohata. Published 1 November 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2020.</ref> The new movement has advocated re-establishing Japan as a military power and pushed revisionist historical narratives denying events such as the [[Nanking Massacre]].<ref name="apjjf" />

A [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom]] was held on 18 September 2014. The proposal was defeated, with 55.3% voting against independence. In a [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|2016 referendum]], the British populace unexpectedly voted to withdraw the United Kingdom from the [[European Union]] (known as ''[[Brexit]]''). As the promise of continued European Union membership was a core feature of the anti-independence campaign during the Scottish referendum, there have been [[proposed second Scottish independence referendum|calls for a second referendum on Scottish independence]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sturgeon says second independence vote 'a matter of when, not if' |author=Brooks, Libby |date=9 May 2021 |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/may/09/scottish-indyref2-battle-distraction-covid-michael-gove |access-date=17 June 2021 |archive-date=16 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616183439/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/may/09/scottish-indyref2-battle-distraction-covid-michael-gove |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Bolsonaro with US President Donald Trump in White House, 19 March 2019.jpg|thumb|Brazilian Former President [[Jair Bolsonaro]], sometimes called the "Tropical Trump", with United States President [[Donald Trump]]]]
The [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 United States presidential campaign]] saw the unprecedented rise of [[Donald Trump]], a businessman with no political experience who ran on a populist/nationalist platform and struggled to gain endorsements from mainstream political figures, even within his own party. Trump's slogans "''Make America Great Again''" and "''America First''" exemplified his campaign's repudiation of globalism and its staunchly nationalistic outlook. His unexpected victory in the election was seen as part of the same trend that had brought about the [[Brexit]] vote.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Lure of Greatness: England's Brexit and America's Trump |author=Barnett, Anthony |year=2017 |publisher=Random House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wRWXDgAAQBAJ&q=trump+brexit|isbn=978-1783524549 }}</ref> On 22 October 2018, two weeks before the mid-term elections President Trump openly proclaimed that he was a nationalist to a cheering crowd at a rally in Texas in support of re-electing Senator [[Ted Cruz]] who was once an adversary.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/10/22/trump-nationalist-926745| title=Trump: 'I'm a nationalist'| website=[[Politico]]| date=22 October 2018| access-date=23 October 2018| archive-date=4 December 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204143604/https://www.politico.com/story/2018/10/22/trump-nationalist-926745| url-status=live}}</ref> On 29 October 2018 Trump equated nationalism to patriotism, saying "I<nowiki>'m proud of this country and I call that ''nationalism.''</nowiki><ref name="gearanWaPo13nov18">{{cite news |last1=Gearan |first1=Anne |title=Trump refuses to acknowledge the fraught history of nationalism |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-refuses-to-acknowledge-the-fraught-history-of-nationalism/2018/11/13/35fd0694-e76a-11e8-a939-9469f1166f9d_story.html |access-date=14 November 2018 |date=13 November 2018 |archive-date=14 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114025039/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-refuses-to-acknowledge-the-fraught-history-of-nationalism/2018/11/13/35fd0694-e76a-11e8-a939-9469f1166f9d_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2016, [[Rodrigo Duterte]] became president of the [[Philippines]] running a distinctly nationalist campaign. Contrary to the policies of his recent predecessors, he distanced the country from the Philippines' former ruler, the United States, and sought closer ties with China (as well as Russia).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs |author=Teehankee, Julio C. |journal=Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs |date=2016 |url=https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jsaa/article/download/1010/1022 |access-date=30 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731025034/https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jsaa/article/download/1010/1022 |archive-date=31 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2017, Turkish nationalism propelled President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] to gain unprecedented power in a [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|national referendum]].<ref>{{cite news |title=In Supporting Erdogan, Turks Cite Economic and Religious Gains |author=Kingsley, Patrick |date=17 April 2017 |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/17/world/europe/turkey-referendum-erdogan.html |access-date=30 July 2017 |archive-date=30 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730225347/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/17/world/europe/turkey-referendum-erdogan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Reactions from world leaders were mixed, with Western European leaders generally expressing concern<ref>{{cite news|title=European Leaders Say Vote Shows 'Deeply Divided' Turkey|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-17/merkel-and-gabriel-say-respect-right-of-turks-to-decide-on-constitution|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021014414/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-17/merkel-and-gabriel-say-respect-right-of-turks-to-decide-on-constitution|url-status=live}}</ref> while the leaders of many of the more authoritarian regimes as well as President Trump offered their congratulations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/turkey/1.783894|title=Trump Called Erdoğan to Congratulate Him on Referendum Results|date=2017-04-18|work=Haaretz|access-date=2017-04-18|language=en|archive-date=17 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917193434/http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/turkey/1.783894|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Political science ==
Many [[political science|political scientists]] have theorized about the foundations of the modern nation-state and the concept of sovereignty. The concept of nationalism in political science draws from these theoretical foundations. Philosophers like [[Machiavelli]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Hobbes]], and [[Rousseau]] conceptualized the state as the result of a "[[social contract]]" between rulers and individuals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0151.xml?rskey=ZyiKL0&result=121 |title=The Nature of the State|last=Miller|first=Max|date=31 March 2016|website=Oxford Bibliographies|access-date=18 May 2017|archive-date=3 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803090437/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0151.xml?rskey=ZyiKL0&result=121|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Max Weber]] provides the most commonly used definition of the state, "that human community which successfully lays claim to the monopoly of legitimate physical violence within a certain territory".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Weber: Political Writings|last=Weber|first=Max|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|location=Cambridge|pages=309–331}}</ref> According to [[Benedict Anderson]], nations are "[[Imagined Communities]]", or socially constructed institutions.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism|publisher=Verso Books|year=2006|pages=48–56}}</ref>

Many scholars have noted the relationship between [[state-building]], [[war]], and nationalism. John Etherington argues nationalism is inherently exclusionary and thus potentially violent,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Etherington |first1=John |title=Nationalism, Exclusion and Violence: A Territorial Approach |journal=Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism |date=2007 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=24–44 |doi=10.1111/j.1754-9469.2007.tb00160.x |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1754-9469.2007.tb00160.x |access-date=20 February 2024}} p.25</ref> while [[Jeffrey Herbst]] posits that external threats can foster nationalist sentiment: "External threats have such a powerful effect on nationalism because people realize in a profound manner that they are under threat because of who they are as a nation; they are forced to recognize that it is only as a nation that they can successfully defeat the threat".<ref name="herbst-war-and-state">{{Cite journal|last=Herbst |first=Jeffrey|date=Spring 1990|title=War and the State in Africa |journal=International Security|volume=14|issue=4|pages=117–139 |doi=10.2307/2538753|jstor=2538753|s2cid=153804691}}</ref> With increased external threats, the state's extractive capacities increase. He links the lack of external threats to countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, post-independence, to weak state nationalism and [[state capacity]].<ref name="herbst-war-and-state" /> [[Barry Posen]] argues that nationalism increases the intensity of war, and that states deliberately promote nationalism with the aim of improving their military capabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Posen|first=Barry |date=Fall 1993 |title=Nationalism, the Mass Army, and Military Power|doi=10.2307/2539098|journal=International Security|volume=18 |issue=2|pages=80–124 |jstor=2539098|s2cid=154935234}}</ref> Most new nation-states since 1815 have emerged through decolonization.<ref name=":9" />

Adria Lawrence has argued that nationalism in the colonial world was spurred by failures of colonial powers to extend equal political rights to the subjects in the colonies, thus prompting them to pursue independence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Adria K.|date=2013|title=Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107037090 |access-date=20 February 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217203231/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/imperial-rule-and-the-politics-of-nationalism/C25DB67F2AABEA1097273FF7D0518556 |url-status=live}}</ref> Michael Hechter has argued similarly that "peripheral nationalisms" formed when empires prevented peripheral regions from having autonomy and local rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hechter |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O3jnCwAAQBAJ |title=Containing Nationalism |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198297420 |language=en}}</ref>

== Sociology ==
The sociological or modernist interpretation of nationalism and nation-building argues that nationalism arises and flourishes in modern societies that have an industrial economy capable of self-sustainability, a central supreme authority capable of maintaining authority and unity, and a centralized language understood by a community of people.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=508–509}} Modernist theorists note that this is only possible in modern societies, while traditional societies typically lack the prerequisites for nationalism. They lack a modern self-sustainable economy, have divided authorities, and use multiple languages resulting in many groups being unable to communicate with each other.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=508–509}}

