Editing Nagarjuna

{{Short description|3rd-century Indian Buddhist philosopher}}
{{Other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name               = Nāgārjuna
| native_name        = नागार्जुन
| image              = Nagarjuna with 84 mahasiddha cropped.jpg
| image_size         = 200px
| caption            = Painting of Nāgārjuna (18th century) 
| birth_date         = c. 150 CE
| birth_place        = [[South India]]{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=160}}
| death_date         = c. 250 CE
| death_place        = India
| occupation         = [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] teacher, [[Bhikkhu|monk]] and philosopher
| notable_works      = ''[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]''
| notable_ideas      = {{plainlist|
* [[Madhyamaka]]
* [[Śūnyatā]]
* [[Two truths doctrine]]}}
| influences         = {{flatlist|
* [[Buddha]]
* [[Pyrrho]]}}
| school_tradition   = {{plainlist|
* [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] [[Buddhism]]
* [[Madhyamaka]]
* [[Pure Land Buddhism]]
* [[Tiantai]] [[Buddhism]]}}
|region=[[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Indian philosophy]]
| era=[[Ancient philosophy]]
}}
'''Nāgārjuna''' ([[Sanskrit]]: नागार्जुन, ''Nāgārjuna''; {{Circa|150|250 CE}}) was an Indian monk and [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhist]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]] of the [[Madhyamaka]] (Centrism, Middle Way) school.<ref>Walser (2005) p. 1-3.</ref> He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.<ref name=Garfield>Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> 

Nāgārjuna is widely considered to be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of [[Buddhist philosophy]] and a defender of the [[Mahāyāna]] movement.<ref name="Garfield" /><ref>Walser (2005) p. 3.</ref> His ''[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]'' (''Root Verses on Madhyamaka'', MMK) is the most important text on the Madhyamaka philosophy of [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]]. The MMK inspired a large number of commentaries in Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan, Korean and Japanese and continues to be studied today.<ref>Garfield (1995), p. 87.</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Satvahana.svg|thumb|right|A map of the Satavahana Kingdom, showing the location of [[Amaravathi, Guntur district|Amaravathi]] (where Nāgārjuna may have lived and worked according to Walser) and [[Vidarbha]] (the birthplace of Nāgārjuna according to Kumārajīva)]]

=== Background ===
India in the first and second centuries CE was politically divided into various states, including the [[Kushan Empire]] and the [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahana Kingdom]]. At this point in [[History of Buddhism|Buddhist history]], the Buddhist community was already divided into various [[Schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]] and had spread throughout India.

At this time, there was already a small and nascent Mahāyāna movement. Mahāyāna ideas were held by a minority of Buddhists in India at the time. As Joseph Walser writes, "Mahāyāna before the fifth century was largely invisible and probably existed only as a minority and largely unrecognized movement within the fold of nikāya Buddhism."<ref>Walser (2005), p. 43.</ref> By the second century, early [[Mahayana sutras|Mahāyāna Sūtras]] such as the ''[[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā]]'' were already circulating among certain Mahāyāna circles.<ref>Mäll, Linnart. ''Studies in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and other essays.'' 2005. p. 96</ref>

=== Life ===
Very little is reliably known of the life of Nāgārjuna and modern historians do not agree on a specific date (1st to 3rd century CE) or place (multiple places in India suggested) for him.<ref name=":0">Walser (2005), p. 60.</ref> The earliest surviving accounts were written in Chinese and Tibetan centuries after his death and are mostly [[Hagiography|hagiographical]] accounts that are historically unverifiable.<ref name=":0" />

Some scholars such as Joseph Walser argue that Nāgārjuna was an advisor to a king of the [[Satavahana dynasty|Sātavāhana]] dynasty which ruled the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the second century.<ref name=":1">Walser (2005), p. 61.</ref>{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=160}} This is supported by most of the traditional hagiographical sources as well.<ref name=":3"/> Archaeological evidence at [[Amaravati Stupa|Amarāvatī]] indicates that if this is true, the king may have been [[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Yajña Śrī Śātakarṇi]] (c. second half of the 2nd century). On the basis of this association, Nāgārjuna is conventionally placed at around 150–250 CE.<ref name=":1" />{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=160}}
[[File:Amaravati stupa. Model. Amaravati.JPG|thumb|right|A model of the [[Amaravati Stupa]]]]
Walser thinks that it is most likely that when Nāgārjuna wrote the ''Ratnavali'', he lived in a mixed monastery (with Mahāyānists and non-Mahāyānists) in which Mahāyānists were the minority. The most likely sectarian affiliation of the monastery according to Walser was Purvasailya, Aparasailya, or [[Caitika|Caityaka]] (which were [[Mahāsāṃghika]] sub-schools).<ref>Walser (2005), p. 87.</ref>

He also argues that "it is plausible that he wrote the ''Ratnavali'' within a thirty-year period at the end of the second century in the [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] region around Dhanyakataka (modern-day [[Amaravati]])."<ref name=":1" />

