Editing Nanomedicine

{{short description|Medical application of nanotechnology}}
{{redirect|Nanotherapeutics|the company|Nanotherapeutics (company)}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{More medical citations needed|date=August 2014}}
{{Nanotechnology implications}}

'''Nanomedicine''' is the medical application of [[nanotechnology]].<ref name=Nanomed1>{{cite book | vauthors = Freitas RA |title=Nanomedicine: Basic Capabilities |volume=1 |date=1999 |publisher=Landes Bioscience |location=Austin, TX |isbn=978-1-57059-645-2 |url=http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI.htm |access-date=24 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814144946/http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI.htm |archive-date=14 August 2015 |url-status=dead }}{{page needed|date=August 2021}}</ref> Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of [[nanomaterials]] and [[BioBrick|biological devices]], to [[Nanoelectronics|nanoelectronic]] biosensors, and even possible future applications of [[molecular nanotechnology]] such as [[biological machine]]s. Current problems for nanomedicine involve understanding the issues related to [[Nanotoxicology|toxicity]] and [[Implications of nanotechnology|environmental impact]] of [[Nanomaterials|nanoscale materials]] (materials whose structure is on the scale of nanometers, i.e. billionths of a [[meter]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassano |first1=Domenico |last2=Pocoví-Martínez |first2=Salvador |last3=Voliani |first3=Valerio |title=Ultrasmall-in-Nano Approach: Enabling the Translation of Metal Nanomaterials to Clinics |journal=Bioconjugate Chemistry |date=17 January 2018 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=4–16 |doi=10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00664 |pmid=29186662 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassano |first1=Domenico |last2=Mapanao |first2=Ana-Katrina |last3=Summa |first3=Maria |last4=Vlamidis |first4=Ylea |last5=Giannone |first5=Giulia |last6=Santi |first6=Melissa |last7=Guzzolino |first7=Elena |last8=Pitto |first8=Letizia |last9=Poliseno |first9=Laura |last10=Bertorelli |first10=Rosalia |last11=Voliani |first11=Valerio |title=Biosafety and Biokinetics of Noble Metals: The Impact of Their Chemical Nature |journal=ACS Applied Bio Materials |date=21 October 2019 |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=4464–4470 |doi=10.1021/acsabm.9b00630 |pmid=35021406 |s2cid=204266885 }}</ref>
[[Image:Protein translation.gif|thumb|300px| A [[ribosome]] is a [[biological machine]] based upon nanoscale [[protein domain dynamics]],
leading [[Richard Feynman]] to [[There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom | suggest]] a [[Nanomedicine#Cell repair machines | medical use]] for nanotechnology]] 

Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles.

Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valuable set of research tools and clinically useful devices in the near future.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wagner V, Dullaart A, Bock AK, Zweck A | title = The emerging nanomedicine landscape | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1211–7 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17033654 | doi = 10.1038/nbt1006-1211 | s2cid = 40337130 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freitas |first1=Robert A. |title=What is nanomedicine? |journal=Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine |date=March 2005 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=2–9 |doi=10.1016/j.nano.2004.11.003 |pmid=17292052 }}</ref> The [[National Nanotechnology Initiative]] expects new commercial applications in the [[pharmaceutical industry]] that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and [[in vivo]] imaging.<ref>{{cite book | title = Nanotechnology in Medicine and the Biosciences | series = Development in Nanotechnology | volume = 3 | vauthors = Coombs RR, Robinson DW | date = 1996 | publisher = Gordon & Breach | isbn =  978-2-88449-080-1 }}{{page needed|date=August 2021}}</ref> Nanomedicine research is receiving funding from the US [[National Institutes of Health Common Fund]] program, supporting four nanomedicine development centers.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Nanomedicine |url=https://commonfund.nih.gov/nanomedicine/index |access-date=2024-12-02 |website=commonfund.nih.gov}}</ref> The goal of funding this newer form of science is to further develop the biological, biochemical, and biophysical mechanisms of living tissues. <ref name=":4" /> More medical and drug companies today are becoming involved in nanomedical research and medications. These include Bristol-Myers Squibb, which focuses on drug delivery systems for immunology and fibrotic diseases; Moderna known for their COVID-19 vaccine and their work on mRNA therapeutics; and Nanobiotix, a company that focuses on cancer and currently has a drug in testing that increases the effect of radiation on targeted cells. More companies include Generation Bio, which specializes in genetic medicines and has developed the cell-targeted lipid nanoparticle, and Jazz Pharmaceuticals, which developed Vyxeos , a drug that treats acute myeloid leukemia, and concentrates on cancer and neuroscience. Cytiva is a company that specializes in producing delivery systems for genomic medicines that are non-viral, including mRNA vaccines and other therapies utilizing nucleic acid and Ratiopharm is known for manufacturing Pazenir, a drug for various cancers. Finally, Pacira specializes in pain management and is known for producing ZILRETTA for osteoarthritis knee pain, the first treatment without opioids.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Ali |first=Owais |date=October 22, 2024 |title=The Global Nanomedicine Market: Key Players and Emerging Technologies in Healthcare |url=https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6816#:~:text=The%20global%20nanomedicine%20market%2C%20valued,11.5%20%25%20from%202024%20to%202033. |access-date=December 3, 2024 |website=azonano.com}}</ref> 

Nanomedicine sales reached $16 billion in 2015, with a minimum of $3.8 billion in nanotechnology R&D being invested every year. Global funding for emerging nanotechnology increased by 45% per year in recent years, with product sales exceeding $1 trillion in 2013.<ref name="nsf">{{cite web | url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130586 | title=Market report on emerging nanotechnology now available | publisher=US National Science Foundation | work=Market Report | date=25 February 2014 | access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> In 2023, the global market was valued at $189.55 billion and is predicted to exceed $ 500 billion in the next ten years. <ref name=":6" />As the nanomedicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy.

