Editing Mushroom

{{Short description|Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus}}
{{About|fungi|use in food|Edible mushroom|other uses|Mushroom (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Toadstool}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
[[File:Sparrige Schüppling (Pholiota squarrosa).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''[[Pholiota squarrosa]]'' growing at the base of a tree]]

A '''mushroom''' or '''toadstool''' is the fleshy, [[spore]]-bearing [[Sporocarp (fungi)|fruiting body]] of a [[fungus]], typically produced above ground on [[soil]] or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a [[poisonous mushroom]].

The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, ''[[Agaricus bisporus]]''; hence, the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi ([[Basidiomycota]], [[Agaricomycetes]]) that have a stem ([[Stipe (mycology)|stipe]]), a cap ([[Pileus (mycology)|pileus]]), and gills (lamellae, sing. [[Lamella (mycology)|lamella]]) on the underside of the cap. "Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems; therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some [[Ascomycota]]. The gills produce microscopic [[Spore#Fungi|spores]] which help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.

Forms deviating from the standard [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] usually have more specific names, such as "[[bolete]]", "[[truffle]]", "[[puffball]]", "[[stinkhorn]]", and "[[morel]]", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "[[agaric]]s" in reference to their similarity to ''[[Agaricus]]'' or their order [[Agaricales]].

==Etymology==
[[File:Zwerg Postkarte 001.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', the most easily recognised "toadstool", is frequently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is often associated with [[gnome]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mushroom Miscellany |last=Harding |first=Patrick |year=2008 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-00-728464-1 |page=149}}</ref>]]

The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms ''mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns'' were used.<ref name="Ramsbottom1954" />

The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word ''[[Calocybe gambosa|mousseron]]'' in reference to [[moss]] (''mousse''). Delineation between [[Edible mushroom|edible]] and [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous]] fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.<ref name="Hay">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/elementarytextbo00hayw#page/n5/mode/2up |title=An Elementary Text-Book of British Fungi |last=Hay |first=William Deslisle |year=1887 |publisher=London, S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey |pages=6–7}}</ref><ref name="Arora">{{cite book |title=Mushrooms Demystified, A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |last=Arora |first=David |year=1986 |publisher=[[Ten Speed Press]] |isbn=978-0-89815-169-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/1 1–3] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/1 }}</ref> The word ''toadstool'' appeared first in [[14th-century]] England as a reference for a "stool" for [[toad]]s, possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus,<ref name="oed">{{cite web |title=Toadstool |url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=toadstool |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper, Inc. |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214745/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=toadstool |url-status=live }}</ref> an association it carries in modern terminology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toadstool |access-date=26 June 2022 |title=Definition of TOADSTOOL |archive-date=27 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627010312/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toadstool |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Identification==
Identifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their [[macroscopic]] structure. Most are [[basidiomycetes]] and gilled. Their spores, called [[basidiospore]]s, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off [[basidia]] and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a [[spore print]], is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red.<ref name="Dickinson1982" />

[[File:Mushroom cap morphology2.png|thumb|Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushrooms]]

While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to [[medieval]] times and the [[Victorian era]], combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and [[allergen]]s. [[Chemical test]]s are also used for some genera.<ref>[[#Ammirati|Ammirati]] ''et al''., pp. 40–41.</ref>

In general, identification to [[genus]] can often be accomplished in the field using a local [[field guide]]. Identification to [[species]], however, requires more effort. A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on [[Lamella (mycology)|lamella]] edges for colored spored prints.

==Classification==
{{main|Sporocarp (fungi)|Basidiocarp|Ascocarp}}
[[File:Hypomyces lactifluorum 169126.jpg|thumb|A mushroom (probably ''[[Russula brevipes]]'') parasitized by ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]'' resulting in a "lobster mushroom"]]

Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order [[Agaricales]], whose [[type genus]] is ''[[Agaricus]]'' and type species is the field mushroom, ''[[Agaricus campestris]]''. However in modern [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecularly]] defined [[Classification (biology)|classifications]], not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class [[Agaricomycetes]]. For example, [[Cantharellus|chanterelles]] are in the [[Cantharellales]], false chanterelles such as ''[[Gomphus (fungus)|Gomphus]]'' are in the [[Gomphales]], [[milk-cap]] mushrooms (''[[Lactarius (fungus)|Lactarius]]'', ''[[Lactifluus]]'') and russulas (''[[Russula]]''), as well as ''[[Lentinellus]]'', are in the [[Russulales]], while the tough, leathery genera ''[[Lentinus]]'' and ''[[Panus]]'' are among the [[Polyporales]], but ''[[Neolentinus]]'' is in the [[Gloeophyllales]], and the little pin-mushroom genus, ''[[Rickenella]]'', along with similar genera, are in the [[Hymenochaetales]].

Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common [[Marasmius oreades|fairy-ring mushroom]], [[shiitake]], [[enoki]], [[oyster mushrooms]], [[fly agaric]]s and other [[Amanita]]s, [[magic mushrooms]] like species of ''[[Psilocybe]]'', [[Volvariella|paddy straw mushrooms]], [[Coprinus comatus|shaggy manes]], etc.

An atypical mushroom is the [[lobster mushroom]], which is a fruitbody of a ''Russula'' or ''Lactarius'' mushroom that has been deformed by the [[parasitic]] fungus ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]''. This gives the affected mushroom an unusual shape and red color that resembles that of a boiled [[lobster]].<ref name="Volk2001" />

Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called [[bolete]]s), others have spines, such as the [[Hericium erinaceus|hedgehog mushroom]] and other [[tooth fungi]], and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for [[polypore]]s, [[puffball]]s, [[jelly fungi]], [[coral fungi]], [[bracket fungi]], [[stinkhorn]]s, and [[cup fungi]]. Thus, the term is more one of common application to [[macroscopic]] fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described.<ref name="Chang2004" />

==Morphology==
[[File:Amanita stirps Hemibapha 45069.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Amanita jacksonii]]'' buttons emerging from their universal veils]]
[[File:Lactarius indigo 48568.jpg|thumb|The blue [[Lamella (mycology)|gills]] of ''[[Lactarius indigo]]'', a [[milk-cap]] mushroom]]
[[File:Lycoperdon_perlatum,_Common_Puffball,_UK_,_2.jpg|thumb|''[[Lycoperdon perlatum]]'' (the "common puffball") has a [[gleba]]l hymenium; when young, the interior is white, but it becomes brown containing powdery [[spore]]s as the fungus matures.]]
[[File:Morelasci.jpg|thumb|''[[Morchella elata]]'' asci viewed with [[phase contrast microscopy]]]]

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a [[primordium]], which is typically found on or near the surface of the [[Substrate (biology)|substrate]]. It is formed within the [[mycelium]], the mass of threadlike [[hypha]]e that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the [[universal veil]], that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or [[Volva (mycology)|volva]], at the base of the [[Stipe (mycology)|stalk]], or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the [[partial veil]], covers the bladelike [[Lamella (mycology)|gills]] that bear [[spore]]s. As the cap expands the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or [[Annulus (mycology)|annulus]], around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of ''[[Amanita]]'', collar-like as in many species of ''[[Lepiota]]'', or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus ''[[Cortinarius]]''. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus.<ref>[[#Stuntz|Stuntz]] ''et al''., pp. 12–13.</ref>

The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center or lateral, as in species of ''[[Pleurotus]]'' and ''[[Panus]]''. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets. [[Puffball]]s lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms including [[truffle]]s, [[Jelly fungus|jellies]], [[earthstars]], and [[Nidulariaceae|bird's nests]] usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts.

The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera ''[[Agaricus]]'', ''[[Amanita]]'', ''[[Lepiota]]'' and ''[[Pluteus]]'', among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have [[decurrent]] gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera ''[[Omphalotus]]'' and ''[[Pleurotus]]''. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.<ref>[[#Stuntz|Stuntz]] ''et al''., pp. 28–29.</ref>

===Microscopic features===
A [[hymenium]] is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of [[bolete]]s and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called [[Ascus|asci]], which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The [[Discomycetes]], which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of [[cup fungi]] or within the pits of [[morel]]s. The [[Pyrenomycetes]], tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, [[leaf litter]], and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called [[perithecia]], within which the asci develop.<ref name="Ammirati1985pp25-34">[[#Ammirati|Ammirati]] ''et al''., pp. 25–34.</ref>

In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called [[sterigmata]], which extend from club-shaped cells called a [[basidia]]. The fertile portion of the [[Gasteromycetes]], called a [[gleba]], may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the [[stinkhorn]]s. Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called [[paraphyses]]. Similar structures called [[cystidia]] often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.<ref name="Ammirati1985pp25-34" />

The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to [[Chemical tests in mushroom identification|chemical tests]] often can be the crux of an identification. A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical [[germ pore]], from which the hypha emerges when the spore germinates.<ref name="Ammirati1985pp25-34" />

==Growth==
[[File:Growing oyster mushrooms - timelapse.webm|thumb|upright=1.3|Timelapse of [[Pleurotus ostreatus|oyster mushroom]]s (''Pleurotus ostreatus'') growing on a [[Petri dish]]]]

Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the [[English language]] including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Falconer |first=William |title=Mushrooms: How to Grow Them - A Practical Treatise on Mushroom Culture for Profit and Pleasure |publisher=Read Books |year=2009 |isbn=9781444678925 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DLong |date=29 August 2019 |title=How Mushrooms are Grown |url=https://canadianfoodfocus.org/on-the-farm/how-mushrooms-are-grown/ |access-date=19 June 2023 |website=Canadian Food Focus |language=en-CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sayner |first=Adam |date=23 February 2022 |title=How Long Does It Take To Grow Mushrooms? All Questions Answered |url=https://grocycle.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-grow-mushrooms/ |access-date=19 June 2023 |website=GroCycle |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=Tom |title=A Complete Mushroom Cultivation Guide on How to Grow Gourmet Mushrooms and Identify Wild Common Mushrooms and Other Fungi for Beginners |publisher=Independently Published |year=2021 |isbn=9798702942391}}</ref>