=== Traditional hagiography ===
According to Walser, "the earliest extant legends about Nāgārjuna are compiled into [[Kumārajīva]]’s biography of Nāgārjuna, which he translated into Chinese in about 405 CE."<ref name=":3">Walser (2005), p. 66.</ref> According to this biography, Nāgārjuna was born into a [[Brahmin]] family<ref>"Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions", Dutt, Nalinaksha. ''The Indian Historical Quarterly'' 7:3 1931.09 pp. 633–53 "..Tibetan tradition which says that Nāgārjuna was born of a brahmin family of [[Amaravati]]."</ref><ref>Geri Hockfield Malandra, ''Unfolding A Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora'', SUNY Press, 1993, p. 17</ref><ref>Shōhei Ichimura, ''Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (2001), p. 67</ref><ref>Bkra-śis-rnam-rgyal (Dwags-po Paṇ-chen), Takpo Tashi Namgyal, ''Mahamudra: The Quintessence of Mind and Meditation'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (1993), p. 443</ref> and later became a Buddhist. The traditional religious hagiographies place Nāgārjuna in various regions of India (Kumārajīva and Candrakirti place him in [[Vidarbha]] region of South India,<ref>{{cite book |author=Buddhist Text & Research Society |title=Journal |date=1895 |volume=3-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubwoAAAAYAAJ |page=16}}</ref><ref>Transaction - Indian Institute of World Culture, Issue 73, Indian Institute of World Culture, 1987, p. 5</ref> [[Xuanzang]] in south [[Kosala Kingdom|Kosala]])<ref name=":3" />

Traditional religious hagiographies credit Nāgārjuna with being associated with the teaching of the [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]] sūtras as well as with having revealed these scriptures to the world after they had remained hidden for some time. The sources differ on where this happened and how Nāgārjuna retrieved the sutras. Some sources say he retrieved the sutras from the land of the [[nāga]]s.<ref>Walser (2005), pp. 69, 74.</ref>  
[[File:Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg|thumb|A Tibetan depiction of Nagarjuna; the snakes are depicted as protectors around Nagarjuna's head and the [[Nāga|nagas]] rising out of the water are offering Buddhist sutras.]]
[[File:Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nicholas Roerich]] "Nagarjuna Conqueror of the Serpent" (1925)]]

Nāgārjuna himself is often depicted in composite form comprising human and [[nāga]] characteristics. Nāgas are snake-like supernatural beings of great magical power that feature in [[Hindu mythology|Hindu]], [[Buddhist mythology|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism|Jain mythology]].<ref>Walser (2005), p. 74.</ref> Nāgas are found throughout Indian religious culture, and typically signify intelligent serpents or dragons that are responsible for rain, lakes, and other bodies of water. In Buddhism, a naga can be a symbol of a realised [[arhat]] or wise person.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Berger|first=Douglas|title=Nagarjuna (c. 150—c. 250)|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/nagarjun/|access-date=2 May 2017|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

Traditional sources also claim that Nāgārjuna practised [[Ayurveda|ayurvedic]] alchemy ([[Rasayana|rasayāna]]). Kumārajīva's biography for example, has Nāgārjuna making an elixir of invisibility, and [[Buton Rinchen Drub]], [[Taranatha]] and [[Xuanzang]] all state that he could turn rocks into gold.<ref>Walser (2005), pp. 75-76.</ref>

Tibetan hagiographies also state that Nāgārjuna studied at Nālanda University. However, according to Walser, this university was not a strong monastic center until about 425. Also, as Walser notes, "Xuanzang and Yijing both spent considerable time at Nālanda and studied Nāgārjuna’s texts there. It is strange that they would have spent so much time there and yet chose not to report any local tales of a man whose works played such an important part in the curriculum."<ref>Walser (2005), p. 78</ref>

Some sources ([[Buton Rinchen Drub]] and the other Tibetan historians) claim that in his later years, Nāgārjuna lived on the mountain of Śrīparvata near the city that would later be called [[Nagarjunakonda|Nāgārjunakoṇḍa]] ("Hill of Nāgārjuna").<ref name="hirakawa">Hirakawa, Akira. Groner, Paul. ''A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.'' 2007. p. 242</ref><ref>Walser (2005), p. 72.</ref> The ruins of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa are located in [[Guntur district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The [[Caitika]] and [[Bahuśrutīya]] nikāyas are known to have had [[vihara|monasteries]] in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa.<ref name="hirakawa" /> The archaeological finds at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa have not resulted in any evidence that the site was associated with Nagarjuna. The name "Nāgārjunakoṇḍa" dates from the medieval period, and the 3rd-4th century inscriptions found at the site make it clear that it was known as "Vijayapuri" in the ancient period.<ref>{{cite book |author = K. Krishna Murthy |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4gBSWyLTSzkC&pg=PA1 |title = Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1977|page=1|oclc=4541213 }}</ref>

=== Other Nāgārjunas ===
There are a multitude of texts attributed to "Nāgārjuna", many of these texts date from much later periods. This has caused much confusion for the traditional Buddhist biographers and [[Doxography|doxographers]]. Modern scholars are divided on how to classify these later texts and how many later writers called "Nāgārjuna" existed (the name remains popular today in Andhra Pradesh).<ref name=":4">Walser (2005), p. 69.</ref>