==Drug delivery==
{{main|Nanoparticle drug delivery}}
{{Multiple image|direction = vertical |width=220 |image1 = Nanoparticles biomolecule interaction.svg|image2 = Liposome.jpg|footer = [[Nanoparticle]]s ''(top)'', [[liposome]]s ''(middle)'', and [[dendrimer]]s ''(bottom)'' are some [[nanomaterials]] being investigated for use in nanomedicine.|image3 = Graphs.jpg}} Nanotechnology has provided the possibility of delivering drugs to specific cells using nanoparticles.<ref name="ijn2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ranganathan R, Madanmohan S, Kesavan A, Baskar G, Krishnamoorthy YR, Santosham R, Ponraju D, Rayala SK, Venkatraman G | title = Nanomedicine: towards development of patient-friendly drug-delivery systems for oncological applications | journal = International Journal of Nanomedicine | volume = 7 | pages = 1043–60 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22403487 | pmc = 3292417 | doi = 10.2147/IJN.S25182 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patra JK, Das G | title = Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects | journal = Journal of Nanobiotechnology | date=September 2018 | doi = 10.1186/s12951-018-0392-8 | volume = 16 | issue = 71 | page = 71 | pmid = 30231877| pmc = 6145203 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This use of drug delivery systems was first proposed by Gregory Gregoriadis in 1974, who outlined liposomes as a drug delivery system for chemotherapy.<ref name=":22" /> The overall drug consumption and side-effects may be lowered significantly by depositing the [[Active pharmaceutical ingredient|active pharmaceutical agent]] in the diseased region only and in no higher dose than needed. Targeted drug delivery is intended to reduce the side effects of drugs in tandem decreases in consumption and treatment expenses. Additionally, targeted drug delivery reduces the side effects of crude or naturally occurring drugs by minimizing undesired exposure to healthy cells. [[Drug delivery]] focuses on maximizing [[bioavailability]] both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = LaVan DA, McGuire T, Langer R | title = Small-scale systems for in vivo drug delivery | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 1184–91 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14520404 | doi = 10.1038/nbt876 | s2cid = 1490060 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cavalcanti A, Shirinzadeh B, Freitas RA, Hogg T |title=Nanorobot architecture for medical target identification |journal= Nanotechnology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=015103(15pp) |date=2008 |doi=10.1088/0957-4484/19/01/015103 |bibcode=2008Nanot..19a5103C |s2cid=15557853 }}</ref> A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices are less invasive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter. These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boisseau |first1=Patrick |last2=Loubaton |first2=Bertrand |title=Nanomedicine, nanotechnology in medicine |journal=Comptes Rendus Physique |date=September 2011 |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=620–636 |doi=10.1016/j.crhy.2011.06.001 |bibcode=2011CRPhy..12..620B |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00598930/file/Boisseau_nanomedicine_CRAS.pdf }}</ref> The efficacy of drug delivery through nanomedicine is largely based upon: a) efficient encapsulation of the drugs, b) successful delivery of drug to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of the drug.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Santi M, Mapanao AK, Cassano D, Vlamidis Y, Cappello V, Voliani V | title = Endogenously-Activated Ultrasmall-in-Nano Therapeutics: Assessment on 3D Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinomas | journal = Cancers | volume = 12 | issue = 5 | pages = 1063 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32344838 | pmc = 7281743 | doi = 10.3390/cancers12051063 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Several nano-delivery drugs were on the market by 2019.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farjadian |first1=Fatemeh |last2=Ghasemi |first2=Amir |last3=Gohari |first3=Omid |last4=Roointan |first4=Amir |last5=Karimi |first5=Mahdi |last6=Hamblin |first6=Michael R |title=Nanopharmaceuticals and nanomedicines currently on the market: challenges and opportunities |journal=Nanomedicine |date=January 2019 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=93–126 |doi=10.2217/nnm-2018-0120 |pmid=30451076 |pmc=6391637 }}</ref>