The [[Agaricus bisporus|cultivated mushroom]], as well as the common [[field mushroom]], initially form a minute [[fruiting body]], referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its [[mycelium]] and expand, mainly by inflating preformed [[Cell (biology)|cells]] that took several days to form in the [[primordia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=K.C. |last2=Bleichrodt |first2=R. |date=September 2022 |title=Go with the flow: mechanisms driving water transport during vegetative growth and fruiting |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/423032/1_s2.0_S1749461321000464_main.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |journal=Fungal Biology Reviews |volume=41 |pages=10–23 |doi=10.1016/j.fbr.2021.10.002 |bibcode=2022FunBR..41...10H |issn=1749-4613}}</ref>

Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like ''[[Parasola plicatilis]]'' (formerly ''[[Coprinus]] plicatlis''), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.<ref name="Nelson2006" /> The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the [[Thatch (lawn)|thatch]] and after heavy rainfall or in [[dew]]y conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parasola plicatilis, Pleated Inkcap mushroom |url=https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/parasola-plicatilis.php |access-date=26 June 2024 |website=first-nature.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Dish on Deliquescence in Coprinus Species :Cornell Mushroom Blog |url=https://blog.mycology.cornell.edu/2008/07/01/the-dish-on-deliquescence-in-coprinus-species/ |access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>

Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting [[hypha]]e. For example, ''[[Pleurotus nebrodensis]]'' grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now [[critically endangered]].<ref name="redlist" />

Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of ''[[Armillaria solidipes]]'' (formerly known as ''Armillaria ostoyae'') in [[Malheur National Forest]] in the United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated {{convert|2200|acre|km2}}.<ref>{{Citation|chapter=A Humongous Fungus Among Us|title=Dinosaur in a Haystack|year=1995|publisher=Harvard University Press|doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674063426.c38|isbn=978-0-674-06342-6|pages=335–343}}</ref> Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like [[rhizomorphs]] that bridge colonized separated woody substrates.<ref name="urlUSFS" />

==Nutrition==
{{Infobox nutritional value  | name          = Mushrooms (brown, Italian)<br />or [[Crimini]] (raw)
 | kJ            = 94 
 | water         = 92.1 g
 | protein       = 2.5 g 
 | fat           = 0.1 g 
 | carbs         = 4.3 g 
 | fiber         = 0.6 g 
 | calcium_mg    = 18 
 | iron_mg       = 0.4
 | sodium_mg     = 6 
 | phosphorus_mg = 120 
 | potassium_mg  = 448 
 | zinc_mg       = 1.1 
 | manganese_mg  = 0.142
 | magnesium_mg  = 9
 | opt1n         = Selenium
 | opt1v         = 26 ug
 | opt2n         = Copper
 | opt2v         = 0.5 mg
 | vitC_mg       = 0 
 | vitD_iu       = 3
 | opt3n         = Vitamin D (UV exposed)
 | opt3v         = 1276 IU
 | pantothenic_mg = 1.5 
 | thiamin_mg    = 0.1 
 | riboflavin_mg = 0.5 
 | niacin_mg     = 3.8 
 | folate_ug     = 25
 | vitB6_mg      = 0.11
 | float         = right 
 | source_usda   = 1
 | note          = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?query=ndbNumber:11266 Full Link to USDA Food Data Central entry]; ([https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?query=ndbNumber:11936 exposed to UV light])
}}

Raw [[Agaricus bisporus|brown mushrooms]] are 92% water, 4% [[carbohydrate]]s, 2% [[protein]] and less than 1% [[fat]]. In a {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off}} amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 [[calorie]]s and are a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[B&nbsp;vitamins]], such as [[riboflavin]], [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] and [[pantothenic acid]], [[selenium]] (37%&nbsp;DV) and [[copper]] (25%&nbsp;DV), and a moderate source (10–19%&nbsp;DV) of [[phosphorus]], [[zinc]] and [[potassium]]. They have minimal or no [[vitamin&nbsp;C]] and [[sodium]] content.