Some scholars have posited that there was a separate Aryuvedic writer called Nāgārjuna who wrote numerous treatises on [[Rasayana]]. Also, there is a later Tantric Buddhist author by the same name who may have been a scholar at [[Nalanda|Nālandā]] University and wrote on [[Vajrayana|Buddhist tantra]].<ref>Hsing Yun, Xingyun, Tom Manzo, Shujan Cheng Infinite Compassion, Endless Wisdom: The Practice of the Bodhisattva Path Buddha's Light Publishing Hacienda Heights California</ref><ref name=":4" /> According to [[Donald S. Lopez Jr.]], he originally belonged to a Brahmin family from eastern India and later became Buddhist.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lopez|first=Donald S. Jr.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emWMDwAAQBAJ|title=Seeing the Sacred in Samsara: An Illustrated Guide to the Eighty-Four Mahasiddhas|date=28 May 2019|publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-0-8348-4212-0|pages=75|language=en}}</ref>

There is also a [[Jainism|Jain]] figure of the same name who was said to have travelled to the Himalayas. Walser thinks that it is possible that stories related to this figure influenced Buddhist legends as well.<ref name=":4" />

==Works==
{{Buddhist Philosophy sidebar}}

There exist a number of influential texts attributed to Nāgārjuna; however, as there are many [[pseudepigrapha]] attributed to him, lively controversy exists over which are his authentic works.

===''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''===
{{Main|Mūlamadhyamakakārikā}}

The ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'' is Nāgārjuna's best-known work. It is "not only a grand commentary on the Buddha's discourse to [[Katyayana (Buddhist)|Kaccayana]],<ref>See [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.015.than.html SN 12.15 Kaccayanagotta Sutta: To Kaccayana Gotta (on Right View) ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329025311/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.015.than.html |date=29 March 2013 }}</ref> the only discourse cited by name, but also a detailed and careful analysis of most of the important discourses included in the [[Nikāya|Nikayas]] and the [[Āgama (Buddhism)|Agamas]], especially those of the ''Atthakavagga'' of the ''Sutta-nipata''.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=161}}
{{blockquote|Utilizing the Buddha's theory of [[Pratītyasamutpāda|"dependent arising" (''pratitya-samutpada'')]], Nagarjuna demonstrated the futility of [...] metaphysical speculations. His method of dealing with such metaphysics is referred to as "middle way" (''madhyama pratipad''). It is the middle way that avoided the substantialism of the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadins]] as well as the nominalism of the [[Sautrāntika|Sautrantikas]].{{sfn|Kalupahana|1992|p=120}}}}
In the ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'', "[A]ll experienced phenomena are [[Śūnyatā|empty (''sunya'')]]. This did not mean that they are not experienced and, therefore, non-existent; only that they are devoid of [[Svabhava|a permanent and eternal substance (''svabhava'')]] because, like a dream, they are mere projections of human consciousness. Since these imaginary fictions are experienced, they are not [[Prajñaptivāda|mere names (''prajnapti'')]]."{{sfn|Kalupahana|1992|p=120}}

===Major attributed works===
According to [[David Seyfort Ruegg]], the ''Madhyamakasastrastuti'' attributed to [[Chandrakirti|Candrakirti]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 600 – c. 650) refers to eight texts by Nagarjuna:<blockquote>the ''(Madhyamaka)karikas'', the ''Yuktisastika'', the ''Sunyatasaptati'', the ''Vigrahavyavartani'', the ''Vidala'' (i.e. ''Vaidalyasutra/Vaidalyaprakarana''), the ''Ratnavali'', the ''Sutrasamuccaya'', and ''Samstutis'' (Hymns). This list covers not only much less than the grand total of works ascribed to Nagarjuna in the Chinese and Tibetan collections, but it does not even include all such works that Candrakirti has himself cited in his writings.<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 8.</ref></blockquote>According to one view, that of Christian Lindtner, the works definitely written by Nāgārjuna are:<ref>Lindtner, C. (1982). ''Nagarjuniana: studies in the writings and philosophy of Nāgārjuna'', Copenhagen: Akademisk forlag, p. 11.</ref>

*''Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā'' (Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way, MMK), available in three [[Sanskrit]] manuscripts and numerous translations.<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 9.</ref>
*''Śūnyatāsaptati'' (Seventy Verses on Emptiness), accompanied by a prose commentary ascribed to Nagarjuna himself.
*''Vigrahavyāvartanī'' (The End of Disputes).
*{{IAST|''Vaidalyaprakaraṇa''}} (Pulverizing the Categories), a prose work critiquing the [[Nyaya#Sixteen categories (padārthas)|categories used by Indian Nyaya philosophy]]. 
*''Vyavahārasiddhi'' (Proof of Convention).
*{{IAST|''Yuktiṣāṣṭika''}} (Sixty Verses on Reasoning).
*{{IAST|''Catuḥstava''}} (Four Hymns):  ''Lokātīta-stava'' (Hymn to transcendence), ''Niraupamya-stava'' (to the Peerless), ''Acintya-stava'' (to the Inconceivable), and ''Paramārtha-stava'' (to Ultimate Truth).<ref>Fernando Tola & Carmen Dragonetti, ''Nagarjuna's Catustava, Journal of Indian Philosophy'' 13 (1):1-54 (1985)</ref>
*''Ratnāvalī'' (Precious Garland), subtitled (''rajaparikatha''), a discourse addressed to an Indian king (possibly a [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahana]] monarch).<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 24.</ref> 
*{{IAST|''Pratītyasamutpādahṝdayakārika''}} (Verses on the heart of [[Pratītyasamutpāda|Dependent Arising]]), along with a short commentary (''Vyākhyāna'').
*[[Sutrasamuccaya|''Sūtrasamuccaya'']], an anthology of various sutra passages. 
*{{IAST|''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''}} (Exposition of the [[Bodhicitta|awakening mind]]).
*{{IAST|''Suhṛllekha''}} (Letter to a Good Friend).
*{{IAST|''Bodhisaṃbhāraśāstra''}} (Requisites of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|awakening]]), a work the path of the Bodhisattva and [[Pāramitā|paramitas]], it is quoted by Candrakirti in his commentary on [[Aryadeva]]'s four hundred. Now only extant in Chinese translation ([[Taishō Tripiṭaka|Taisho]] 1660).<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 29.</ref>