Drug delivery systems, lipid-<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Shasha |last2=Tan |first2=Angel |last3=Thomas |first3=Nicky |last4=Prestidge |first4=Clive A. |title=Perspective and potential of oral lipid-based delivery to optimize pharmacological therapies against cardiovascular diseases |journal=Journal of Controlled Release |date=November 2014 |volume=193 |pages=174–187 |doi=10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.05.013 |pmid=24852093 |url=https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12142893230001831 }}</ref> or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the [[pharmacokinetics]] and [[biodistribution]] of the drug.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allen TM, Cullis PR | title = Drug delivery systems: entering the mainstream | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5665 | pages = 1818–22 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15031496 | doi = 10.1126/science.1095833 | bibcode = 2004Sci...303.1818A | s2cid = 39013016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh MD, Hanna SK, Sen J, Rawal S, Cabral CB, Yurkovetskiy AV, Fram RJ, Lowinger TB, Zamboni WC | title = Pharmacokinetics and antitumor efficacy of XMT-1001, a novel, polymeric topoisomerase I inhibitor, in mice bearing HT-29 human colon carcinoma xenografts | journal = Clinical Cancer Research | volume = 18 | issue = 9 | pages = 2591–602 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22392910 | doi = 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-1554 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chu KS, Hasan W, Rawal S, Walsh MD, Enlow EM, Luft JC, Bridges AS, Kuijer JL, Napier ME, Zamboni WC, DeSimone JM | display-authors = 6 | title = Plasma, tumor and tissue pharmacokinetics of Docetaxel delivered via nanoparticles of different sizes and shapes in mice bearing SKOV-3 human ovarian carcinoma xenograft | journal = Nanomedicine | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = 686–93 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23219874 | pmc = 3706026 | doi = 10.1016/j.nano.2012.11.008 }}</ref> However, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nanomedicine is highly variable among different patients.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Caron WP, Song G, Kumar P, Rawal S, Zamboni WC | title = Interpatient pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variability of carrier-mediated anticancer agents | journal = Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics | volume = 91 | issue = 5 | pages = 802–12 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22472987 | doi = 10.1038/clpt.2012.12 | s2cid = 27774457 }}</ref> When designed to avoid the body's defense mechanisms,<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bertrand N, Leroux JC | title = The journey of a drug-carrier in the body: an anatomo-physiological perspective | journal = Journal of Controlled Release | volume = 161 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–63 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22001607 | doi = 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.09.098 }}</ref> nanoparticles have beneficial properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Complex drug delivery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell [[cytoplasm]]. Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nagy ZK, Balogh A, Vajna B, Farkas A, Patyi G, Kramarics A, Marosi G | display-authors = 6 | title = Comparison of electrospun and extruded Soluplus®-based solid dosage forms of improved dissolution | journal = Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences | volume = 101 | issue = 1 | pages = 322–32 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 21918982 | doi = 10.1002/jps.22731 }}</ref> Drug delivery systems may also be able to prevent tissue damage through regulated drug release; reduce drug clearance rates; or lower the volume of distribution and reduce the effect on non-target tissue.  However, the biodistribution of these nanoparticles is still imperfect due to the complex host's reactions to nano- and microsized materials<ref name=":0" /> and the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Nevertheless, a lot of work is still ongoing to optimize and better understand the potential and limitations of nanoparticulate systems. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distribution can be augmented by nanoparticles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further understanding of their medical uses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Minchin R | title = Nanomedicine: sizing up targets with nanoparticles | journal = Nature Nanotechnology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–3 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18654442 | doi = 10.1038/nnano.2007.433 | bibcode = 2008NatNa...3...12M }}</ref> The toxicity of nanoparticles varies, depending on size, shape, and material. These factors also affect the build-up and organ damage that may occur. Nanoparticles are made to be long-lasting, but this causes them to be trapped within organs, specifically the liver and spleen, as they cannot be broken down or excreted. This build-up of non-biodegradable material has been observed to cause organ damage and inflammation in mice.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ho D |title=Nanodiamonds: The intersection of nanotechnology, drug development, and personalized medicine |journal=Science Advances |year=2015 |volume=1 |issue=7 |pages=e1500439 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500439 |pmid=26601235 |pmc=4643796 |bibcode=2015SciA....1E0439H}}</ref> Delivering [[Iron oxide nanoparticle|magnetic nanoparticles]] to a tumor using uneven stationary [[magnetic fields]] may lead to enhanced tumor growth. In order to avoid this, alternating [[electromagnetic fields]] should be used.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Orel |first1=Valerii E. |last2=Dasyukevich |first2=Olga |last3=Rykhalskyi |first3=Oleksandr |last4=Orel |first4=Valerii B. |last5=Burlaka |first5=Anatoliy |last6=Virko |first6=Sergii |title=Magneto-mechanical effects of magnetite nanoparticles on Walker-256 carcinosarcoma heterogeneity, redox state and growth modulated by an inhomogeneous stationary magnetic field |journal=Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials |date=November 2021 |volume=538 |pages=168314 |doi=10.1016/j.jmmm.2021.168314 |bibcode=2021JMMM..53868314O }}</ref>

Nanoparticles are under research for their potential to decrease [[antibiotic resistance]] or for various antimicrobial uses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Banoee M, Seif S, Nazari ZE, Jafari-Fesharaki P, Shahverdi HR, Moballegh A, Moghaddam KM, Shahverdi AR | display-authors = 6 | title = ZnO nanoparticles enhanced antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli | journal = Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials | volume = 93 | issue = 2 | pages = 557–61 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20225250 | doi = 10.1002/jbm.b.31615 | url = http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/resolver/1840.2/2635 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Seil JT, Webster TJ | title = Antimicrobial applications of nanotechnology: methods and literature | journal = International Journal of Nanomedicine | volume = 7 | pages = 2767–81 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22745541 | pmc = 3383293 | doi = 10.2147/IJN.S24805 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eslamian L, Borzabadi-Farahani A, Karimi S, Saadat S, Badiee MR | title = Evaluation of the Shear Bond Strength and Antibacterial Activity of Orthodontic Adhesive Containing Silver Nanoparticle, an In-Vitro Study | journal = Nanomaterials | volume = 10| issue = 8 | pages = 1466| date = July 2020| pmid = 32727028 | doi = 10.3390/nano10081466 | pmc =7466539| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Borzabadi-Farahani A, Borzabadi E, Lynch E | title = Nanoparticles in orthodontics, a review of antimicrobial and anti-caries applications | journal = Acta Odontologica Scandinavica | volume = 72 | issue = 6 | pages = 413–7 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24325608 | doi = 10.3109/00016357.2013.859728 | s2cid = 35821474 }}</ref> Nanoparticles might also be used to circumvent [[multidrug resistance]] (MDR) mechanisms.<ref name=ijn2012/>