===Vitamin D===
The [[vitamin D]] content of a mushroom depends on [[postharvest]] handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The [[US Department of Agriculture]] provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D.<ref>{{cite web|author=Haytowitz DB|title=Vitamin D in mushrooms|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Articles/AICR09_Mushroom_VitD.pdf|publisher=Nutrient Data Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture|access-date=16 April 2018|year=2009|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201181749/https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Articles/AICR09_Mushroom_VitD.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> When exposed to [[ultraviolet]] (UV) light, even after harvesting,<ref>{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 22132934
| year = 2012
| last1 = Kalaras
| first1 = M. D.
| title = Effects of postharvest pulsed UV light treatment of white button mushrooms (''Agaricus bisporus'') on vitamin D<sub>2</sub> content and quality attributes
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 60
| issue = 1
| pages = 220–5
| last2 = Beelman
| first2 = R. B.
| last3 = Elias
| first3 = R. J.
| doi = 10.1021/jf203825e
| bibcode = 2012JAFC...60..220K
}}</ref> [[ergosterol]] in mushrooms is converted to [[Vitamin D2|vitamin D<sub>2</sub>]],<ref name="Koyyalamudi2009" /> a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the [[functional food]] [[grocery]] market.<ref name=simon/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cardwell|first1=Glenn|last2=Bornman|first2=Janet F.|last3=James|first3=Anthony P.|last4=Black|first4=Lucinda J.|date=13 October 2018|title=A Review of Mushrooms as a Potential Source of Dietary Vitamin D|journal=Nutrients|volume=10|issue=10|page=1498|doi=10.3390/nu10101498|issn=2072-6643|pmc=6213178|pmid=30322118|doi-access=free}}</ref> In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural [[sunlight]], and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food.<ref name="simon">{{Cite journal
 | pmid = 23485617
| year = 2013
| last1 = Simon
| first1 = R. R.
| title = Safety assessment of the post-harvest treatment of button mushrooms (''Agaricus bisporus'') using ultraviolet light
| journal = Food and Chemical Toxicology
| volume = 56
| pages = 278–89
| last2 = Borzelleca
| first2 = J. F.
| last3 = Deluca
| first3 = H. F.
| last4 = Weaver
| first4 = C. M.
| doi = 10.1016/j.fct.2013.02.009
}}</ref>

==Human use==
{{further|Ethnomycology}}

===Edible mushrooms===
{{main|Edible mushroom|Mushroom hunting|Fungiculture}}
[[File:ChampignonMushroom.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'', one of the most widely cultivated and consumed mushrooms]]
[[File:Pleurotus eryngii - Doğal Ortamında Çaşır Mantarı.jpg|thumb|left| ''[[Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae|Ferula]] mushroom'' in [[Bingöl]], [[Turkey]]. This is an edible type of mushroom.]]

Mushrooms are used extensively in [[cooking]], in many [[cuisine]]s (notably [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Korean cuisine|Korean]], [[European cuisine|European]], and [[Japanese food|Japanese]]). Humans have valued them as food since antiquity.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Edible Mushrooms: Improving Human Health and Promoting Quality Life |year = 2015 |pmc = 4320875 |last1 = Valverde |first1 = M. E. |last2 = Hernández-Pérez |first2 = T. |last3 = Paredes-López |first3 = O. |journal = International Journal of Microbiology |volume = 2015 |page = 376387 |doi = 10.1155/2015/376387 |pmid = 25685150 |doi-access = free }}</ref>

Most mushrooms sold in [[supermarket]]s have been commercially grown on [[mushroom farm]]s. The most common of these, ''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'', is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of ''A.&nbsp;bisporus'' are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species available at many grocers include ''[[Hericium erinaceus]]'', [[shiitake]], [[maitake]] (hen-of-the-woods), ''[[Pleurotus]]'', and [[enoki]]. In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers.<ref name="FAO" />

[[China]] is a major edible mushroom producer.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.isms.biz/articles/production-of-cultivated-edible-mushroom-in-china-with-emphasis-on-lentinula-edodes/|title=Production of Cultivated Edible Mushroom in China With Emphasis on Lentinula edodes - isms.biz|newspaper=isms.biz|language=en-US|access-date=25 January 2017|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202040408/http://www.isms.biz/articles/production-of-cultivated-edible-mushroom-in-china-with-emphasis-on-lentinula-edodes/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around {{convert|2.7|kg|lb}} of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4&nbsp;billion people.<ref>[[#Hall|Hall]] ''et al''., p. 25.</ref> In 2014, [[Poland]] was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated {{convert|194000|tonne|ton}} annually.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/137929/Poland-The-worlds-largest-mushroom-exporter | title=Poland: The world's largest mushroom exporter | publisher=Fresh Plaza | date=8 April 2015 | access-date=23 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924110152/http://www.freshplaza.com/article/137929/Poland-The-worlds-largest-mushroom-exporter | archive-date=24 September 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists,<ref name="Metzler1992"/> and the act of collecting them for such is known as [[mushroom hunting]], or simply "mushrooming". Even edible mushrooms may produce [[allergic]] reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild [[asthma]]tic response to severe [[anaphylactic]] shock.<ref>[[#Hall|Hall]] ''et al''., pp. 22–24.</ref><ref>[[#Ammirati|Ammirati]] ''et al''., pp. 81–83.</ref> Even the cultivated ''A.&nbsp;bisporus'' contains small amounts of [[hydrazine]]s, the most abundant of which is [[agaritine]] (a [[mycotoxin]] and [[carcinogen]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19680875 |year=2009 |last1=Schulzova |first1=V |title=Agaritine content of 53 Agaricus species collected from nature |journal=Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=82–93 |last2=Hajslova |first2=J |last3=Peroutka |first3=R |last4=Hlavasek |first4=J |last5=Gry |first5=J |last6=Andersson |first6=H.C. |s2cid=427230 |doi=10.1080/02652030802039903 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00577390/file/PEER_stage2_10.1080%252F02652030802039903.pdf |access-date=29 June 2019 |archive-date=27 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427040905/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00577390/file/PEER_stage2_10.1080%2F02652030802039903.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.<ref name="Sieger1998"/>