Other scholars have challenged and argued against some of the above works being Nagarjuna's. David F. Burton notes that Christian Lindtner is "rather liberal" with his list of works and that other scholars have called some of these into question. He notes how Paul Williams argued convincingly that the {{IAST|''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''}} must be a later text.<ref name=":2">Burton, David F. (2015). ''Emptiness Appraised: A Critical Study of Nagarjuna's Philosophy,'' pp. 13-14. Routledge.</ref> In his study, Burton relies on the texts that he considers "least controversial": ''Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā, Vigrahavyāvartanī, Śūnyatāsaptati,'' {{IAST|''Yuktiṣāṣṭika''}}, {{IAST|''Catuḥstava''}}, {{IAST|''Vaidalyaprakaraṇa''}} and ''Ratnāvalī''.<ref name=":2" /> 

Similarly, Jan Westerhoff notes how there is uncertainty about the attribution of Nagarjuna's works (and about his life in general). He relies on six works: MMK, ''Vigrahavyāvartanī, Śūnyatāsaptati,'' {{IAST|''Yuktiṣāṣṭika''}}, {{IAST|''Vaidalyaprakaraṇa''}} and ''Ratnāvalī,'' all of which "expound a single, coherent philosophical system," and are attributed to Nagarjuna by a variety of Indian and Tibetan sources.<ref>Westerhoff (2009), pp. 5-6.</ref> 

The Tibetan historian [[Buton Rinchen Drub|Buston]] considers the first six to be the main treatises of Nāgārjuna (this is called the "yukti corpus", ''rigs chogs''), while according to [[Taranatha|Tāranātha]] only the first five are the works of Nāgārjuna. TRV Murti considers ''Ratnāvalī'', ''Pratītyasamutpādahṝdaya'' and ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' to be works of Nāgārjuna as the first two are quoted profusely by Chandrakirti and the third by [[Shantideva]].<ref>TRV Murti, ''Central philosophy of Buddhism'', pp. 89–91</ref>

=== Other attributed works ===
In addition to works mentioned above, numerous other works are attributed to Nāgārjuna, many of which are dubious attributions and later works. There is an ongoing, lively controversy over which of those works are authentic. Christian Lindtner divides the various attributed works as "1) correctly attributed, 2) wrongly attributed to him, and 3) those which may or may not be genuine."<ref>Lindtner 1982, p. 10.</ref>

Lindtner further divides the third category of dubious or questionable texts into those which are "perhaps authentic" and those who are unlikely to be authentic.

Those which he sees as ''perhaps'' being authentic include:<ref>Lindtner 1982, pp. 12-14.</ref>

* ''Mahāyānavimsika'', it is cited as Nagarjuna's work in the ''[[Tattvasamgraha]]'' as well as by Atisha'','' Lindtner sees the style and content as compatible with the yukti corpus. Survives in Sanskrit. 
* ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi,'' a short text that describes the sevenfold write for a bodhisattva,
* ''Dvadasakāranayastotra,'' a madhyamaka text only extant in Tibetan, 
* ''(Madhyamaka-)Bhavasamkrānti,'' a verse from this is attributed to Nagarjuna by [[Bhāviveka|Bhavaviveka]]. 
* ''Nirālamba-stava,'' 
* ''Sālistambakārikā,'' only exists in Tibetan, it is a versification of the ''[[Salistamba Sutra|Śālistamba Sūtra]]''
* ''Stutytitastava,'' only exists in Tibetan
* ''Danaparikatha,'' only exists in Tibetan, a praise of giving (dana)
* ''Cittavajrastava,'' 
* ''Mulasarvāstivadisrāmanerakārikā,'' 50 karikas on the Vinaya of the [[Mulasarvastivada|Mulasarvastivadins]]
* ''[[Dasabhumika-vibhāsā|Dasabhumikavibhāsā]],'' only exists in Chinese, a commentary on the [[Ten Stages Sutra|''Dashabhumikasutra'']] 
* ''Lokapariksā,'' 
* ''Yogasataka,'' a medical text
* ''Prajñadanda''
* ''Rasavaisesikasutra,'' a [[rasayana]] (biochemical) text
* ''Bhāvanākrama,'' contains various verses similar to the ''[[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra|Lankavatara]]'', it is cited in the ''Tattvasamgraha'' as by Nagarjuna
* ''Rasratnakar'' deals with the formation of mercury compounds.
Ruegg notes various works of uncertain authorship which have been attributed to Nagarjuna, including the ''Dharmadhatustava'' (Hymn to the [[Dharmadhatu]], which shows later influences), ''Mahayanavimsika, Salistambakarikas,'' the ''Bhavasamkranti,'' and the ''Dasabhumtkavibhāsā.''<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, pp. 28-46.</ref> Furthermore, Ruegg writes that "three collections of stanzas on the virtues of intelligence and moral conduct ascribed to Nagarjuna are extant in Tibetan translation": ''Prajñasatakaprakarana'', ''Nitisastra-Jantuposanabindu'' and ''Niti-sastra-Prajñadanda.''<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 27.</ref>