Prominent theorists who developed the modernist interpretation of nations and nationalism include: [[Carlton J. H. Hayes]], [[Henry Maine]], [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Max Weber]], [[Arnold Joseph Toynbee]] and [[Talcott Parsons]].{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=508–509}}

In his analysis of the historical changes and development of human societies, [[Henry Maine]] noted that the key distinction between traditional societies defined as "status" societies based on family association and functionally diffuse roles for individuals and modern societies defined as "contract" societies where social relations are determined by rational contracts pursued by individuals to advance their interests. Maine saw the development of societies as moving away from traditional status societies to modern contract societies.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=510}}

In his book ''[[Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft]]'' (1887), [[Ferdinand Tönnies]] defined a ''Gemeinschaft'' ("community") as being based on emotional attachments as attributed with traditional societies while defining a ''Gesellschaft'' ("society") as an impersonal society that is modern. Although he recognized the advantages of modern societies, he also criticized them for their cold and impersonal nature that caused [[Social alienation|alienation]] while praising the intimacy of traditional communities.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=510}}

[[Émile Durkheim]] expanded upon Tönnies' recognition of alienation and defined the differences between traditional and modern societies as being between societies based upon "mechanical solidarity" versus societies based on "organic solidarity".{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=510}} Durkheim identified mechanical solidarity as involving custom, habit, and repression that was necessary to maintain shared views. Durkheim identified organic solidarity-based societies as modern societies where there exists a division of labour based on social differentiation that causes alienation. Durkheim claimed that social integration in traditional society required authoritarian culture involving acceptance of a social order. Durkheim claimed that modern society bases integration on the mutual benefits of the division of labour, but noted that the impersonal character of modern urban life caused alienation and feelings of [[anomie]].{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=510}}

[[Max Weber]] claimed the change that developed modern society and nations is the result of the rise of a charismatic leader to power in a society who creates a new tradition or a rational-legal system that establishes the supreme authority of the state. Weber's conception of charismatic authority has been noted as the basis of many nationalist governments.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=510}}

=== Primordialist evolutionary interpretation ===
The primordialist perspective is based upon evolutionary theory.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=272–273}}<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 4236409|title = Evolution, Mobility, and Ethnic Group Formation|journal = Politics and the Life Sciences|volume = 17|issue = 1|pages = 59–71|last1 = Goetze|first1 = David|year = 1998|doi = 10.1017/S0730938400025363| s2cid=151531605 }}</ref> This approach has been popular with the general public but is typically rejected by experts. Laland and Brown report that "the vast majority of professional academics in the social sciences not only ... ignore evolutionary methods but in many cases [are] extremely hostile to the arguments" that draw vast generalizations from rather limited evidence.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kevin N. Laland|author2=Gillian R. Brown|title=Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2KcbFVBSxWYC&pg=PA2|year=2011|publisher=Oxford UP|page=2|isbn=978-0199586967}}</ref>

The evolutionary theory of nationalism perceives nationalism to be the result of the evolution of human beings into identifying with groups, such as ethnic groups, or other groups that form the foundation of a nation.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=272–273}} Roger Masters in ''The Nature of Politics'' describes the primordial explanation of the origin of ethnic and national groups as recognizing group attachments that are thought to be unique, emotional, intense, and durable because they are based upon [[kinship]] and promoted along lines of common ancestry.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=273}}

The primordialist evolutionary views of nationalism often reference the evolutionary theories of [[Charles Darwin]] as well as [[Social Darwinist]] views of the late nineteenth century. Thinkers like [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Walter Bagehot]] reinterpreted Darwin's theory of natural selection "often in ways inconsistent with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution" by making unsupported claims of biological difference among groups, ethnicities, races, and nations.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|pp=495–496}} Modern evolutionary sciences have distanced themselves from such views, but notions of long-term evolutionary change remain foundational to the work of evolutionary psychologists like [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]].{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=268}}

Approached through the primordialist perspective, the example of seeing the mobilization of a foreign military force on the nation's borders may provoke members of a national group to unify and mobilize themselves in response.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=271}} There are proximate environments where individuals identify nonimmediate real or imagined situations in combination with immediate situations that make individuals confront a common situation of both subjective and objective components that affect their decisions.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=272}} As such proximate environments cause people to make decisions based on existing situations and anticipated situations.{{sfn|Motyl|2001|p=272}}

[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Nationalist and liberal pressure led to the European [[Revolutions of 1848]].]]
Critics argue that primordial models relying on evolutionary psychology are based not on historical evidence but on assumptions of unobserved changes over thousands of years and assume stable genetic composition of the population living in a specific area and are incapable of handling the contingencies that characterize every known historical process. Robert Hislope argues:
<blockquote>[T]he articulation of cultural evolutionary theory represents theoretical progress over sociobiology, but its explanatory payoff remains limited due to the role of contingency in human affairs and the significance of non-evolutionary, proximate causal factors. While evolutionary theory undoubtedly elucidates the development of all organic life, it would seem to operate best at macro-levels of analysis, "distal" points of explanation, and from the perspective of the long-term. Hence, it is bound to display shortcomings at micro-level events that are highly contingent in nature.<ref>Robert Hislope "From Ontology to Analogy: Evolutionary Theories and the Explanation of Ethnic Politics: in Patrick James and David Goetze ed. ''Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict'' (2000) p. 174.</ref></blockquote>

In 1920, English historian [[G. P. Gooch]] argued that "[while patriotism is as old as human association and has gradually widened its sphere from the clan and the tribe to the city and the state, nationalism as an operative principle and an articulate creed only made its appearance among the more complicated intellectual processes of the modern world."<ref>{{cite book|author=G.P. Gooch|author-link = George Peabody Gooch|title=Nationalism|publisher=Swarthmore Press Limited|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173640|year=1920|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173640/page/n47 5]}}</ref>

=== Marxist interpretations ===
In ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] declared that "the working men have no country".<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Marx, F. Engels|title=Manifesto of the Communist Party|url=https://archive.org/details/manifestooftheco31193gut}}</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin]] supported the concept of self-determination.<ref name="Smith (1983)">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Anthony D.|title=Nationalism and Classical Social Theory|journal=The British Journal of Sociology|date=March 1983|volume=34|issue=1|pages=19–38|doi=10.2307/590606|jstor=590606}}</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]]'s ''[[Marxism and the National Question]]'' (1913) declares that "a nation is not a [[Race (human classification)|racial]] or [[Tribe|tribal]], but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or ephemeral [[wikt:conglomeration|conglomeration]], but a stable community of people"; "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic [[Interpersonal communication|intercourse]], as a result of people living together generation after generation"; and, in its entirety: "a nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1913/03a.htm|title=Marxism and the National Question|last=Stalin|first=Joseph|website=marxists.org|publisher=Marxists Internet Archive|access-date=10 May 2016|archive-date=5 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005114643/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1913/03a.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Types ==
{{see also|Types of nationalism}}
Historians, sociologists and anthropologists have debated different types of nationalism since at least the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wirth|first=Louis|date=1 May 1936|title=Types of Nationalism|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=41|issue=6|pages=723–737|doi=10.1086/217296|s2cid=144187204|issn=0002-9602}}</ref> Generally, the most common way of classifying nationalism has been to describe movements as having either "civic" or "ethnic" nationalist characteristics. This distinction was popularized in the 1950s by [[Hans Kohn]] who described "civic" nationalism as "Western" and more democratic while depicting "ethnic" nationalism as "Eastern" and undemocratic.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Idea of Nationalism: A Study of Its Origins and Background|last=Kohn|first=Hans|publisher=Macmillan|orig-date=1944 |type=reprint|year=2005|isbn=978-1412804769|location=New York}}</ref> Since the 1980s, scholars of nationalism have pointed out numerous flaws in this rigid division and proposed more specific classifications and numerous varieties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spencer|first1=Philip|last2=Wollman|first2=Howard|date=1 October 1998|title=Good and bad nationalisms: A critique of dualism|journal=Journal of Political Ideologies|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–274|doi=10.1080/13569319808420780|s2cid=145053698 |issn=1356-9317}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yack|first=Bernard|date=1 March 1996|title=The myth of the civic nation|journal=Critical Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=193–211|doi=10.1080/08913819608443417|issn=0891-3811}}</ref>

=== Anti-colonial ===
[[File:Crowd demonstrates against Great Britain in Cairo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Crowd demonstrates against Britain in [[Cairo]] on 23 October 1951 as tension continued to mount in the dispute between Egypt and Britain over control of the [[Suez Canal]] and [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]].]]
Anti-colonial nationalism is an intellectual framework that preceded, accompanied and followed the process of [[decolonization]] in the mid-1900s. [[Benedict Anderson]] defined a nation as a socially constructed community that is co-created by individuals who imagine themselves as part of this group.<ref name="Mylonas"/><ref name="Anderson">{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism|publisher=Verso Books|location=London|year=1983}}</ref> He points to the [[New World]] as the site that originally conceived of nationalism as a concept, which is defined by its imagination of an ahistorical identity that negates colonialism by definition. This concept of nationalism was exemplified by the transformation of settler colonies into nations, while anti-colonial nationalism is exemplified by movements against colonial powers in the 1900s.