A number of species of mushrooms are [[Poisonous mushroom|poisonous]]; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Preventing Poisonings - Bay Area Mycological Society|url=https://www.bayareamushrooms.org/poisonings/preventing_poisonings.html|access-date=11 May 2021|website=bayareamushrooms.org|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511050052/https://www.bayareamushrooms.org/poisonings/preventing_poisonings.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Toxic mushrooms===
{{main|Mushroom poisoning}}
[[File:Amanita phalloides young.jpg|thumb|Young ''[[Amanita phalloides]]'' "death cap" mushrooms, with a matchbox for size comparison]]

Many mushroom species produce [[secondary metabolite]]s that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or [[bioluminescent]]. Although there are only a small number of [[List of deadly fungi|deadly species]], several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see [[emetic]]s), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]], including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 [[Chernobyl disaster]] and continued to be studied.<ref name="FreshPlaza" /><ref name="Turhan2007" />

===Psychoactive mushrooms===
{{Main|Hallucinogenic mushroom}}
[[File:Psilocybe.zapotecorum.1.jpg|thumb|''[[Psilocybe zapotecorum]]'', a hallucinogenic mushroom]]

Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the ''[[Velada (Mazatec ritual)|velada]]'' ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the ''[[shaman]]'' or ''[[curandera]]'' (priest-healer).<ref name="Hudler2000" />

[[Psilocybin mushroom]]s, also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelic properties]]. Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or {{"'}}shrooms", they are openly available in [[smart shop]]s in many parts of the world, or on the [[black market]] in those countries which have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported to facilitate profound and life-changing insights often described as [[mystical experiences]]. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.<ref name="Griffiths2008" />

[[File:Pschoactive Psilocybe distribution.svg|thumb|There are over 100 psychoactive mushroom species of genus ''Psilocybe'' native to regions all around the world.<ref name="Guzmán 1998">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guzmán G, Allen JW, Gartz J |title=A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion |journal=Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto |year=1998 |volume=14 |page=207 |url=http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf |access-date=17 September 2017 |archive-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626050845/http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

[[Psilocybin]], a naturally occurring chemical in certain [[psychedelic mushrooms]] such as ''[[Psilocybe cubensis]]'', is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as [[obsessive–compulsive disorder]]. Minute amounts have been reported to stop [[Cluster headache|cluster]] and [[migraine headache]]s.<ref name="Sewell2006" /> A double-blind study, done by  [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]], showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme [[Anxiety (mood)|anxiety]]. However the anxiety went away after a short period of time.<ref name="pmid = 16826400" /> Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maps.org/conference/clinicalsunday|title=Clinical Sunday|work=maps.org|access-date=20 March 2014|archive-date=5 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405103829/http://www.maps.org/conference/clinicalsunday/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A few species in the genus ''[[Amanita]]'', most recognizably ''[[A. muscaria]]'', but also ''[[A. pantherina]]'', among others, contain the psychoactive compound [[muscimol]].<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=7977045 | date=2021 | last1=Rampolli | first1=F. I. | last2=Kamler | first2=P. | last3=Carnevale Carlino | first3=C. | last4=Bedussi | first4=F. | title=The Deceptive Mushroom: Accidental Amanita muscaria Poisoning | journal=European Journal of Case Reports in Internal Medicine | volume=8 | issue=2 | page=002212 | pmid=33768066 }}</ref> The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of ''Amanitas'' contains no [[amatoxin]]s or [[phallotoxin]]s, and as such are not [[hepatoxic]], though if not properly [[Curing (vegetable preservation)|cured]] will be non-lethally [[neurotoxic]] due to the presence of [[ibotenic acid]]. The ''Amanita'' intoxication is similar to [[Z-drug]]s in that it includes [[Central nervous system|CNS]] [[depressant]] and [[sedative]]-[[hypnotic]] effects, but also [[Dissociative|dissociation]] and [[Deliriant|delirium]] in high doses.