=== Attributions which are likely to be false ===
Meanwhile, those texts that Lindtner considers as questionable and likely inauthentic are: <blockquote>''Aksarasataka, Akutobhaya (Mulamadhyamakavrtti), Aryabhattaraka-Manjusriparamarthastuti, Kayatrayastotra, Narakoddharastava, Niruttarastava, Vandanastava, Dharmasamgraha, Dharmadhatugarbhavivarana, Ekaslokasastra, Isvarakartrtvanirakrtih (A refutation of God/Isvara), Sattvaradhanastava, Upayahrdaya, Astadasasunyatasastra, Dharmadhatustava, Yogaratnamala.''<ref>Lindtner 1982, pp. 14-17.</ref></blockquote>Meanwhile, Lindtner's list of outright wrong attributions is: <blockquote>''[[Da zhidu lun|Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa]] (Dà zhìdù lùn), Abudhabodhakaprakarana'', ''Guhyasamajatantratika'', ''Dvadasadvaraka'', ''Prajñaparamitastotra,'' and ''Svabhavatrayapravesasiddhi.''<ref>Lindtner 1982, pp. 11-12.</ref></blockquote>Notably, the ''[[Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa|Dà zhìdù lùn]]'' ([[Taishō Tripiṭaka|Taisho]] 1509, "Commentary on the great [[Prajnaparamita|prajñaparamita]]") which has been influential in Chinese Buddhism, has been questioned as a genuine work of Nāgārjuna by various scholars including [[Étienne Lamotte|Lamotte]]. This work is also only attested in a Chinese translation by [[Kumārajīva]] and is unknown in the Tibetan and Indian traditions.<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 32.</ref>

Other works are extant only in Chinese, one of these is the ''Shih-erh-men-lun'' or 'Twelve-topic treatise' (*''Dvadasanikaya'' or *''Dvadasamukha-sastra''); one of the three basic treatises of the Sanlun school ([[East Asian Mādhyamaka|East Asian Madhyamaka]]).<ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 28.</ref>

Several works considered important in [[Vajrayana|esoteric Buddhism]] are attributed to Nāgārjuna and his disciples by traditional historians like Tāranātha from 17th century Tibet. These historians try to account for chronological difficulties with various theories, such as seeing later writings as mystical revelations. For a useful summary of this tradition, see Wedemeyer 2007. Lindtner sees the author of some of these tantric works as being a tantric Nagarjuna who lives much later, sometimes called "Nagarjuna II".<ref>Lindtner 1982, p. 11.</ref>

==Philosophy==
[[File:Nagarjuna at Samye Ling Monastery.JPG|thumb|right|Golden statue of Nāgārjuna at [[Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre|Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery]], Scotland]]

===Sunyata===
{{main|Śūnyatā}}

Nāgārjuna's major thematic focus is the concept of [[śūnyatā]] (translated into English as "emptiness") which brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly [[anatta|anātman]] "not-self" and [[pratītyasamutpāda]] "dependent origination", to refute the metaphysics of some of his contemporaries. For Nāgārjuna, as for the Buddha in the early texts, it is not merely [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] that are "selfless" or non-substantial; all phenomena (dhammas) are without any [[svabhava|svabhāva]], literally "own-being", "self-nature", or "inherent existence" and thus without any underlying essence. They are ''empty'' of being independently existent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhāva circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. This is so because all things arise always dependently: not by their own power, but by depending on conditions leading to their becoming —coming into [[existence]]—, as opposed to [[being]].

Nāgārjuna means by real any entity which has a nature of its own (svabhāva), which is not produced by causes (akrtaka), which is not dependent on anything else (paratra nirapeksha).<ref>S.Radhakrishnan, ''Indian philosophy'' Volume 1, p. 607</ref>

Chapter 24 verse 14 of the ''[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]'' provides one of Nāgārjuna's most famous quotations on emptiness and co-arising:<ref name="siderits">{{cite book | last1 = Siderits | first1 = Mark | last2 = Katsura | first2 = Shoryu | title = Nagarjuna's Middle Way: Mulamadhyamakakarika (Classics of Indian Buddhism) | publisher = Wisdom Publications | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-61429-050-6 | pages=175–76}}</ref>

{{blockquote|''sarvaṃ ca yujyate tasya śūnyatā yasya yujyate<br />sarvaṃ na yujyate tasya śūnyaṃ yasya na yujyate''<br />

All is possible when emptiness is possible.<br />Nothing is possible when emptiness is impossible.}}

As part of his analysis of the emptiness of phenomena in the ''[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]]'', Nāgārjuna critiques svabhāva in several different concepts. He discusses the problems of positing any sort of inherent essence to causation, movement, change and personal identity. Nāgārjuna makes use of the Indian logical tool of the [[tetralemma]] to attack any essentialist conceptions. Nāgārjuna's logical analysis is based on four basic propositions:

:All things (dharma) exist: affirmation of being, negation of non-being
:All things (dharma) do not exist: affirmation of non-being, negation of being
:All things (dharma) both exist and do not exist: both affirmation and negation
:All things (dharma) neither exist nor do not exist: neither affirmation nor negation <ref>Dumoulin, Heinrich (1998) Zen Buddhism: a history, India and China, Macmillan Publishing, 43</ref>

To say that all things are 'empty' is to deny any kind of ontological foundation; therefore Nāgārjuna's view is often seen as a kind of ontological [[anti-foundationalism]]<ref>Westerhoff, Jan. Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction.</ref> or a metaphysical [[anti-realism]].<ref>Siderits, Mark. Nagarjuna as anti-realist, Journal of Indian Philosophy December 1988, Volume 16, Issue 4, pp 311-325.</ref> Understanding the nature of the emptiness of phenomena is simply a means to an end, which is [[nirvana]]. Thus Nāgārjuna's philosophical project is ultimately a soteriological one meant to correct our everyday cognitive processes which mistakenly posits [[svabhava|svabhāva]] on the flow of experience.

Some scholars such as [[Fyodor Shcherbatskoy]] and T.R.V. Murti held that Nāgārjuna was the inventor of the Shunyata doctrine; however, more recent work by scholars such as Choong Mun-keat, Yin Shun and Dhammajothi Thero has argued that Nāgārjuna was not an innovator by putting forth this theory,<ref>Yìn Shùn, An Investigation into Emptiness (Kōng zhī Tànjìu 空之探究) (1985)</ref><ref>Choong, The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism (1999)</ref><ref>Medawachchiye Dhammajothi Thero, The Concept of Emptiness in Pali Literature</ref> but that, in the words of Shi Huifeng, "the connection between emptiness and dependent origination is not an innovation or creation of Nāgārjuna".<ref>Shi huifeng: “Dependent Origination = Emptiness”—Nāgārjuna’s Innovation?</ref>

===Two truths===
{{main|Two truths doctrine}}

Nāgārjuna was also instrumental in the development of the [[two truths doctrine]], which claims that there are two levels of truth in Buddhist teaching, the ultimate truth (''paramārtha satya'') and the conventional or superficial truth (''saṃvṛtisatya''). The ultimate truth to Nāgārjuna is the truth that everything is empty of essence,<ref>Garfield, Jay. Empty Words: Buddhist Philosophy and Cross-cultural Interpretation, p. 91.</ref> this includes emptiness itself ('the emptiness of emptiness'). While some (Murti, 1955) have interpreted this by positing Nāgārjuna as a [[neo-Kantianism|neo-Kantian]] and thus making ultimate truth a metaphysical [[noumenon]] or an "ineffable ultimate that transcends the capacities of discursive reason",<ref name="Siderits, Mark 2003">Siderits, Mark, ''On the Soteriological Significance of Emptiness, Contemporary Buddhism'', Vol. 4, No. 1, 2003.</ref> others such as Mark Siderits and [[Jay L. Garfield]] have argued that Nāgārjuna's view is that "the ultimate truth is that there is no ultimate truth" (Siderits) and that Nāgārjuna is a "semantic anti-dualist" who posits that there are only conventional truths.<ref name="Siderits, Mark 2003" /> Hence according to Garfield:

<blockquote>Suppose that we take a conventional entity, such as a table. We analyze it to demonstrate its emptiness, finding that there is no table apart from its parts [...]. So we conclude that it is empty. But now let us analyze that emptiness [...]. What do we find? Nothing at all but the table's lack of inherent existence. [...]. To see the table as empty [...] is to see the table as conventional, as dependent.<ref>Garfield, J. L. (2002). ''Empty words'', pp. 38–39</ref></blockquote>

In articulating this notion in the ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'', Nāgārjuna drew on an early source in the ''[[Kaccānagotta Sutta]]'',{{sfn|Kalupahana|1986}} which distinguishes definitive meaning (''nītārtha'') from interpretable meaning (''neyārtha''):
{{blockquote|By and large, Kaccayana, this world is supported by a polarity, that of existence and non-existence. But when one reads the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, "non-existence" with reference to the world does not occur to one. When one reads the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, "existence" with reference to the world does not occur to one.

By and large, Kaccayana, this world is in bondage to attachments, clingings (sustenances), and biases. But one such as this does not get involved with or cling to these attachments, clingings, fixations of awareness, biases, or obsessions; nor is he resolved on "my self". He has no uncertainty or doubt that just stress, when arising, is arising; stress, when passing away, is passing away. In this, his knowledge is independent of others. It's to this extent, Kaccayana, that there is right view.