Nationalist mobilization in French colonial Africa and British colonial India developed "when colonial regimes refused to cede rights to their increasingly well-educated colonial subjects",  who formed indigenous elites and strategically adopted and adapted nationalist tactics.<ref name="Mylonas"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawrence |first1=Adria |title=Imperial rule and the politics of nationalism : anti-colonial protest in the French empire |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, NY, USA |isbn=9781107640757}}</ref><ref name="Tudor">{{cite book |last1=Tudor |first1=Maya Jessica |title=The promise of power : the origins of democracy in India and autocracy in Pakistan |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781139519076}}</ref> New national identities may cross pre-existing ethnic or linguistic divisions.<ref name="Mylonas"/> Anti-colonial independence movements in Africa and Asia in the 1900s were led by individuals who had a set of shared identities and imagined a homeland without external rule. Anderson argues that the racism often experienced as a result of colonial rule and attributed to nationalism is rather due to theories of class.<ref name=":8" />

[[Gellner's theory of nationalism]] argues that nationalism works for combining one culture or ethnicity in one state, which leads to that state's success. For Gellner, nationalism is ethnic, and state political parties should reflect the ethnic majority in the state. This definition of nationalism also contributes to anti-colonial nationalism, if one conceives of anti-colonial movements to be movements consisting of one specific ethnic group against an outside ruling party.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gellner|first=Ernest |title=Nationalism |date=1997|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0814731139|location=Washington Square, N.Y.|oclc=37353976}}</ref> Edward Said also saw nationalism as ethnic, at least in part, and argued that nationalist narratives often go hand in hand with racism, as communities define themselves in relation to the other.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Said|first=Edward W. |title=Orientalism|date=1978|publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0394428145|edition=First |location=New York|oclc=4004102}}</ref>

Anti-colonial nationalism is not static and is defined by different forms of nationalism depending on location. In the anti-colonial movement that took place in the Indian subcontinent, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and his allies in the [[Indian independence movement]] argued for a [[composite nationalism]], not believing that an independent Indian nation should be defined by its religious identity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Grant|first=Moyra|title=Politics Review|url=http://moodle.collyers.ac.uk/file.php/465/Politics_Review_articles/nationalism_expansionistanddesrtuctive.pdf|url-access=subscription|access-date=16 April 2011|publisher=Politics Review}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="BennemaBhakiaraj2011">{{cite book |last1=Bennema |first1=Cornelis |last2=Bhakiaraj |first2=Paul Joshua |title=Indian and Christian: Changing Identities in Modern India |date=2011 |publisher=SAIACS Press & Oxford House Research |isbn=978-8187712268 |page=157 |language=en|quote=Both these approaches are shown to be within the framework of 'composite nationalism', where Indian Christians maintained their communal distinctiveness while aspiring for national integration.}}</ref> Despite large-scale [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposition]] by the [[Indian National Congress]] supporters, the insistence of the Muslims under the separatist [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] resulted in the [[Indian subcontinent]] being [[Partition of India|partitioned]] into two states in 1947 along religious lines into the Muslim-majority [[Dominion of Pakistan]] and the Hindu-majority [[Dominion of India]].<ref name="Chitkara1988">{{cite book |last1=Chitkara |first1=M. G. |title=Converts Do Not Make a Nation |date=1998 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=9788170249825 |page=240 |language=en}}</ref>

Because of colonialism's creation of state and country lines across ethnic, religious, linguistic and other historical boundaries, anti-colonial nationalism is largely related to land first. After independence, especially in countries with particularly diverse populations with historic enmity, there have been a series of smaller independence movements that are also defined by anti-colonialism.

Philosopher and scholar Achille Mbembe argues that post-colonialism is a contradictory term, because colonialism is ever present.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mbembe|first=Achille |title=On the postcolony|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520917538|location=Berkeley |oclc=49570017}}</ref> Those that participate in this intellectual practice envision a post-colonialism despite its being the defining frame for the world. This is the case with anti-colonialism as well. Anti-colonial nationalism as an intellectual framework persisted into the late 20th century with the [[Revolutions of 1989|resistance movements]] in Soviet satellite states and continues with [[Arab Spring|independence movements]] in the Arab world in the 21st century.

=== Civic and liberal ===
{{main|Civic nationalism}}
Civic nationalism defines the nation as an association of people who identify themselves as belonging to the nation, who have equal and shared political rights, and allegiance to similar political procedures.<ref name="blackwell">{{cite book| last = Nash | first = Kate| title = The Blackwell companion to political sociology| page = 391| date = 2001| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-0631210504}}</ref> According to the principles of civic nationalism, the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry, but is a political entity whose core identity is not ethnicity. This civic concept of nationalism is exemplified by [[Ernest Renan]] in his lecture in 1882 "[[What is a Nation?]]", where he defined the nation as a "daily referendum" (frequently translated "daily [[plebiscite]]") dependent on the will of its people to continue living together.<ref name="blackwell"/>

Civic nationalism is normally associated with [[liberal nationalism]], although the two are distinct, and did not always coincide. On the one hand, until the late 19th and early 20th century adherents to anti-Enlightenment movements such as French [[Legitimism]] or Spanish [[Carlism]] often rejected the liberal, national unitary state, yet identified themselves not with an ethnic nation but with a non-national dynasty and regional feudal privileges. Xenophobic movements in long-established Western European states indeed often took a 'civic national' form, rejecting a given group's ability to assimilate with the nation due to its belonging to a cross-border community (Irish Catholics in Britain, Ashkenazic Jews in France). On the other hand, while subnational separatist movements were commonly associated with ethnic nationalism, this was not always so, and such nationalists as the [[Corsican Republic]], [[United Irishmen]], [[Breton Federalist League]] or [[Catalan Republican Party]] could combine a rejection of the unitary civic-national state with a belief in liberal universalism.

Liberal nationalism is commonly considered to be compatible with [[liberal values]] of [[Freedom (political)|freedom]], [[Toleration|tolerance]], [[Egalitarianism|equality]], and [[individual rights]].<ref>Tamir, Yael. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0691078939}}</ref>{{sfn|Kymlicka|1995|p=200}}<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1995|pp=188–189}}</ref> [[Ernest Renan]]<ref>Renan, Ernest. 1882. [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Qu%27est-ce_qu%27une_nation_%3F "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428090814/https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Qu%27est-ce_qu%27une_nation_ |date=28 April 2021 }}</ref> and [[John Stuart Mill]]<ref>Mill, John Stuart. 1861. ''Considerations on Representative Government.''</ref> are often thought to be early liberal nationalists. Liberal nationalists often defend the value of national identity by saying that individuals need a national identity to lead meaningful, autonomous lives,{{sfn|Kymlicka|1995|p=34}}<ref>For criticism, see: {{cite journal | last1 = Patten | first1 = Alan | year = 1999 | title = The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 1–17 | doi=10.1111/j.1354-5078.1999.00001.x}}</ref> and that liberal democratic polities need national identity to function properly.<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1995|p=136}}</ref><ref>For criticism, see: {{cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2002 | title = Does Liberal Democracy Presuppose a Cultural Nation? Four Arguments | url = http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 | journal = American Political Science Review | volume = 96 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–509 | doi = 10.1017/s000305540200028x | s2cid = 145715867 | access-date = 8 July 2015 | archive-date = 7 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82 | url-status = live }}; {{cite journal | last1 = Abizadeh | first1 = Arash | year = 2004 | title = Liberal Nationalist versus Postnational Social Integration | url = http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 231–250 | doi = 10.1111/j.1354-5078.2004.00165.x | access-date = 8 July 2015 | archive-date = 7 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of [[rationalism]] and liberalism, but as a form of nationalism it is usually contrasted with [[ethnic nationalism]]. Civic nationalism is correlated with long-established states whose dynastic rulers had gradually acquired multiple distinct territories, with little change to boundaries, but which contained historical populations of multiple linguistic and/or confessional backgrounds. Since individuals living within different parts of the state territory might have little obvious common ground, civic nationalism developed as a way for rulers to both explain a contemporary reason for such heterogeneity and to provide a common purpose ([[Ernest Renan]]'s classic description in [[What is a Nation?]] (1882) as a voluntary partnership for a common endeavor). Renan argued that factors such as ethnicity, language, religion, economics, geography, ruling dynasty and historic military deeds were important but not sufficient. Needed was a spiritual soul that allowed as a "daily referendum" among the people.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Singley | first1 = Carol J. | year = 2003 | title = Race, Culture, Nation: Edith Wharton and Ernest Renan | journal = Twentieth Century Literature | volume = 49 | issue = 1| pages = 32–45 | doi=10.2307/3176007| jstor = 3176007 }}</ref> Civic-national ideals influenced the development of [[representative democracy]] in multiethnic countries such as the United States and France, as well as in constitutional monarchies such as Great Britain, Belgium and Spain.<ref name="google_2016_pg173"/>

[[File:2012 UPA March in Kiev.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian nationalists carry portraits of [[Stepan Bandera]] and flags of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]].]]