A third type of hallucinogenic mushroom is [[hallucinogenic bolete mushroom]]s such as ''[[Lanmaoa asiatica]]'', which are said to cause people to experience [[Lilliputian hallucination]]s.<ref name="Guzmán2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Guzmán G | title = New Studies on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: History, Diversity, and Applications in Psychiatry | journal = Int J Med Mushrooms | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 1019–1029 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26853956 | doi = 10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.v17.i11.10 | url = }}</ref><ref name="YuGuerin-LaguetteWang2020">{{cite book | last=Yu | first=Fuqiang | last2=Guerin-Laguette | first2=Alexis | last3=Wang | first3=Yun | title=Mushrooms, Humans and Nature in a Changing World | chapter=Edible Mushrooms and Their Cultural Importance in Yunnan, China | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2020 | isbn=978-3-030-37377-1 | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-37378-8_6 | page=163–204 | quote=Some boletes known as “jian-shou-qing” (turning blue when bruised or cut) are considered hallucinogenic, causing visions that Yunnan’s people call “xiao-ren-ren” (little men or little people, similar to the “Lilliputian hallucinations” found in the Kuma people from New Guinea) (Arora 2008). Among these boletes are Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Lanmaoa asiatica, and Sutorius magnificus, all commonly collected in Yunnan and even more popular than porcini (Fig.  6.10) (Wang et al. 2004). Though some of these species can cause gastrointestinal distress, the local people continue to consume them (Arora 2008).}}</ref><ref name="Arora2008">{{cite journal | last=Arora | first=David | title=Notes on Economic Mushrooms. Xiao Ren Ren: The “Little People” of Yunnan | journal=Economic Botany | publisher=New York Botanical Garden Press | volume=62 | issue=3 | year=2008 | issn=00130001 | jstor=40390492 | pages=540–544 | url=https://i.warosu.org/data/sci/img/0147/14/1659226200674553.pdf | access-date=18 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="PlazasFaraone2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Plazas E, Faraone N | title = Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents | journal = Biomedicines | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | date = February 2023 | page = 461 | pmid = 36830997 | pmc = 9953455 | doi = 10.3390/biomedicines11020461 | doi-access = free | url = }}</ref><ref name="DomnauerDentinger2022">{{cite conference | vauthors = Domnauer C, Dentinger B | title = Reports of Psychoactive Bolete Mushrooms | conference = ESPD55 (Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs 55) | date = 24 May 2022 | publisher = McKenna Academy of Natural Philosophy | url = https://mckenna.academy/mka-speakers/colin-domnauer-reports-psychoactive-boletes/}}</ref> These mushrooms have unknown constituents and an unknown [[mechanism of action]], but appear to be distinct in their properties and effects from other hallucinogenic mushrooms and are currently being researched.<ref name="PlazasFaraone2023" /><ref name="DomnauerDentinger2022" /><ref name="Heil2023">{{cite news | last=Heil | first=Emily | title=Yes, Janet Yellen ate magic mushrooms. Here's why she didn't get high. | newspaper=Washington Post | date=16 August 2023 | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/08/16/janet-yellen-magic-mushrooms-china/ | archive-url = https://archive.today/20250224071259/https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/08/16/janet-yellen-magic-mushrooms-china/ | archive-date = 24 February 2025 | access-date=24 February 2025 | quote=That’s the way locals in the Yunnan province, where they are wild-foraged, typically see these mushrooms, says Colin Domnauer, a PhD candidate at the University of Utah, who has been studying them. [...] Domnauer recently visited Yunnan to collect samples, [...] So what could explain those Lilliputian apparitions? Maybe something entirely novel, Domnauer says, possibly a compound that could have exciting uses in medicine or other applications. [...]}}</ref><ref name="DomnauerDentinger2023">{{cite conference | vauthors = Domnauer C, Dentinger B | title = OS52-003 Searching for Psychoactive Bolete Mushrooms | conference = 91st Annual Meeting of the Mycological Society of America | date = July 2023 | publisher = Mycological Society of America | url = https://msafungi.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/MSA-2023-Abstract-Book-1.pdf#page=31 | quote = [...] Despite the numerous anecdotal reports, the identity and nature of such psychoactive boletes remain unknown. Here, we present a preliminary phylogenetic study resolving taxonomic relationships to the suspected psychoactive bolete from Yunnan in the recently erected genus Lanmaoa. [...] early genomic analysis has revealed the notable absence of biosynthetic gene clusters known to be involved in the production of the psychoactive fungal metabolites psilocybin and ibotenic acid, possibly indicating a novel category of hallucinogenic mushrooms is involved.}}</ref>

===Folk medicine===
{{main|Medicinal mushrooms}}
[[File:2014-02-26 Ganoderma lingzhi Sheng H. Wu, Y. Cao & Y.C. Dai 574882.jpg|thumb|''[[Ganoderma lingzhi]]'']]