"Everything exists": That is one extreme. "Everything doesn't exist": That is a second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma via the middle...<ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130329025311/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.015.than.html SN 12.15 Kaccayanagotta Sutta: To Kaccayana Gotta (on Right View)]</ref>}}
The version linked to is the one found in the nikayas, and is slightly different from the one found in the ''Samyuktagama''. Both contain the concept of teaching via the middle between the extremes of existence and non-existence.<ref>A.K. Warder, ''A Course in Indian Philosophy.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, pp. 55–56</ref><ref>For the full text of both versions with analysis see pp. 192–95 of Choong Mun-keat, ''The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A comparative study based on the Sutranga portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama''; Harrassowitz Verlag, Weisbaden, 2000.</ref> Nagarjuna does not make reference to "everything" when he quotes the agamic text in his ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1986|p=232}}

=== Causality ===
{{See also|Causality}}

Jay L. Garfield describes that Nāgārjuna approached causality from the [[Four Noble Truths]] and [[dependent origination]]. Nāgārjuna distinguished two dependent origination views in a causal process, that which causes effects and that which causes conditions. This is predicated in the [[#Two truths|two truth doctrine]], as conventional truth and ultimate truth held together, in which both are empty in existence.  The distinction between effects and conditions is controversial. In Nāgārjuna's approach, cause means an event or state that has power to bring an effect. Conditions, refer to proliferating causes that bring a further event, state or process; without a metaphysical commitment to an occult connection between explaining and explanans. He argues nonexistent causes and various existing conditions. The argument draws from unreal causal power.  Things conventional exist and are ultimately nonexistent to rest in the [[Middle Way]] in both causal existence and nonexistence as casual emptiness within the [[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā]] doctrine. Although seeming strange to Westerners, this is seen as an attack on a reified view of causality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Garfield|first1=Jay L|title=Dependent Arising and the Emptiness of Emptiness: Why Did Nāgārjuna Start with Causation?|journal=Philosophy East and West|date=April 1994|volume=44|issue=2|pages=219–50|doi=10.2307/1399593|jstor=1399593|s2cid=51932733 |url=https://scholarworks.smith.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&context=phi_facpubs}}</ref>

===Relativity===
{{see also|Relativism}}
Nāgārjuna also taught the idea of relativity; in the Ratnāvalī, he gives the example that shortness exists only in relation to the idea of length. The determination of a thing or object is only possible in relation to other things or objects, especially by way of contrast. He held that the relationship between the ideas of "short" and "long" is not due to intrinsic nature (svabhāva). This idea is also found in the Pali Nikāyas and Chinese Āgamas, in which the idea of relativity is expressed similarly: "That which is the element of light ... is seen to exist on account of [in relation to] darkness; that which is the element of good is seen to exist on account of bad; that which is the element of space is seen to exist on account of form."{{sfn|Kalupahana|1975|loc=96-97: "In the Nikayas the quote is found at SN 2.150."}}

== Comparative philosophy ==

=== Hinduism ===
Nāgārjuna was fully acquainted with the classical Hindu philosophies of [[Samkhya]] and even the [[Vaiseshika]].<ref>TRV Murti, ''The central philosophy of Buddhism'', p. 92</ref> Nāgārjuna assumes a knowledge of the definitions of the sixteen categories as given in the [[Nyaya Sutras]], the chief text of the Hindu Nyaya school, and wrote a treatise on the pramanas where he reduced the [[syllogism]] of five members into one of three. In the Vigrahavyavartani Karika, Nāgārjuna criticises the Nyaya theory of ''pramanas'' (means of knowledge).<ref>S.Radhakrishnan, ''Indian Philosophy'' Volume 1, p. 644</ref>

=== Mahāyāna Buddhism ===
Nāgārjuna was conversant with many of the [[Śrāvaka]] philosophies and with the Mahāyāna tradition; however, determining Nāgārjuna's affiliation with a specific [[nikāya]] is difficult, considering much of this material has been lost. If the most commonly accepted attribution of texts (that of Christian Lindtner) holds, then he was clearly a Māhayānist, but his philosophy holds assiduously to the Śrāvaka ''[[Tripiṭaka]]'', and while he does make explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, he is always careful to stay within the parameters set out by the Śrāvaka canon.

Nāgārjuna may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the [[āgama (Buddhism)|āgamas]]. In the eyes of Nāgārjuna, the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.<ref>Christian Lindtner, ''Master of Wisdom.'' Dharma Publishing 1997, p. 324.</ref> David Kalupahana sees Nāgārjuna as a successor to [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] in being a champion of the middle-way and a reviver of the original philosophical ideals of the Buddha.<ref>David Kalupahana, ''Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nāgārjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way.'' Motilal Banarsidass, 2005, pp. 2, 5.</ref>

=== Pyrrhonism and its influence ===
{{see also|Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism}}
Because of the high degree of similarity between Nāgārjuna's philosophy and [[Pyrrhonism]], particularly the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]],<ref>Adrian Kuzminski, ''Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism'' 2008</ref> According to [[Thomas McEvilley]] this is because Nagarjuna was likely influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.<ref>Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' 2002 pp 499-505</ref> [[Pyrrho of Elis]] (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE), the founder of this school of [[Philosophical skepticism|sceptical philosophy]], was himself influenced by Indian philosophy. Pyrrho travelled to India with [[Alexander the Great]]'s army and studied with the [[gymnosophist]]s. According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], Pyrrho's teachings are based on [[Buddhism]], because the Greek terms ''adiaphora'', ''astathmēta'' and ''anepikrita'' in the ''Aristocles Passage'' resemble the Buddhist [[three marks of existence]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2015|p=28}} According to him, the key innovative tenets of Pyrrho's scepticism were only found in Indian philosophy at the time and not in Greece.{{Sfn|Beckwith|2015|p=221}}
However, other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195-215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984-1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho.