=== Creole ===
{{main|Creole nationalism}}
Creole nationalism is the ideology that emerged in independence movements among the creoles (descendants of the colonizers), especially in [[Latin America]] in the early 19th century.<ref> Joshua Simon, ''The Ideology of Creole Revolution: Imperialism and Independence in American and Latin American Political Thought'' (2017) pp 1-2.</ref> It was facilitated when French Emperor Napoleon seized control of Spain and Portugal, breaking the chain of control from the Spanish and Portuguese kings to the local governors. Allegiance to the Napoleonic states was rejected, and increasingly the creoles demanded independence. They achieved it after civil wars 1808–1826.<ref>D. A. Brading, ''The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State 1492–1866'' (1991)</ref>

=== Ethnic === <!-- This section is linked from [[White supremacy]]. -->
{{see also|Ethnic nationalism}}
Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethno-nationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the "nation" is defined in terms of [[ethnicity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/third_position.html |title=The Website of Political Research Associates |publisher=PublicEye.org |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419124320/http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/third_position.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The central theme of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a [[common language]], a common faith, and a [[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic group|common ethnic ancestry]]".<ref name="ReferenceA">Muller, Jerry Z. "Us and Them." Current Issue 501 Mar/Apr 2008 9–14</ref> It also includes ideas of a [[culture]] shared between members of the group, and with their ancestors. It is different from a purely cultural definition of "the nation," which allows people to become members of a nation by [[cultural assimilation]]; and from a purely linguistic definition, according to which "the nation" consists of all speakers of a specific language.

Whereas nationalism in and of itself does not imply a belief in the superiority of one ethnicity or country over others, some nationalists support [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] supremacy or protectionism.

The humiliation of being a second-class citizen led regional minorities in multiethnic states, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Russia and the Ottoman Empire, to define nationalism in terms of loyalty to their minority culture, especially language and religion. Forced assimilation was anathema.<ref>Timothy Baycroft, ''Nationalism in Europe 1789–1945'' (1998) p. 56.</ref>

For the politically dominant cultural group, assimilation was necessary to minimize disloyalty and treason and therefore became a major component of nationalism. A second factor for the politically dominant group was competition with neighboring states—nationalism involved a rivalry, especially in terms of military prowess and economic strength.<ref>Baycroft, ''Nationalism in Europe 1789–1945'' (1998) p. 58.</ref>

=== Economic ===
{{see also|Economic nationalism}}
Economic nationalism, or economic patriotism, is an ideology that favors [[Economic interventionism|state interventionism]] in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and [[capital formation]], even if this requires the imposition of [[tariff]]s and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gilpin|first=Robert|url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691022628/the-political-economy-of-international-relations|title=The Political Economy of International Relations|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0691022628|pages=31–34|language=en|access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613233003/https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691022628/the-political-economy-of-international-relations|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Helleiner |first=Eric |date=2021 |title=The Diversity of Economic Nationalism |journal=New Political Economy |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=229–238 |doi=10.1080/13563467.2020.1841137 |issn=1356-3467 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Gendered and muscular ===
{{main|Nationalism and gender}}
Feminist critique interprets nationalism as a mechanism through which sexual control and repression are justified and legitimized, often by a dominant masculine power. The [[gender]]ing of nationalism through socially constructed notions of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]] not only shapes what masculine and feminine participation in the building of that nation will look like, but also how the nation will be imagined by nationalists.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Banerjee|first=Sikata|title=Gender and nationalism: the masculinization of hinduism and female political participation in india|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=26|issue=2|pages=167–179|doi=10.1016/s0277-5395(03)00019-0 |year=2003}}</ref> A nation having its own identity is viewed as necessary, and often inevitable, and these identities are gendered.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Mackay|first=Eva|date=2000|title=Death by Landscape: Race, Nature and Gender in the Canadian Nationalist Mythology |url=http://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/7618/6749|journal=Canadian Woman Studies|volume=20|pages=125–130|via=Journals.Yorku |access-date=17 November 2017|archive-date=12 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012014631/https://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/7618/6749|url-status=live}}</ref> The physical land itself is often gendered as female (i.e. "Motherland"), with a body in constant danger of violation by foreign males, while national pride and protectiveness of "her" borders is gendered as masculine.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Woman and War Reader |last=Peterson |first=Spike V. |publisher=New York University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0814751459 |editor-last=Turpin |editor-first=Jennifer |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/womenwarreader00lore_0/page/41 41–49] |chapter=Gendered nationalism: Reproducing "Us" versus "Them" |editor-last2=Lorentzen |editor-first2=Lois Ann |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/womenwarreader00lore_0/page/41}}</ref>

[[File:US Patriotic Army Recruiting Poster WW2 Then Now Forever.jpg|thumb|upright|World War II United States Patriotic Army Recruiting Poster]]
History, political ideologies, and religions place most nations along a continuum of muscular nationalism.<ref name=":5" /> Muscular nationalism conceptualizes a nation's identity as being derived from muscular or masculine attributes that are unique to a particular country.<ref name=":5" /> If definitions of nationalism and gender are understood as socially and culturally constructed, the two may be constructed in conjunction by invoking an [[Ingroups and outgroups|"us" versus "them" dichotomy]] for the purpose of the exclusion of the so-called "other," who is used to reinforce the unifying ties of the nation.<ref name=":4" /> The empowerment of one gender, nation or sexuality tends to occur at the expense and disempowerment of another; in this way, nationalism can be used as an instrument to perpetuate [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] structures of power.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender Ironies of Nationalism|last=Mayer|first=Tamar|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2000}}</ref> The gendered manner in which dominant nationalism has been imagined in most states in the world has had important implications on not only individual's lived experience, but on international relations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robidoux|first=Michael A.|date=2002|title=Imagining a Canadian Identity through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and Hockey|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=115|issue=456|pages=209–225 |doi=10.2307/4129220|jstor=4129220}}</ref> [[Colonialism]] has historically been heavily intertwined with muscular nationalism, from research linking [[hegemonic masculinity]] and empire-building,<ref name=":4" /> to [[Intersectionality|intersectional]] oppression being justified by colonialist images of the "other", a practice integral in the formation of Western identity.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Orientalism |last=Said |first=Edward |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1979 |isbn=978-0394740676 |location=New York |pages=1–368}}</ref> This "othering" may come in the form of [[orientalism]], whereby the East is [[Feminization (sociology)|feminized]] and [[sexualized]] by the West. The imagined feminine East, or "other," exists in contrast to the masculine West.