Some mushrooms are used in [[folk medicine]].<ref name="pdq">{{cite web |title=Medicinal mushrooms |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424937/ |publisher=PDQ Cancer Information |access-date=2 July 2021 |date=17 June 2021 |pmid=28267306 |last1=Pdq Integrative |first1=Alternative |archive-date=26 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226152825/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424937/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a few countries, [[extract]]s, such as [[polysaccharide-K]], [[schizophyllan]], [[polysaccharide peptide]], or [[lentinan]], are government-registered [[adjuvant cancer therapies]],<ref name="cancer.org" /><ref name="Borchers" /><ref name=pdq/> but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed.<ref name=pdq/><ref name="CancerResUK">{{cite web|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment?_ga=2.202576657.1691015314.1510713893-658116733.1510713893|title=Mushrooms in cancer treatment|publisher=Cancer Research UK|date=30 January 2015|access-date=15 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115083457/http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment?_ga=2.202576657.1691015314.1510713893-658116733.1510713893|url-status=live}}</ref> Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as the US [[Food and Drug Administration]], regard such use as a [[dietary supplement]], which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a [[prescription drug]].<ref name=pdq/>

===Other uses===
[[File:Fomes fomentarius.jpg|thumb|A tinder fungus, ''[[Fomes fomentarius]]'']]

Mushrooms can be used for [[dyeing]] wool and other natural fibers. The [[chromophore]]s of [[mushroom dye]]s are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic [[dye]]s, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.<ref name="BechtoldMussak2009">{{citation|author=Riika Raisanen|editor=Thomas Bechtold and Rita Mussak|title=Handbook of Natural Colorants|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBFxuH5uXyIC&pg=PA183|year=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74496-3|pages=183–200|chapter=Dyes from lichens and mushrooms}}</ref>

Some fungi, types of [[polypore]]s loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as [[tinder fungi]]).

Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using [[mycorrhiza]]e to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water).<ref name="Kulshreshtha 2014" />

There is an ongoing research in the field of genetic engineering aimed towards creation of the enhanced qualities of mushrooms for such domains as nutritional value enhancement, as well as medical use.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waltz |first=Emily |date=1 April 2016 |title=Gene-edited CRISPR mushroom escapes US regulation |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=532 |issue=7599 |pages=293 |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19754 |pmid=27111611 |bibcode=2016Natur.532..293W |s2cid=4447141 |issn=1476-4687 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Amanita muscaria (fly agaric).JPG|''[[Amanita muscaria]]'', a psychotropic mushroom commonly known as "fly agaric"
File:2016-01_Agaricus_bisporus_01.jpg|''[[Agaricus bisporus]]'', a cultivated edible mushroom with various names including "button mushroom", "portobello" and "champignon"
File:Boletus_edulis_02a(js)_Lodz_(Poland).jpg|''[[Boletus edulis]]'', also known as "cep", an edible wild [[bolete]] found in Europe
File:Maitake mushroom.jpg|[[Maitake]], a polypore mushroom
File:Zwam, inktzwam.jpg|''[[Coprinopsis atramentaria]]'', commonly known as the "ink cap"
File:Yellowmushrooms.jpg|''[[Leucocoprinus birnbaumii]]'', commonly known as the "flowerpot parasol", at various stages of development
File:Close-up cross section of mushroom.jpg|Close-up cross section of mushroom gills
File:Pop-up mushroom.jpg|''[[Agaricus bitorquis]]'' (the "pavement mushroom") emerging through [[asphalt concrete]] in summer
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of Chinese mushrooms and fungi]]
* [[List of mushroom dishes]]
* [[List of psilocybin mushroom species]]
* [[Largest fungal fruit bodies]]
* [[:Category:Lists of fungal species|Lists of fungal species]]
* [[Mushrooms in art]]

==References==
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<ref name="cancer.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/eto/content/eto_5_3x_coriolous_versicolor.asp |title=''Coriolus Versicolor'' |work=[[American Cancer Society]] |date=1 November 2008 |access-date=1 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625052416/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Coriolous_Versicolor.asp |archive-date=25 June 2010 }}</ref>

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<ref name="Dickinson1982">{{cite book |title=VNR Color Dictionary of Mushrooms |vauthors=Dickinson C, Lucas J |year=1982 |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |isbn=978-0-442-21998-7 |pages=9–11}}</ref>

<ref name="FAO">{{cite web|last1=Marshall |first1=Elaine |last2=Nair |first2=N. G. |year=2009 |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i0522e/i0522e.pdf |title=Make money by growing mushrooms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128044942/https://www.fao.org/3/i0522e/i0522e.pdf |archive-date=28 November 2022 |url-status=live |work=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

<ref name="FreshPlaza">{{cite web |url=http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=20623 |title=Belarus exports radioactive mushrooms, April 2008 |website=Freshplaza.com |access-date=24 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510115251/http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=20623 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Griffiths2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Griffiths R, Richards W, Johnson M, McCann U, Jesse R |title=Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=621–632 |year=2008 |pmid=18593735 |doi=10.1177/0269881108094300 |pmc=3050654}}</ref>

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<ref name="Hudler2000">{{cite book |author=Hudler, G. W. |title=Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |year=2000 |page=175 |isbn=978-0-691-07016-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bob1Uo_hNTgC&pg=PA175 }}</ref>