== See also ==
{{col div |colwidth = 35em }}
* [[Acharya Nagarjuna University]]
* [[Aryadeva]]
* [[Buddhapālita]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Kamalasila]]
* [[Middle Way]]
* [[Śāntarakṣita]]
* [[Sun Simiao]]
* [[Śūnyatā]]
* [[Yogachara-Madhyamaka]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book |last = Beckwith |first = Christopher I. |title = Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015 |url = http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf |isbn=9781400866328 }}
* Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Garfield, Jay L. and Graham Priest (2003), “Nāgārjuna and the Limits of Thought”, ''Philosophy East and West'' 53 (January 2003): 1-21.
* Jones, Richard H. (2014), ''Nagarjuna: Buddhism's Most Important Philosopher'', 2nd ed. New York: Jackson Square Books.
* {{Citation | last = Kalupahana | first = David J. | year =1975| title =Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism | publisher = The University Press of Hawaii | isbn = 9780824802981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOYGAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Citation | last = Kalupahana | first = David J. | year =1986 | title = The Philosophy of the Middle Way |location=Albany | publisher = SUNY Press | isbn = 9780887061486 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0O6_coQ1odMC}}
* {{Citation | last = Kalupahana | first = David J. | year = 1992 | title = The Principles of Buddhist Psychology |url= | location = Delhi | publisher =Sri Satguru Publications }}
* {{Citation | last = Kalupahana | first = David J. | year = 1994 | title =A history of Buddhist philosophy | location = Delhi | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited | isbn = 9780824814021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SlDArya3YvcC}}
* Lamotte, E., ''Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse'', Vol I (1944), Vol II (1949), Vol III (1970), Vol IV (1976), Institut Orientaliste: Louvain-la-Neuve.
* Lindtner, Christian (1982).'' Nagarjuniana: Studies in the Writings and Philosophy of Nāgārjuna'' Akademisk forlag.
* Mabbett, Ian, (1998), “The problem of the historical Nagarjuna revisited”, ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 118(3): 332–46.
* Murti, T. R. V. (1955), ''The Central Philosophy of Buddhism''. George Allen and Unwin, London. 2nd edition: 1960.
* Murty, K. Satchidananda (1971), ''Nagarjuna''. National Book Trust, New Delhi. 2nd edition: 1978.
* Ramanan, K. Venkata (1966), ''Nāgārjuna's Philosophy''. Charles E. Tuttle, Vermont and Tokyo. Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 1978.
* Ruegg, D. Seyfort (1981), ''The literature of the Madhyamaka school of philosophy in India (A History of Indian literature)'', Harrassowitz, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02204-0}}.
* Sastri, H. Chatterjee, ed. (1977), ''The Philosophy of Nāgārjuna as contained in the Ratnāvalī''. Part I [ Containing the text and introduction only ]. Saraswat Library, Calcutta.
* [[Frederick Streng|Streng, Frederick J.]] (1967), ''Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning''. Nashville: Abingdon Press.
* Tuck, Andrew P. (1990), ''Comparative Philosophy and the Philosophy of Scholarship: on the Western Interpretation of Nāgārjuna'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Walser, Joseph (2002), [https://web.archive.org/web/20150403235727/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Nagarjuna/Nagarjuna-and-the-Ratnavali.pdf Nagarjuna And The Ratnavali: New Ways To Date An Old Philosopher], ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 25 (1-2), 209-262
* Walser, Joseph (2005), ''Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture''. New York: Columbia University Press.
* Westerhoff, Jan (2010), ''The Dispeller of Disputes: Nāgārjuna's Vigrahavyāvartanī''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Westerhoff, Jan (2009), ''Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka. A Philosophical Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Wedemeyer, Christian K. (2007), ''Āryadeva's'' Lamp that Integrates the Practices: ''The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism according to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition''. New York: AIBS/Columbia University Press.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nagarjuna}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource|Saṃyukta Āgama 301: Kātyāyana Gotra Sūtra}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=nagarjuna |title=Nāgārjuna |last=Westerhoff |first=Jan Christoph }}
* {{cite EB1911 |author = Rhys Davids, T. W. |author-link = Thomas William Rhys Davids |wstitle=Nāgārjuna |volume=19 |page=151 }}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=nagarjun |title = Nagarjuna }}
* [http://indica-et-buddhica.org/repositorium/nagarjuna Nāgārjuna – Sanskrit Buddhist texts: Acintyastava, Bodhicittavivaraṇa, Ratnāvalī, Mūlamadhyamakakārikās &c.]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/journals/ia/banav.htm#pp_2 Overview of traditional biographical accounts]
* [http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Nagarjuna/Garland_of_Ratnavali.html Online version of the Ratnāvalī (Precious Garland) in English] Translated by Prof. Vidyakaraprabha and Bel-dzek
* [http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/original-texts/sutra-texts/letter-to-a-friend Online version of the Suhṛllekha (Letter to a Friend) in English] Translated by Alexander Berzin
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Nāgārjuna}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4413}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110207215921/http://www.byomakusuma.org/Articles/tabid/55/Default.aspx Nārāgjuna vis-à-vis the Āgama-s and Nikāya-s] Byoma Kusuma Nepalese Dharmasangha (archived)
* [http://www.thezensite.com/MainPages/nagarjuna.html ZenEssays: Nagarjuna and the Madhyamika]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130728183514/http://www.stephenbatchelor.org/index.php/en/verses-from-the-center Mula madhyamaka karika] online Tibetan and English version translated by Stephen Batchelor (archived)

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