The status of conquered nations can become a causality dilemma: the nation was "conquered because they were effeminate and seen as effeminate because they were conquered."<ref name=":4" /> In defeat they are considered militaristically unskilled, not aggressive, and thus not muscular. In order for a nation to be considered "proper", it must possess the male-gendered characteristics of virility, as opposed to the stereotypically female characteristics of subservience and dependency.<ref name=":5" /> Muscular nationalism is often inseparable from the concept of a [[warrior]], which shares [[Ideology|ideological]] commonalities across many nations; they are defined by the masculine notions of aggression, willingness to engage in war, decisiveness, and muscular strength, as opposed to the feminine notions of peacefulness, weakness, non-violence, and compassion.<ref name=":4" /> This masculinized image of a warrior has been theorized to be "the culmination of a series of gendered historical and social processes" played out in a national and international context.<ref name=":4" /> Ideas of cultural dualism—of a martial man and chaste woman—which are implicit in muscular nationalism, underline the [[Race (human categorization)|raced]], [[Social class|classed]], [[gender]]ed, and [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] nature of dominant national identity.<ref name=":5" />

Nations and gender systems are mutually supportive [[Social constructionism|constructions]]: the nation fulfils the masculine ideals of comradeship and brotherhood.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Waetjen|first=Thembisa|date=2001|title=The Limits of Gender Rhetoric for Nationalism: A Case Study from Southern Africa|journal=Theory and Society|volume=30|issue=1|pages=121–152|doi=10.1023/a:1011099627847|jstor=658064|s2cid=142868365}}</ref> Masculinity has been cited as a notable factor in producing political militancy.<ref name=":6" /> A common feature of national crisis is a drastic shift in the socially acceptable ways of being a man,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alison|first=Miranda|date=2007|title=Wartime Sexual Violence: Women's Human Rights and Questions of Masculinity|jstor=20097951|journal=Review of International Studies|volume=33|issue=1|pages=75–90|doi=10.1017/s0260210507007310|s2cid=2332633|url=<!-- Disable Citation_bot. Dead link: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/953/1/WRAP_Alison_Wartime_sexual.pdf -->}}</ref> which then helps to shape the gendered perception of the nation as a whole.

=== Integral, pan and irredentism ===
{{main|Integral nationalism|Irredentism|Pan-nationalism}}
There are different types of nationalism including Risorgimento nationalism and Integral nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ruiGAgAAQBAJ&q=Peter+Alter++Risorgimento&pg=PA66|title=Contemporary Nationalism|isbn=978-1134695416|last1=Brown|first1=David|date=2003|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>Integral nationalism is one of five types of nationalism defined by [[Carlton Hayes]] in his 1928 book ''The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism.''</ref> Whereas risorgimento nationalism applies to a nation seeking to establish a liberal state (for example the [[Risorgimento]] in Italy and similar movements in [[Greece]], Germany, [[Poland]] during the 19th century or the [[civic nationalism|civic]] [[American nationalism]]), integral nationalism results after a nation has achieved independence and has established a state. [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]], according to Alter and Brown, were examples of integral nationalism.

Some of the qualities that characterize integral nationalism are [[anti-individualism]], [[statism]], radical extremism, and aggressive-expansionist militarism. The term Integral Nationalism often overlaps with fascism, although many natural points of disagreement exist. Integral nationalism arises in countries where a strong military ethos has become entrenched through the independence struggle, when, once independence is achieved, it is believed that a strong military is required to ensure the security and viability of the new state. Also, the success of such a liberation struggle results in feelings of national superiority that may lead to extreme nationalism.

Pan-nationalism is unique in that it covers a large area span. Pan-nationalism focuses more on "clusters" of ethnic groups. [[Pan-Slavism]] is one example of Pan-nationalism. The goal is to unite all [[Slavic people]] into one country. They did succeed by uniting several [[South Slavs|south Slavic]] people into [[Yugoslavia]] in 1918.<ref>Ivo Banac, ''The National Question in Yugoslavia'' (Cornell University Press, 1984).</ref>

=== Left-wing ===
{{Main|Left-wing nationalism}}
[[File:Antiimperialismo caracas.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A political mural in [[Caracas]] featuring an anti-American and anti-imperialist message]]
Left-wing nationalism, occasionally known as socialist nationalism, not to be confused with the German fascist "[[Nazism|National Socialism]]",<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119472227/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019203758/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x/abstract|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 October 2017|title=Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x|year=2006|volume=35|issue=2|journal=Political Studies|pages=239–255|last1=Schwarzmantel|first1=J. J|s2cid=144474775|accessdate=24 October 2009}}</ref> is a political movement that combines [[left-wing politics]] with nationalism.

Many nationalist movements are dedicated to [[national liberation]], in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise [[self-determination]] by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. [[Anti-Revisionism|Anti-revisionist]] [[Marxism–Leninism]] is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work ''[[Marxism and the National Question]]'' and his [[socialism in one country]] edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context, fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions.

Other examples of left-wing nationalism include [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] that launched the [[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959, [[Cornwall]]'s [[Mebyon Kernow]], Ireland's [[Sinn Féin]], [[Wales]]'s [[Plaid Cymru]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]'s [[Galician Nationalist Bloc]], the [[Awami League]] in Bangladesh, the [[African National Congress]] in South Africa and numerous movements in Eastern Europe.<ref>Robert Zuzowski, "The Left and Nationalism in Eastern Europe" ''East European Quarterly'', 41#4 (2008) [https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-173464008/the-left-and-nationalism-in-eastern-europe online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123133019/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-173464008/the-left-and-nationalism-in-eastern-europe |date=23 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>Alexander J. Motyl, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Nationalism'' (2 vol. 2000).</ref>

=== National-anarchism ===
{{main|National-anarchism}}
Among the first advocates of national-anarchism were Hans Cany, Peter Töpfer and former [[British National Front|National Front]] activist [[Troy Southgate]], founder of the [[National Revolutionary Faction]], a since disbanded British-based organization which cultivated links to certain [[far-left]] and [[far-right]] circles in the United Kingdom and in [[post-Soviet states]], not to be confused with the national-anarchism of the Black Ram Group.<ref name="Macklin 2005">{{cite journal|last=Macklin|first=Graham D.|title=Co-opting the counter culture: Troy Southgate and the National Revolutionary Faction|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=39|issue=3|pages=301–326|date=September 2005|url=https://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=2439#more-2439|doi=10.1080/00313220500198292|s2cid=144248307|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205084154/https://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=2439#more-2439|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sunshine 2008">{{cite journal|author=Sunshine, Spencer|title=Rebranding Fascism: National-Anarchists|journal=[[The Public Eye (magazine)|The Public Eye]]|volume=23|issue=4|date=Winter 2008|pages=1–12|url=http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v23n4/rebranding_fascism.html|access-date=12 November 2009|archive-date=26 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726220604/http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v23n4/rebranding_fascism.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sanchez 2009">{{cite web|author=Sanchez, Casey|author-link=Casey Sanchez|title='National Anarchism': California racists claim they're Anarchists|work=[[Intelligence Report]]|date=Summer 2009|url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/california-racists-claim-they%E2%80%99re-anarchists|access-date=2 December 2009|archive-date=24 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224042238/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/california-racists-claim-they%E2%80%99re-anarchists|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, national-anarchists worked with ''Albion Awake'', ''[[Alternative Green]]'' (published by former ''[[Green Anarchist]]'' editor [[Richard Hunt (editor)|Richard Hunt]]) and Jonathan Boulter to develop the Anarchist Heretics Fair.<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/> Those national-anarchists cite their influences primarily from [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[William Godwin]], [[Peter Kropotkin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Max Stirner]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/>

A position developed in Europe during the 1990s, national-anarchist groups have seen arisen worldwide, most prominently in Australia (New Right Australia/New Zealand), Germany (International National Anarchism) and the United States (BANA).<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> National-anarchism has been described as a [[Radical right (Europe)|radical]] [[right-wing]]<ref name="Griffin 2003">{{cite journal|author=Griffin, Roger|author-link=Roger Griffin|title=From slime mould to rhizome: an introduction to the groupuscular right|journal=Patterns of Prejudice|volume=37|issue=1|pages=27–63|date=March 2003|doi=10.1080/0031322022000054321|s2cid=143709925}}</ref><ref name="Goodrick-Clarke 2003">{{cite book|author=Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas|author-link=Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke|title=Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity|publisher=New York University Press|year=2003|location=New York|isbn=978-0814731550|title-link=Black Sun (Goodrick-Clarke book)}}</ref><ref name="Sykes 2005">{{cite book|author=Sykes, Alan|title=The Radical Right in Britain: Social Imperialism to the BNP (British History in Perspective)|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2005|location=New York|isbn=978-0333599235}}</ref> nationalist ideology which advocates [[White separatism|racial separatism]] and white [[racial purity]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> National-anarchists claim to [[Syncretic politics|syncretize]] [[Neotribalism|neotribal]] [[ethnic nationalism]] with [[philosophical anarchism]], mainly in their support for a [[stateless society]] whilst rejecting [[anarchist]] social philosophy.<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> The main ideological innovation of national-anarchism is its [[anti-state]] [[palingenetic ultranationalism]].<ref name="Griffin 2003"/> National-anarchists advocate [[homogeneous]] [[communities]] in place of the [[nation state]]. National-anarchists claim that those of different [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] or [[Race (human categorization)|racial]] groups would be free to develop [[Separatism|separately]] in their own [[tribal commune]]s while striving to be politically [[meritocratic]], economically non-[[capitalist]], ecologically [[sustainable]] and socially and culturally [[Traditional values|traditional]].<ref name="Macklin 2005"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/>