=== Systems under research ===
Advances in lipid nanotechnology were instrumental in engineering medical nanodevices and novel drug delivery systems, as well as in developing sensing applications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mashaghi S, Jadidi T, [[Gijsje Koenderink|Koenderink G]], Mashaghi A | title = Lipid nanotechnology | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 4242–82 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23429269 | pmc = 3588097 | doi = 10.3390/ijms14024242 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Another system for [[microRNA]] delivery under preliminary research is [[nanoparticles]] formed by the self-assembly of two different microRNAs to possibly shrink [[Neoplasm|tumors]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Conde J, Oliva N, Atilano M, Song HS, Artzi N | title = Self-assembled RNA-triple-helix hydrogel scaffold for microRNA modulation in the tumour microenvironment | journal = Nature Materials | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 353–63 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26641016 | pmc = 6594154 | doi = 10.1038/nmat4497 | bibcode = 2016NatMa..15..353C }}</ref> One potential application is based on small electromechanical systems, such as [[nanoelectromechanical system]]s being investigated for the active release of drugs and sensors for possible cancer treatment with iron nanoparticles or gold shells.<ref name="pubs.rsc.org">{{cite journal | vauthors = Juzgado A, Soldà A, Ostric A, Criado A, Valenti G, Rapino S, Conti G, Fracasso G, Paolucci F, Prato M | display-authors = 6 | title = Highly sensitive electrochemiluminescence detection of a prostate cancer biomarker | journal = Journal of Materials Chemistry B | volume = 5 | issue = 32 | pages = 6681–6687 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 32264431 | doi = 10.1039/c7tb01557g }}</ref> Another system of drug delivery involving nanoparticles is the use of [[Aquasome|aquasomes]], self-assembled nanoparticles with a [[Nanocrystalline material|nanocrystalline]] center, a coating made of a polyhydroxyl [[oligomer]], covered in the desired drug, which protects it from [[Dehydration reaction|dehydration]] and [[conformational change]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Jagdale |first1=Sachin |last2=Karekar |first2=Simran |date=August 2020 |title=Bird's eye view on aquasome: Formulation and application |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101776 |journal=Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology |volume=58 |pages=101776 |doi=10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101776 |issn=1773-2247}}</ref>

== Applications ==
Some nanotechnology-based drugs that are commercially available or in human clinical trials include:
*[[Doxil]] was originally approved by the FDA for the use on HIV-related [[Kaposi's sarcoma]]. It is now being used to also treat ovarian cancer and multiple myeloma. The drug is encased in [[liposome]]s, which helps to extend the life of the drug that is being distributed. Liposomes are self-assembling, spherical, closed colloidal structures that are composed of lipid bilayers that surround an aqueous space. The liposomes also help to increase the functionality and it helps to decrease the damage that the drug does to the heart muscles specifically.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martis EA, Badve RR, Degwekar MD |title=Nanotechnology based devices and applications in medicine: An overview|journal=Chronicles of Young Scientists|date=January 2012|volume=3|issue=1|pages=68–73|doi=10.4103/2229-5186.94320|doi-access=free}}</ref> 
*Onivyde, liposome encapsulated [[irinotecan]] to treat metastatic pancreatic cancer, was approved by FDA in October 2015.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm468654.htm | title = FDA approves new treatment for advanced pancreatic cancer | work = News Release |publisher = FDA |date=22 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151024235715/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm468654.htm |archive-date = 24 October 2015}}</ref>
*[[Rapamune]] is a nanocrystal-based drug that was approved by the FDA in 2000 to prevent organ rejection after transplantation. The nanocrystal components allow for increased drug solubility and dissolution rate, leading to improved absorption and high bioavailability.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gao L, Liu G, Ma J, Wang X, Zhou L, Li X, Wang F | title = Application of drug nanocrystal technologies on oral drug delivery of poorly soluble drugs | journal = Pharmaceutical Research | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 307–24 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23073665 | doi = 10.1007/s11095-012-0889-z | s2cid = 18043667 }}</ref>
*[[Cabenuva]] is approved by FDA as [[cabotegravir]] extended-release injectable nano-suspension, plus [[rilpivirine]] extended-release injectable nano-suspension. It is indicated as a complete regimen for the treatment of HIV-1 infection in adults to replace the current antiretroviral regimen in those who are virologically suppressed (HIV-1 RNA less than 50 copies per mL) on a stable antiretroviral regimen with no history of treatment failure and with no known or suspected resistance to either [[cabotegravir]] or [[rilpivirine]]. This is the first FDA-approved injectable, complete regimen for HIV-1 infected adults that is administered once a month.

== Imaging ==
''In vivo'' imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed.<ref name="stendahl">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stendahl JC, Sinusas AJ | title = Nanoparticles for Cardiovascular Imaging and Therapeutic Delivery, Part 2: Radiolabeled Probes | journal = Journal of Nuclear Medicine | volume = 56 | issue = 11 | pages = 1637–41 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26294304 | pmc = 4934892 | doi = 10.2967/jnumed.115.164145 }}</ref> Using nanoparticle [[contrast agents]], images such as ultrasound and MRI have a better distribution and improved contrast. In cardiovascular imaging, nanoparticles have potential to aid visualization of blood pooling, ischemia, [[angiogenesis]], [[atherosclerosis]], and focal areas where inflammation is present.<ref name=stendahl/>

The small size of nanoparticles gives them with properties that can be very useful in [[oncology]], particularly in imaging.<ref name=ijn2012/> Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can produce exceptional images of tumor sites. [[Nanoparticle]]s of [[cadmium selenide]] ([[quantum dots]]) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When injected, they seep into cancer [[tumors]]. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal. These nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for activation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost than today's organic dyes used as [[contrast media]]. The downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually made of quite toxic elements, but this concern may be addressed by use of fluorescent dopants, substances added to create fluorescence.<ref name="wu">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu P, Yan XP | title = Doped quantum dots for chemo/biosensing and bioimaging | journal = Chemical Society Reviews | volume = 42 | issue = 12 | pages = 5489–521 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23525298 | doi = 10.1039/c3cs60017c }}</ref>

Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body, so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this problem is with luminescent tags. These tags are [[quantum dots]] attached to proteins that penetrate cell membranes.<ref name=wu/> The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source. They have also found a way to insert [[nanoparticles]]<ref name="pmid24085009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hewakuruppu YL, Dombrovsky LA, Chen C, Timchenko V, Jiang X, Baek S, Taylor RA | display-authors = 6 | title = Plasmonic "pump-probe" method to study semi-transparent nanofluids | journal = Applied Optics | volume = 52 | issue = 24 | pages = 6041–50 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 24085009 | doi = 10.1364/ao.52.006041 | bibcode = 2013ApOpt..52.6041H }}</ref> into the affected parts of the body so that those parts of the body will glow showing the tumor growth or shrinkage or also organ trouble.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Coffey R |title=20 Things You Didn't Know About Nanotechnology|journal=Discover|date=August 2010|volume=31|issue=6|page=96 |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/20-things-you-didnt-know-about-nanotechnology }}</ref>

== Sensing ==
{{Main|Nanosensor}}Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension of [[lab-on-a-chip]] technology. Magnetic nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific molecules, structures or microorganisms. Silica nanoparticles, in particular, are inert from a photophysical perspective and can accumulate a large number of dye(s) within their shells.<ref name="Nanoparticles">{{cite journal | vauthors = Valenti G, Rampazzo E, Bonacchi S, Petrizza L, Marcaccio M, Montalti M, Prodi L, Paolucci F | display-authors = 6 | title = 2+ Core-Shell Silica Nanoparticles | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 138 | issue = 49 | pages = 15935–15942 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27960352 | doi = 10.1021/jacs.6b08239 | hdl = 11585/583548 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Gold nanoparticles tagged with short [[DNA]] segments can be used to detect genetic sequences in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for biological assays has been achieved by embedding different-sized [[quantum dot]]s into polymeric [[microbead]]s. Nanopore technology for analysis of nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly into electronic signatures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shi |first=Jidong |last2=Hou |first2=Junfeng |last3=Fang |first3=Ying |date=2016-03-01 |title=Recent advances in nanopore-based nucleic acid analysis and sequencing |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00604-015-1503-y |journal=Microchimica Acta |language=en |volume=183 |issue=3 |pages=925–939 |doi=10.1007/s00604-015-1503-y |issn=1436-5073}}</ref>

Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zheng G, Patolsky F, Cui Y, Wang WU, Lieber CM | title = Multiplexed electrical detection of cancer markers with nanowire sensor arrays | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 1294–301 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16170313 | doi = 10.1038/nbt1138 | s2cid = 20697208 }}</ref> [[Nanotechnology]] is helping to advance the use of [[Arthroscopy|arthroscopes]], which are pencil-sized devices that are used in surgeries with lights and cameras so surgeons can do the surgeries with smaller incisions. The smaller the incisions the faster the healing time which is better for the patients. It is also helping to find a way to make an arthroscope smaller than a strand of hair.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hall JS |title=Nanofuture: What's Next for Nanotechnology |date=2005 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, NY |isbn=1-59102-287-8 |pages=244–245}}</ref>

Research on [[nanoelectronics]]-based cancer diagnostics could lead to tests that can be done in [[Pharmacy|pharmacies]].  The results promise to be highly accurate and the product promises to be inexpensive.  They could take a very small amount of blood and detect cancer anywhere in the body in about five minutes, with a sensitivity that is a thousand times better a conventional laboratory test.  These devices are built with [[nanowire]]s to detect cancer proteins; each nanowire detector is primed to be sensitive to a different cancer marker.<ref name="pubs.rsc.org"/> The biggest advantage of the nanowire detectors is that they could test for anywhere from ten to one hundred similar medical conditions without adding cost to the testing device.<ref name="dstorectest">{{cite magazine | vauthors = Bullis K | url = http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/14887/ | title = Drug Store Cancer Tests | magazine = MIT Technology Review | date = 31 October 2005| access-date = 8 October 2009}}</ref> Nanotechnology has also helped to personalize oncology for the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. It is now able to be tailored to each individual's tumor for better performance. They have found ways that they will be able to target a specific part of the body that is being affected by cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Keller J |title= Nanotechnology has also helped to personalize oncology for the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. It is now able to be tailored to each individual's tumor for better performance|journal=Military & Aerospace Electronics|year=2013|volume=23|issue=6|page=27}}</ref>

==Sepsis treatment==

In contrast to dialysis, which works on the principle of the size-related [[diffusion]] of solutes and [[ultrafiltration]] of fluid across a [[semi-permeable membrane]], the purification using nanoparticles allows specific targeting of substances.<ref name="Kang(2014)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kang JH, Super M, Yung CW, Cooper RM, Domansky K, Graveline AR, Mammoto T, Berthet JB, Tobin H, Cartwright MJ, Watters AL, Rottman M, Waterhouse A, Mammoto A, Gamini N, Rodas MJ, Kole A, Jiang A, Valentin TM, Diaz A, Takahashi K, Ingber DE | display-authors = 6 | title = An extracorporeal blood-cleansing device for sepsis therapy | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 20 | issue = 10 | pages = 1211–6 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25216635 | doi = 10.1038/nm.3640 | s2cid = 691647 }}</ref> Additionally, larger compounds which are commonly not dialyzable can be removed.<ref>{{cite book| author= Bichitra Nandi Ganguly |title = Nanomaterials in Bio-Medical Applications: A Novel approach |location=Millersville, PA |publisher= Materials Research Forum LLC |series=Materials research foundations |volume=33 |date= July 2018}}</ref>