<ref name="Koyyalamudi2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Koyyalamudi SR, Jeong SC, Song CH, Cho KY, Pang G |title=Vitamin D<sub>2</sub> formation and bioavailability from ''Agaricus bisporus'' button mushrooms treated with ultraviolet irradiation |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=57 |issue=8 |pages=3351–3355 |year=2009 |pmid=19281276 |url=http://kcms.daegu.ac.kr/user/chsong/pdf/i-53.pdf |doi=10.1021/jf803908q |bibcode=2009JAFC...57.3351K |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722132444/http://kcms.daegu.ac.kr/user/chsong/pdf/i-53.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="Kulshreshtha 2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kulshreshtha S, Mathur N, Bhatnagar P |title=Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation |journal=AMB Express |year=2014 |volume=4 |page=29 |pmid=24949264 |pmc=4052754 |doi=10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Metzler1992">{{cite book |vauthors=Metzler V, Metzler S |title=Texas Mushrooms: a Field Guide |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |year=1992 |page=37 |isbn=978-0-292-75125-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HRtfvVigMmsC&pg=PA37}}</ref>

<ref name="Nelson2006">{{cite web |author=Nelson, N. |url=http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html |title=''Parasola plicatilis'' |date=13 August 2006 |access-date=13 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102105407/http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html |archive-date=2 January 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="pmid = 16826400">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R |s2cid=7845214 |title=Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=187 |issue=3 |pages=268–283 |year=2006 |doi=10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5 |pmid=16826400}}</ref>

<ref name="Ramsbottom1954">{{cite book |author=Ramsbottom, J. |title=Mushrooms & Toadstools: a study of the activities of fungi |publisher=Collins |location=London |year=1954}}</ref>

<ref name="redlist">{{cite iucn |author=Venturella, G. |year=2016 |title=''Pleurotus nebrodensis'' ssp. ''nebrodensis'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T61597A102952148 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T61597A102952148.en |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="Sewell2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sewell RA, Halpern JH, Pope HG |s2cid=31220680 |title=Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD |journal=Neurology |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=1920–1922 |year=2006 |pmid=16801660 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000219761.05466.43 }}</ref>

<ref name="Sieger1998">{{cite web |editor-first=Agnes A. |editor-last=Siegered |url=http://www.psms.org/sporeprints/sp338.html |title=Spore Prints #338 |work=Bulletin of the Puget Sound Mycological Society |date=January 1998 |access-date=4 July 2010 |archive-date=17 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717134320/http://www.psms.org/sporeprints/sp338.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Turhan2007">{{cite journal|pmid=17786670 |doi= 10.1080/10256010701562794|title= Radioactivity levels in some wild edible mushroom species in Turkey|year= 2007|last1= Turhan|first1= Şeref|last2= Köse|first2= Abdullah|last3= Varinlioğlu|first3= Ahmet|journal= Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies|volume= 43|issue= 3|pages= 249–256|bibcode= 2007IEHS...43..249T|s2cid= 22133708}}</ref>

<ref name="urlUSFS">{{cite web |first=S. R. |last=Dodge |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/news/fungus.htm |title=And the Humongous Fungus Race Continues |publisher=US Forest Service: Pacific Northwest Research Station |access-date=28 February 2011 |archive-date=7 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407221634/http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/news/fungus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Volk2001">{{cite web |author=Volk, T. |url=http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html |title=''Hypomyces lactifluorum'', the lobster mushroom |year=2001 |work=Fungus of the Month |publisher=University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, Department of Biology |access-date=13 October 2008 |archive-date=14 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414203405/http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

===Literature cited===
*{{cite book|ref=Ammirati |vauthors=Ammirati JF, Traquair JA, Horgen PA |title=Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada: Including other Inedible Fungi |publisher=Fitzhenry & Whiteside in cooperation with Agriculture Canada and the Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply and Services Canada |location=Markham, Ontario |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-88902-977-4}}
*{{cite book |ref=Hall|vauthors=Hall IR, Stephenson SL, Buchanan PK, Yun W, Cole AL |title=Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-88192-586-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=Stuntz |vauthors=Stuntz DE, Largent DL, Thiers HD, Johnson DJ, Watling R |title=How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus I |publisher=Mad River Press |location=Eureka, California |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-916422-00-4}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|mushroom}}
{{Commons category|Mushrooms}}
{{wikiquote|Mushroom}}
{{Cookbook|Mushroom}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Mushroom |volume=19 |pages=70–72 |short=x}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Toadstool |volume=26 |page=1035 |short=x}}

===Identification===
* [https://mushroomobserver.org/ Mushroom Observer], a collaborative mushroom recording and identification project
* [http://mushrooms.simons-rock.edu/ An Aid to Mushroom Identification], [[Simon's Rock College]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181017213639/http://ediblewildmushrooms.com/ Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide]

{{Fungus|state=expanded}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mushroom types| ]]
[[Category:Basidiomycota]]
[[Category:Edible fungi]]
[[Category:Fungus common names]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]

[[et:Seened]]
[[fi:Sienet]]