Although the term ''national-anarchism'' dates back as far as the 1920s, the contemporary national-anarchist movement has been put forward since the late 1990s by British political activist [[Troy Southgate]], who positions it as being "[[Third Position|beyond left and right]]".<ref name="Macklin 2005"/> The few scholars who have studied national-anarchism conclude that it represents a further evolution in the thinking of the radical right rather than an entirely new dimension on the political spectrum.<ref name="Griffin 2003"/><ref name="Goodrick-Clarke 2003"/><ref name="Sykes 2005"/> National-anarchism is considered by anarchists as being a rebranding of [[totalitarian]] [[fascism]] and an [[oxymoron]] due to the inherent contradiction of anarchist philosophy of [[anti-fascism]], abolition of unjustified [[hierarchy]], dismantling of [[national borders]] and [[Moral universalism|universal]] [[Egalitarianism|equality]] between different nationalities as being incompatible with the idea of a synthesis between anarchism and fascism.<ref name="Sanchez 2009"/>

National-anarchism has elicited scepticism and outright hostility from both [[left-wing]] and far-right critics.<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> Critics, including scholars, accuse national-anarchists of being nothing more than [[white nationalists]] who promote a [[communitarian]] and [[racialist]] form of ethnic and racial separatism while wanting the [[militant chic]] of calling themselves ''anarchists'' without the historical and philosophical baggage that accompanies such a claim, including the [[anti-racist]] [[egalitarian]] anarchist philosophy and the contributions of [[Jewish anarchists]].<ref name="Sunshine 2008"/><ref name="Sanchez 2009"/> Some scholars are sceptical that implementing national-anarchism would result in an expansion of freedom and describe it as an [[authoritarian]] [[anti-statism]] that would result in authoritarianism and oppression, only on a smaller scale.<ref name="Lyons 2011">{{cite journal|author=Lyons, Matthew N.|title=Rising Above the Herd: Keith Preston's Authoritarian Anti-Statism|journal=[[New Politics (magazine)|New Politics]]|volume=7|issue=3|date=Summer 2011|url=https://newpol.org/rising-above-herd-keith-prestons-authoritarian-anti-statism/|access-date=27 July 2019|archive-date=27 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727044221/https://newpol.org/rising-above-herd-keith-prestons-authoritarian-anti-statism/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Nativist ===
{{see also|Nativism (politics)}}
Nativist nationalism is a type of nationalism similar to creole or territorial types of nationalism, but which defines belonging to a nation solely by being born on its territory. In countries where strong nativist nationalism exists, people who were not born in the country are seen as lesser nationals than those who were born there and are called ''[[immigrants]]'' even if they became naturalized. It is cultural as people will never see a foreign-born person as one of them and is legal as such people are banned for life from holding certain jobs, especially government jobs. In scholarly studies, ''nativism'' is a standard technical term, although those who hold this political view do not typically accept the label. {{nowrap|"[N]ativists}} . . . do not consider themselves nativists. For them it is a negative term and they rather consider themselves as '[[Patriotism|Patriots]]'."<ref>{{cite book|first= Oezguer|last= Dindar|title= American Nativism and Its Representation in the Film "L. A. Crash"|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7daSfJQ-fEwC&pg=PA4|publisher= GRIN Verlag|location= Munich, Germany|year= 2009 | page = 4|isbn= 978-3640704453}}</ref>

=== Racial ===
{{main|Racial nationalism}}
Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a racial definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve a given race through policies such as [[Anti-miscegenation laws|banning race mixing]] and the [[immigration]] of other races. Its ideas tend to be in direct conflict with those of [[anti-racism]] and [[multiculturalism]].<ref name="taub">{{cite news |last=Taub |first=Amanda |date=21 November 2016 |title=White Nationalism, Explained |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=14 June 2023 |archive-date=14 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614003947/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="silverstein">{{cite news |last=Silverstein |first=Jason |title=Billboard from 'white genocide' segregation group goes up along highway near Birmingham, Ala |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |work=[[New York Daily News]] |date=January 11, 2015 |access-date=14 June 2023 |archive-date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322082831/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126 |url-status=live }}</ref> Specific examples are [[black nationalism]] and [[white nationalism]].

=== Religious ===
{{main|Religious nationalism}}
Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, dogma, or affiliation where a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, a common bond among the citizens of the nation. [[Saudi Arabia]]n, [[Iran]]ian, [[Egypt]]ian, [[Iraq]]i, [[America]]n and the [[Pakistani nationalism|Pakistani-Islamic nationalism]] ([[Two-Nation Theory]]) are some examples.

=== Territorial ===
{{main|Territorial nationalism}}
[[File:Brazil - 1969.svg|thumb|Nationalist slogan "''Brazil, love it or leave it''", used during the [[Brazilian military government|Brazilian military dictatorship]]]]
Some nationalists exclude certain groups. Some nationalists, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these), may then seek to deem certain minorities as not truly being a part of the 'national community' as they define it. Sometimes a mythic homeland is more important for the national identity than the actual territory occupied by the nation.<ref>Smith, Anthony D. 1986. The Ethnic Origins of Nations London: Basil Blackwell. pp. 6–18. {{ISBN|0631152059}}.</ref>

Territorial nationalists assume that all inhabitants of a particular nation owe allegiance to their country of birth or adoption.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1BmPsVvbbdQC&pg=PA22 Middle East and North Africa: Challenge to Western Security] by Peter Duignan and L.H. Gann, [[Hoover Institution Press]], 1981, {{ISBN|978-0817973926}} p. 22</ref> A sacred quality is sought in the nation and in the popular memories it evokes. Citizenship is idealized by territorial nationalists. A criterion of a territorial nationalism is the establishment of a mass, public culture based on common values, codes and traditions of the population.{{sfn|Leoussi|2001|p=62}}

=== Sport ===
{{main|Nationalism and sport}}
Sport spectacles like football's World Cup command worldwide audiences as nations battle for supremacy and the fans invest intense support for their national team. Increasingly people have tied their loyalties and even their cultural identity to national teams.<ref>Grant Jarvie and Wray Vamplew, ''Sport, nationalism and cultural identity'' (1993).</ref> The globalization of audiences through television and other media has generated revenues from advertisers and subscribers in the billions of dollars, as the FIFA Scandals of 2015 revealed.<ref>Andrew Jennings, ''The Dirty Game: Uncovering the Scandal at FIFA'' (2015).</ref> Jeff Kingston looks at football, the Commonwealth Games, baseball, cricket, and the Olympics and finds that, "The capacity of sports to ignite and amplify nationalist passions and prejudices is as extraordinary as is their power to console, unify, uplift and generate goodwill."<ref>Jeff Kingston, ''Nationalism in Asia: A History Since 1945'' (2016).</ref> The phenomenon is evident across most of the world.<ref>H. Fernández L’Hoeste et al. ''Sports and Nationalism in Latin/o America'' (2015).</ref><ref>Alan Bairner, ''Sport, nationalism, and globalization: European and North American perspectives'' (2001).</ref><ref>Gwang Ok, ''Transformation of Modern Korean Sport: Imperialism, Nationalism, Globalization'' (2007).</ref> The [[British Empire]] strongly emphasized sports among its soldiers and agents across the world, and often the locals joined in enthusiastically.<ref>P. McDevitt, ''May the Best Man Win: Sport, Masculinity, and Nationalism in Great Britain and the Empire, 1880–1935'' (2008).</ref> It established a high prestige competition in 1930, named the British Empire Games from 1930 to 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 to 1966, British Commonwealth Games from 1970 to 1974 and since then the [[Commonwealth Games]].<ref>[[Harold Perkin]], "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 6#2 (1989): 145–155.</ref>

The French Empire was not far behind the British in the use of sports to strengthen colonial solidarity with France. Colonial officials promoted and subsidized gymnastics, table games, and dance and helped football spread to French colonies.<ref>Driss Abbassi, "Le sport dans l'empire français: un instrument de domination?." ''Outre-mers'' 96.364 (2009): 5–15. [http://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_1631-0438_2009_num_96_364_4411 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607082154/http://www.persee.fr/doc/outre_1631-0438_2009_num_96_364_4411 |date=7 June 2019 }}</ref>