The purification process is based on functionalized iron oxide or carbon coated metal nanoparticles with [[ferromagnetic]] or [[superparamagnetic]] properties.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berry |first1=Catherine C |last2=Curtis |first2=Adam S G |title=Functionalisation of magnetic nanoparticles for applications in biomedicine |journal=Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics |date=7 July 2003 |volume=36 |issue=13 |pages=R198–R206 |doi=10.1088/0022-3727/36/13/203 |bibcode=2003JPhD...36R.198B |s2cid=16125089 }}</ref> Binding agents such as [[proteins]],<ref name="Kang(2014)" />  [[antibiotics]],<ref name="Herrmann(2013)2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Herrmann IK, Urner M, Graf S, Schumacher CM, Roth-Z'graggen B, Hasler M, Stark WJ, Beck-Schimmer B | title = Endotoxin removal by magnetic separation-based blood purification | journal = Advanced Healthcare Materials | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 829–35 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23225582 | doi = 10.1002/adhm.201200358 | s2cid = 11961534 }}</ref> or synthetic [[ligands]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JJ, Jeong KJ, Hashimoto M, Kwon AH, Rwei A, Shankarappa SA, Tsui JH, Kohane DS | title = Synthetic ligand-coated magnetic nanoparticles for microfluidic bacterial separation from blood | journal = Nano Letters | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–5 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 23367876 | doi = 10.1021/nl3047305 | bibcode = 2014NanoL..14....1L }}</ref> are [[covalently]] linked to the particle surface. These binding agents are able to interact with target species forming an agglomerate. Applying an external [[magnetic field]] gradient exerts a force on the nanoparticles, allowing them to be separated from the bulk fluid, thus removing contaminants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schumacher CM, Herrmann IK, Bubenhofer SB, Gschwind S, Hirt AM, Beck-Schimmer B, Günther D, Stark WJ | display-authors = 6 |title=Quantitative Recovery of Magnetic Nanoparticles from Flowing Blood: Trace Analysis and the Role of Magnetization |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |date=18 October 2013 |volume=23 |issue=39 |pages=4888–4896 |doi=10.1002/adfm.201300696| s2cid = 136900817 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yung CW, Fiering J, Mueller AJ, Ingber DE | title = Micromagnetic-microfluidic blood cleansing device | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = 1171–7 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19370233 | doi = 10.1039/b816986a }}</ref> This can neutralize the toxicity of sepsis, but runs the risk of nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yuk |first1=Simseok A |last2=Sanchez-Rodriguez |first2=Diego A |last3=Tsifansky |first3=Michael D |last4=Yeo |first4=Yoon |date=2018-05-01 |title=Recent Advances in Nanomedicine for Sepsis Treatment |journal=Therapeutic Delivery |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=435–450 |doi=10.4155/tde-2018-0009 |issn=2041-5990 |pmc=5994832 |pmid=29722636}}</ref>

The small size (< 100&nbsp;nm) and large surface area of functionalized nanomagnets offer advantages properties compared to [[hemoperfusion]], which is a clinically used technique for the purification of blood and is based on surface [[adsorption]]. These advantages include high loading capacity, high selectivity towards the target compound, fast diffusion, low hydrodynamic resistance, and low dosage requirements.<ref name="pmid19839814">{{cite journal | vauthors = Herrmann IK, Grass RN, Stark WJ | title = High-strength metal nanomagnets for diagnostics and medicine: carbon shells allow long-term stability and reliable linker chemistry | journal = Nanomedicine (Lond.) | volume = 4 | issue = 7 | pages = 787–98 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19839814 | doi = 10.2217/nnm.09.55 }}</ref>

== Tissue engineering ==
Nanotechnology may be used as part of [[tissue engineering]] to help reproduce, repair, or reshape damaged tissue using suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth factors. If successful, tissue engineering may replace conventional treatments like organ transplants or artificial implants. Nanoparticles such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are being used as reinforcing agents to fabricate mechanically strong biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering applications. The addition of these nanoparticles to the polymer matrix at low concentrations (~0.2 weight %) significantly improves in the compressive and flexural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lalwani G, Henslee AM, Farshid B, Lin L, Kasper FK, Qin YX, Mikos AG, Sitharaman B | title = Two-dimensional nanostructure-reinforced biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for bone tissue engineering | journal = Biomacromolecules | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 900–9 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23405887 | pmc = 3601907 | doi = 10.1021/bm301995s }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lalwani G, Henslee AM, Farshid B, Parmar P, Lin L, Qin YX, Kasper FK, Mikos AG, Sitharaman B | display-authors = 6 | title = Tungsten disulfide nanotubes reinforced biodegradable polymers for bone tissue engineering | journal = Acta Biomaterialia | volume = 9 | issue = 9 | pages = 8365–73 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23727293 | pmc = 3732565 | doi = 10.1016/j.actbio.2013.05.018 }}</ref> These nanocomposites may potentially serve as novel, mechanically strong, lightweight bone implants.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hasan |first1=Anwarul |last2=Morshed |first2=Mahboob |last3=Memic |first3=Adnan |last4=Hassan |first4=Shabir |last5=Webster |first5=Thomas |last6=Marei |first6=Hany |date=September 2018 |title=Nanoparticles in tissue engineering: applications, challenges and prospects |journal=International Journal of Nanomedicine |volume=13 |pages=5637–5655 |doi=10.2147/ijn.s153758 |doi-access=free |issn=1178-2013 |pmc=6161712 |pmid=30288038}}</ref>

For example, a flesh welder was demonstrated to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece using a suspension of gold-coated [[nanoshells]] activated by an infrared laser. This could be used to weld arteries during surgery.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gobin AM, O'Neal DP, Watkins DM, Halas NJ, Drezek RA, West JL | title = Near infrared laser-tissue welding using nanoshells as an exogenous absorber | journal = Lasers in Surgery and Medicine | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–9 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16047329 | doi = 10.1002/lsm.20206 | s2cid = 4648228 }}</ref>
Another example is [[nanonephrology]], the use of nanomedicine on the kidney.

The full potential and implications of nanotechnology uses within the tissue engineering are not yet fully understood, despite research spanning the past two decades.<ref name=":1" />

== Vaccine development ==

Today, a significant proportion of vaccines against [[Viral disease|viral diseases]] are created using nanotechnology. [[Solid lipid nanoparticle|Solid lipid nanoparticles]] represent a novel delivery system for some [[MRNA vaccine|vaccines against SARS-CoV-2]] (the virus that causes [[COVID-19]]).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Lozano |first1=Daniel |last2=Larraga |first2=Vicente |last3=Vallet-Regí |first3=María |last4=Manzano |first4=Miguel |date=2023-06-09 |title=An Overview of the Use of Nanoparticles in Vaccine Development |journal=Nanomaterials |language=en |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1828 |doi=10.3390/nano13121828 |doi-access=free |issn=2079-4991 |pmc=10304030 |pmid=37368258}}</ref> In recent decades, nanosized [[Immunologic adjuvant|adjuvants]] have been widely used to enhance immune responses to targeted vaccine antigens. Inorganic nanoparticles of aluminum,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Yang |last2=Liu |first2=Ge |date=2022-11-30 |title=Nano alum: A new solution to the new challenge |journal=Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics |language=en |volume=18 |issue=5 |doi=10.1080/21645515.2022.2060667 |issn=2164-5515 |pmc=9897648 |pmid=35471916}}</ref> [[Silicon dioxide|silica]] and [[clay]], as well as organic nanoparticles based on polymers and lipids, are commonly used adjuvants within modern vaccine formulations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Filipić |first1=Brankica |last2=Pantelić |first2=Ivana |last3=Nikolić |first3=Ines |last4=Majhen |first4=Dragomira |last5=Stojić-Vukanić |first5=Zorica |last6=Savić |first6=Snežana |last7=Krajišnik |first7=Danina |date=July 2023 |title=Nanoparticle-Based Adjuvants and Delivery Systems for Modern Vaccines |journal=Vaccines |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1172 |doi=10.3390/vaccines11071172 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-393X |pmc=10385383 |pmid=37514991}}</ref> Nanoparticles of natural polymers such as [[chitosan]] are commonly used adjuvants in modern vaccine formulations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dilnawaz |first1=Fahima |last2=Acharya |first2=Sarbari |last3=Kanungo |first3=Anwesha |date=2024-01-01 |title=A clinical perspective of chitosan nanoparticles for infectious disease management |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-023-04755-z |journal=Polymer Bulletin |language=en |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=1071–1095 |doi=10.1007/s00289-023-04755-z |issn=1436-2449 |pmc=10073797 |pmid=37362954}}</ref> [[Cerium(IV) oxide|Ceria]] nanoparticles appear very promising for both enhancing vaccine responses and mitigating inflammation, as their adjuvanticity can be adjusted by modifying parameters such as size, crystallinity, surface state, and stoichiometry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shcherbakov |first=Alexander B. |date=2024-04-01 |title=CeO2 nanoparticles and cerium species as antiviral agents: Critical review |journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry Reports |volume=10 |pages=100141 |doi=10.1016/j.ejmcr.2024.100141 |issn=2772-4174|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In addition, virus-like nanoparticles are also being researched. These structures allow vaccines to self-assemble without encapsulating viral RNA, making them non-infectious and incapable of replication. These virus-like nanoparticles are designed to elicit a strong immune response by using a self-assembled layer of virus capsid proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perotti |first1=Michela |last2=Perez |first2=Laurent |date=January 2020 |title=Virus-Like Particles and Nanoparticles for Vaccine Development against HCMV |journal=Viruses |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=35 |doi=10.3390/v12010035 |doi-access=free |issn=1999-4915 |pmc=7019358 |pmid=31905677}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> 

== Medical devices ==

=== Neuro-Electronic Interfacing ===
Neuro-electronic interfacing is a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices that will permit computers to connect and interact with the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an external computer. A refuelable system implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, magnetic, or biological electrical sources, while a non-refuelable system implies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage, ceasing operation once the energy is depleted. A nanoscale [[enzymatic biofuel cell]] for self-powered nanodevices have been developed, using glucose from biofluids such as human blood or watermelons.<ref>{{cite web | title = A nanoscale biofuel cell for self-powered nanotechnology devices |url=http://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=19573.php| date = 3 January 2011 | work = Nanowerk }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Assad |first1=Humira |last2=Kaya |first2=Savas |last3=Senthil Kumar |first3=P. |last4=Vo |first4=Dai-Viet N. |last5=Sharma |first5=Ajit |last6=Kumar |first6=Ashish |date=2022-09-01 |title=Insights into the role of nanotechnology on the performance of biofuel cells and the production of viable biofuels: A review |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016236122011292 |journal=Fuel |volume=323 |pages=124277 |doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124277 |bibcode=2022Fuel..32324277A |issn=0016-2361}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cao |first1=Lili |last2=Chen |first2=Juan |last3=Pang |first3=Jingyu |last4=Qu |first4=Hongjie |last5=Liu |first5=Jiaren |last6=Gao |first6=Jinling |date=2024-01-03 |title=Research Progress in Enzyme Biofuel Cells Modified Using Nanomaterials and Their Implementation as Self-Powered Sensors |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=257 |doi=10.3390/molecules29010257 |doi-access=free |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=10780655 |pmid=38202838}}</ref> One limitation to this innovation is the potential for electrical interference, leakage, or overheating due to power consumption. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body's immune system.<ref name="Nanomed2">{{cite book | url = http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMIIA.htm | series = Nanomedicine | volume = IIA | title = Biocompatibility | vauthors = Freitas Jr RA | date = 2003 | publisher = Landes Bioscience | location = Georgetown, TX | isbn = 978-1-57059-700-8 }}{{page needed|date=August 2021}}</ref> Current research is developing nanoparticle coatings for the electrodes to allow for improved recording and reduce interference.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Ashlyn T. |last2=Cornwell |first2=Neil |last3=Daniele |first3=Michael A. |date=March 2018 |title=Neuro-Nano Interfaces: Utilizing Nano-Coatings and Nanoparticles to Enable Next-Generation Electrophysiological Recording, Neural Stimulation, and Biochemical Modulation |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |doi=10.1002/adfm.201700239 |issn=1616-301X |pmc=8049593 |pmid=33867903}}</ref> 