== Criticism ==
{{see also|Internationalism (politics)}}
Critics of nationalism have argued that it is often unclear what constitutes a nation, or whether a nation is a legitimate unit of political rule. Nationalists hold that the boundaries of a nation and a state should coincide with one another, thus nationalism tends to oppose [[multiculturalism]].<ref name = Heywood>{{cite book| last=Heywood| first=Andrew|title=Political Theory: An Introduction|publisher=Macmillan Press| location=London| year=1999| edition=2nd|pages=97–98|isbn=978-0333760918}}</ref> It can also lead to conflict when more than one national group finds itself claiming rights to a particular territory or seeking to take control of the state.<ref name="Triandafyllidou"/>

Philosopher [[A. C. Grayling]] describes nations as artificial constructs, "their boundaries drawn in the blood of past wars". He argues that "there is no country on earth which is not home to more than one different but usually coexisting culture. Cultural heritage is not the same thing as national identity".<ref>{{cite book|last=Grayling|first=A.C.|title=The Meaning of Things: Applying Philosophy to Life.|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson| location=London| year=2001| pages=78–79| isbn=978-0297607588}}</ref>

Nationalism is considered by its critics to be inherently divisive, as adherents may draw upon and highlight perceived differences between people, emphasizing an individual's identification with their own nation. They also consider the idea to be potentially oppressive, because it can submerge individual identity within a national whole and give elites or political leaders potential opportunities to manipulate or control [[Common people|the masses]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Heywood|first=Andrew|title=Key Concepts in Politics|publisher=Macmillan Press|location=London |year=2000|page=256|isbn=978-0333770955}}</ref> Much of the early opposition to nationalism was related to its geopolitical ideal of a separate state for every nation. The classic nationalist movements of the 19th century rejected the very existence of the multi-ethnic empires in Europe, contrary to an ideological critique of nationalism which developed into several forms of [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]] and anti-nationalism. The [[Islamic revival]] of the 20th century also produced an [[Islamism|Islamist]] critique of the nation-state. (see [[Pan-Islamism]])<ref>''[[World Book Encyclopedia]]'', 2018 ed., s.v. "Muslims"</ref>

At the end of the 19th century, [[Marxists]] and other [[socialists]] and [[communists]] (such as [[Rosa Luxemburg]]) produced political analyses that were critical of the nationalist movements then active in Central and Eastern Europe, although a variety of other contemporary socialists and communists, from [[Vladimir Lenin]] (a communist) to [[Józef Piłsudski]] (a socialist), were more sympathetic to national [[self-determination]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1959/rosalux/6-natquest.htm |title=Rosa Luxemburg and the national question |access-date=2 August 2008 |last=Cliff |first=Tony |author-link=Tony Cliff |year=1959 |publisher=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-date=15 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715195139/https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1959/rosalux/6-natquest.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In his classic essay on the topic, [[George Orwell]] distinguishes nationalism from patriotism (which he defines as devotion to a particular place). More abstractly, nationalism is "power-hunger tempered by self-deception".<ref name=NonN>George Orwell, [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/nationalism/english/e_nat Notes on Nationalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001174700/http://orwell.ru/library/essays/nationalism/english/e_nat |date=1 October 2019 }}, [http://orwell.ru orwell.ru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701102025/http://orwell.ru/ |date=1 July 2019 }}.</ref> For Orwell, the nationalist is more likely than not dominated by irrational negative impulses:
<blockquote>A nationalist is one who thinks solely, or mainly, in terms of competitive prestige. He may be a positive or a negative nationalist—that is, he may use his mental energy either in boosting or in denigrating—but at any rate his thoughts always turn on victories, defeats, triumphs and humiliations. He sees history, especially contemporary history, as the endless rise and decline of great power units and every event that happens seems to him a demonstration that his own side is on the upgrade and some hated rival is on the downgrade. But finally, it is important not to confuse nationalism with mere worship of success. The nationalist does not go on the principle of simply ganging up with the strongest side. On the contrary, having picked his side, he persuades himself that it is the strongest and is able to stick to his belief even when the facts are overwhelmingly against him.<ref name=NonN /></blockquote>

In the [[Liberalism|liberal]] political tradition, there was mostly a negative attitude toward nationalism as a dangerous force and a cause of conflict and war between nation-states. The historian [[Lord Acton]] put the case for "nationalism as insanity" in 1862. He argued that nationalism suppresses minorities, places country above moral principles and creates a dangerous individual attachment to the state. He opposed democracy and tried to defend the pope from Italian nationalism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lang | first1 = Timothy | year = 2002 | title = Lord Acton and 'the Insanity of Nationality' | journal = Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 63 | issue = 1| pages = 129–149 | jstor=3654261 | doi=10.2307/3654261}}</ref> Since the late 20th century, liberals have been increasingly divided, with some philosophers such as [[Michael Walzer]], [[Isaiah Berlin]], [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]] and [[David Miller (philosopher)|David Miller]] emphasizing that a liberal society needs to be based in a stable nation state.<ref>Motyl 1:298</ref>