===Cell repair machines===
[[Molecular nanotechnology]] is a [[Futures studies|speculative]] subfield of nanotechnology that explores the potential to engineer molecular assemblers—machines capable of reorganizing matter at a molecular or atomic scale.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Nanomedicine would make use of these [[Nanorobotics|nanorobots]], introduced into the body, to repair or detect damages and infections. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nanotechnology, such as molecular assemblers and [[Nanorobotics|nanorobots]] are far beyond current capabilities.<ref name="Nanomed1" /><ref name="Nanomed2" /><ref name=nanofactory>{{cite web | vauthors = Freitas Jr RA, Merkle RC | work = Molecular Assembler | date = 2006 |url= http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/Nanofactory |title=Nanofactory Collaboration}}</ref> Future advances in nanomedicine could give rise to [[life extension]] through the repair of many processes thought to be responsible for aging. [[K. Eric Drexler]], one of the founders of nanotechnology, postulated cell repair machines, including ones operating within cells and utilizing as yet hypothetical [[molecular machines]], in his 1986 book ''[[Engines of Creation]]'', with the first technical discussion of medical nanorobots by [[Robert Freitas]] appearing in 1999.<ref name="Nanomed1" /> [[Raymond Kurzweil]], a [[futurist]] and [[transhumanist]], stated in his book ''[[The Singularity Is Near]]'' that he believes that advanced medical [[nanorobotics]] could completely remedy the effects of aging by 2030.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Kurzweil R |author-link1 = Raymond Kurzweil |year=2005 |title=The Singularity Is Near |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |location=[[New York City]] |isbn=978-0-670-03384-3 |oclc=57201348|title-link=The Singularity Is Near }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> According to [[Richard Feynman]], it was his former graduate student and collaborator [[Albert Hibbs]] who originally suggested to him ({{circa|1959}}) the idea of a ''medical'' use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see [[nanotechnology]]). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "[[Molecular machine#Biological|swallow the doctor]]". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay ''[[There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom]].''<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html | title = There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom | vauthors = Feynman RP | author-link1 = Richard Feynman | date = December 1959 | access-date = 23 March 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100211190050/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html | archive-date = 11 February 2010 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

== Regulatory Impacts ==
As the development of nanomedicine continues to develop and becomes a potential treatments for diseases, regulatory challenges have come to light. This section will highlight some of the regulatory considerations and challenges faced by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Medicine Agency (EMA), and each manufacturing organization. The major challenges that companies are reproducible manufacturing processes, scalability, availability of appropriate characterization methods, safety issues, and poor understandings of disease heterogeneity and patient preselection strategies.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Agrahari |first1=Vibhuti |last2=Agrahari |first2=Vivek |date=2018-05-01 |title=Facilitating the translation of nanomedicines to a clinical product: challenges and opportunities |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1359644617302295 |journal=Drug Discovery Today |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=974–991 |doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2018.01.047 |pmid=29406263 |issn=1359-6446}}</ref> Despite these challenges, several therapeutic nanomedicine products have been approved by the FDA and EMA.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=:5>{{Cite journal |last1=Bowman |first1=Diana M |last2=Gatof |first2=Jake |date=2015-11-01 |title=Reviewing the Regulatory Barriers for Nanomedicine: Global Questions and Challenges |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2217/nnm.15.169 |journal=Nanomedicine |volume=10 |issue=21 |pages=3275–3286 |doi=10.2217/nnm.15.169 |issn=1743-5889 |pmid=26470990}}</ref> In order to be approved for market, these therapies are evaluated for biocompatibility, immunotoxicity, as well as undergo a preclinical assessment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sainz |first1=Vanessa |last2=Conniot |first2=João |last3=Matos |first3=Ana I. |last4=Peres |first4=Carina |last5=Zupanǒiǒ |first5=Eva |last6=Moura |first6=Liane |last7=Silva |first7=Liana C. |last8=Florindo |first8=Helena F. |last9=Gaspar |first9=Rogério S. |date=2015-12-18 |title=Regulatory aspects on nanomedicines |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006291X15304137 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications |volume=468 |issue=3 |pages=504–510 |doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.08.023 |pmid=26260323 |issn=0006-291X}}</ref> 

The current scope of approved nanomedicine are mainly nano-drugs, but as the field continued to grow and more applications of nanomedicine progress to a marketable scale, more impacts and regulatory oversight will be needed.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hodge |first1=Graeme |title=International handbook on regulating nanotechnologies |last2=Bowman |first2=Diana |last3=Maynard |first3=Andrew |date=December 1, 2010 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. |isbn=9781848446731}}</ref> 

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[British Society for Nanomedicine]]
* [[Biopharmaceutical]]
*[[Colloidal gold]]
*[[Heart nanotechnology]]
*[[IEEE P1906.1]] – Recommended Practice for Nanoscale and Molecular Communication Framework
*[[Impalefection]]
<!-- *[[Kabiller Prize in Nanoscience and Nanomedicine]] -->
*[[Monitoring (medicine)]]
*[[Nanobiotechnology]]
*[[Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate]]
*[[Nanozymes]]
*[[Nanotechnology in fiction]]
*[[Photodynamic therapy]]
*[[Top-down and bottom-up design]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Nanotech footer}}
{{Medicine}}
{{Longevity}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nanomedicine| ]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
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