The [[pacifist]] critique of nationalism also concentrates on the violence of some nationalist movements, the associated [[militarism]], and on conflicts between nations inspired by [[jingoism]] or [[chauvinism]]. National symbols and patriotic assertiveness are in some countries discredited by their historical link with past wars, especially in Germany. British pacifist [[Bertrand Russell]] criticized nationalism for diminishing the individual's capacity to judge his or her fatherland's foreign policy.<ref>''Russell Speaks His Mind'', 1960. Fletcher and son Ltd., Norwich, United Kingdom</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://fair-use.org/international-journal-of-ethics/1915/01/the-ethics-of-war |title=The ethics of war |access-date=5 July 2018 |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |author-link=Bertrand Russell |year=1915 |publisher=[[International Journal of Ethics]] |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124225022/http://fair-use.org/international-journal-of-ethics/1915/01/the-ethics-of-war |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]] stated that "Nationalism is an infantile disease. It is the measles of mankind".<ref>{{cite news |last=Viereck |first=George Sylvester |title=What Life Means to Einstein |url=http://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/wp-content/uploads/satevepost/what_life_means_to_einstein.pdf |access-date=19 May 2013 |newspaper=[[The Saturday Evening Post]] |date=26 October 1929 |author-link=George Sylvester Viereck |page=117 |archive-date=5 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205062533/http://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/wp-content/uploads/satevepost/what_life_means_to_einstein.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] stated that "Nationalism is merely the glorification of [[tribalism]]".<ref>{{cite video|title= Nationalism is Glorified Tribalism Krishnamurti|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRQgExLkYEk&t=18s|access-date= 14 October 2022|archive-date= 14 October 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221014064011/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRQgExLkYEk&t=18s|url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Transhumanism|Transhumanists]] have also expressed their opposition to nationalism, to the extent that some transhumanists believe national identities should be dissolved entirely. The influential transhumanist [[FM-2030]] refused to identify with any nationality, referring to himself as 'universal'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esfandiary |first=F. M. |title=Up-wingers |date=1973 |publisher=John Day Co |isbn=0-381-98243-2 |location=New York |oclc=600299}}</ref> Furthermore, in ''The Transhumanist Handbook'', Kate Levchuk stated that a transhumanist "doesn't believe in nationality".<ref>{{Cite book |title=The transhumanism handbook |date=2019 |editor=Newton Lee |isbn=978-3-030-16920-6 |publisher=Springer Nature |location=Cham, Switzerland |oclc=1107699751}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{columns-list|
* [[Chauvinism]]
* [[Gastronationalism]]
* [[Gellner's theory of nationalism]]
* [[Jingoism]]
* [[List of historical separatist movements]]
* [[List of nationalist organizations]]
* [[List of active nationalist parties in Europe]]
* [[Lists of active separatist movements]]
* [[National memory]]
* [[National myth]]
* [[Nationalism and archaeology]]
* [[Nationalism in the Middle Ages]]
* [[Nationalism studies]], an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of nationalism
* [[Nationalist historiography]]
* [[Nationalization of history]]
* [[Nativism (politics)|Nativism]]
* [[Patriotism]]
* {{ill|Principle of nationalities|fr|Principe des nationalités}}
* ''[[Notes on Nationalism]]'', an essay by [[George Orwell]] on types of nationalism in the late [[World War Two]] world
* [[Xenophobia]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism |year=1983 |publisher=Verso |location=London |isbn=978-0860910596 |author-link=Benedict Anderson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mmoZFtCpuoC }}
* {{cite book|last=Billig |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Billig |title=Banal Nationalism |publisher=Sage |location=London |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VV18cdwqVf4C |isbn=978-0803975255 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last =Delanty | editor-first =Gerard |editor2-last=Kumar |editor2-first=Krishan |editor2-link=Krishan Kumar (sociologist) |title=The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism |location =London |publisher=Sage Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Y3zK_jyagQC |isbn=978-1412901017 |year =2006 }}
* Hayes, Carlton J. ''The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism'' (1928) the first major scholarly survey.
* {{cite book |last=Hobsbawm |first=Eric J. |author-link=Eric Hobsbawm |title=Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521439619 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hobsbawm |first1=E. |last2=Ranger |first2=T. |title=The Invention of Tradition |date=1983 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |location=Cambridge, UK}}
* {{cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community | url= https://archive.org/details/nationformationt00jame |url-access=registration | year=1996 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=London |isbn=978-0761950721 }}
* {{cite book |last=James |first=Paul |author-link=Paul James (academic) |title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In |url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214 |year=2006 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=London |access-date=2 December 2017 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429234210/https://www.academia.edu/1642214/Globalism_Nationalism_Tribalism_Bringing_Theory_Back_In_2006_ |url-status=live }}
* Kohn, Hans. ''[[The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background]]'' (1944; 2nd ed. 2005 with introduction by Craig Calhoun). 735 pp; an often-cited classic
* {{cite book|last=Kymlicka |first=Will |author-link=Will Kymlicka |title=Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-0198279495 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5Kaqqy-W78C }}
* {{cite book|year=2001 |editor-last=Leoussi |editor-first =Athena S. |title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism |location=New Brunswick, N.J |publisher=Transaction Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vuJusOJkMC&pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0765800022 }}
* {{cite book| last= Miller| first=David |author-link=David Miller (political theorist) |title=On Nationality |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-0198280477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=naLMTURfICAC }}
* {{cite book|year=2001| editor-link=Alexander J. Motyl|editor-last=Motyl|editor-first =Alexander|title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism|location=San Diego|publisher=Academic Press 2 vol.|isbn=978-0122272301}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mylonas |first1=Harris |author-link=Harris Mylonas |last2=Tudor |first2=Maya |date=2023 |title=Varieties of Nationalism: Communities, Narratives, Identities |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/varieties-of-nationalism/479019877D9D7F0504AD64F6D9AF102B |publisher=Cambridge University Press |language=en |doi=10.1017/9781108973298 |isbn=9781108973298 |s2cid=259646325 |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707110553/https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/varieties-of-nationalism/479019877D9D7F0504AD64F6D9AF102B |url-status=live }}
* [[Harris Mylonas|Mylonas, Harris]]; Tudor, Maya (2021). "[https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841 Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703235800/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841 |date=3 July 2022 }}". ''Annual Review of Political Science''. '''24''' (1): 109–132.
* {{cite book |author-link=Louis Leo Snyder |last=Snyder |first=Louis L. |title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism |location=New York |publisher=Paragon House |isbn=978-1557781673 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofna00snyd |url-access=registration |year =1990 }}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Baycroft, Timothy. ''Nationalism in Europe 1789–1945'' (1998), textbook; 104 pp.
* {{cite book |last=Breuilly |first=John |title=Nationalism and the State |year=1994|edition=2nd|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226074146 }}
* Breuilly, John, ed. ''The Oxford handbook of the history of nationalism'' (Oxford UP, 2013).
* {{cite book |last=Brubaker |first=Rogers |author-link=Rogers Brubaker |title=Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge UP|isbn=978-0521572248 }}
* {{cite book |last=Day |first=Graham |title=Theorizing Nationalism | year=2004 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0333962657 }}
* Gellner, Ernest. ''Nations and Nationalism'' (2nd ed. 2009).
* Gerrits, ''Nationalism in Europe since 1945'' (2015).
* {{cite book|last=Greenfeld|first=Liah|title=Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity |year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674603189 |author-link=Liah Greenfeld}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Greenfeld |first1=Liah |title=Nationalism |journal=The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization |date=2012 |doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog415 |isbn=9780470670590 |author-link=Liah Greenfeld}}
* Guibernau, Montserrat 2007 (''The Identity of Nations'') Polity Press, Cambridge UK
* Guibernau, Montserrat 2013 (''Belonging: solidarity and division in modern societies'') Polity Press, Cambridge
* {{cite book |last=Jusdanis |first=Gregory |title=The Necessary Nation |year=2001 |publisher=Princeton UP |isbn=978-0691070292 }}
* Kingston, Jeff. ''Nationalism in Asia: A History Since 1945'' (2016).
* Kohn, Hans. ''Nationalism: Its Meaning and History'' (1955) 192 pp, with primary sources [https://www.questia.com/library/1458669/nationalism-its-meaning-and-history online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123133233/https://www.questia.com/library/1458669/nationalism-its-meaning-and-history |date=23 November 2016 }}
* Kramer, Lloyd. ''Nationalism in Europe and America: Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775'' (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Nationalism-Europe-America-Politics-Identities/dp/0807872008/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126194555/https://www.amazon.com/Nationalism-Europe-America-Politics-Identities/dp/0807872008 |date=26 November 2016 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kuznicki |first=Jason |title=Nationalism |author-link= |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n213.xml |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n213 |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn=978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024 |pages=347–349 |access-date=30 March 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109234738/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Malesevic |first=Sinisa |author-link=Sinisa Malesevic |title=Identity As Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism |year=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1403987860 }}
* {{cite book |last=Malesevic |first=Sinisa |author-link=Sinisa Malesevic |title=Nation-States and Nationalisms:Organization, Ideology and Solidarity |year=2013 |publisher=Polity |isbn= 978-0745653396 }}
* {{cite book |last=Malesevic |first=Sinisa |author-link=Sinisa Malesevic |title=Grounded Nationalisms |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/ |title=Nationalism |first=Nenad |last=Miscevic |date=1 June 2010 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University |access-date=31 May 2005 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922061455/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |date=Spring 2010 |title=Nations and Nationalism |journal=[[Harvard Asia Pacific Review]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |url=http://issuu.com/harvard_asia_pacific_review/docs/hapr11.1?viewMode=magazine |issn=1522-1113 |access-date=14 January 2011 |archive-date=21 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221050400/http://issuu.com/harvard_asia_pacific_review/docs/hapr11.1?viewMode=magazine |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Özkirimli |first=Umut |author-link=Umut Özkirimli |title=Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction |edition=2nd |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0230577329 }}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World|year=1981|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pks7AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521232678}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era|year=1995|location=Cambridge|publisher=Polity Press|url=https://archive.org/details/nationsnationali0000smit|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0745610191}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism|year=2000|location=Hanover|publisher=University Press of New England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXhxE1lgmhEC|isbn=978-158465-0409}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History|year=2010|orig-date=2001|edition=2.|location=Cambridge|publisher=Polity Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUEszleiXNMC|isbn=978-0745651279}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach|year=2009|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAaTAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1135999483}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Nation Made Real: Art and National Identity in Western Europe, 1600–1850|year=2013|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgtEwZUGtggC|isbn=978-0199662975}}
* {{cite book |year=1999 |editor-last=Spira |editor-first=Thomas |editor-link=Thomas Spira |title=Nationalism and Ethnicity Terminologies: An Encyclopedic Dictionary and Research Guide |location=Gulf Breeze, FL |publisher=Academic International Press |url=http://www.ai-press.com/NET.html |isbn=978-0875692050 |access-date=28 July 2008 |archive-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316213557/http://www.ai-press.com/NET.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url= http://nationalityinworldhistory.net/index.html |title= Nationality: The History of a Social Phenomenon |last1= White |first1= Philip L. |author-link1= Philip L. White |last2= White |first2= Michael Lee |year= 2008 |work= Nationality in World History |access-date= 19 May 2013 |archive-date= 7 March 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130307060027/http://nationalityinworldhistory.net/index.html |url-status= live }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=no}}
* [https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/index.htm "Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021203943/https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/index.htm |date=21 October 2022 }}, comprehensive collection of new articles by modern scholars
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism Nationalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115182310/https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism |date=15 January 2022 }} – entry at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/modsbook17.asp |title=Nationalism |work=Internet Modern History Sourcebook |publisher=[[Fordham University]] |access-date=19 May 2013 |archive-date=28 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028175309/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook17.asp |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.nationalismproject.org/ |title=The Nationalism Project |work=Association for Research on Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Americas |publisher=[[University of South Carolina]] |access-date=14 April 2012 |archive-date=2 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002100619/http://www.nationalismproject.org/ |url-status=dead }}


{{nationalism}}
{{political ideologies}}
{{Political philosophy}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Nationalism| ]]
[[Category:Political ideologies]]