Editing Mudbrick

{{Short description|Earth blocks for construction}}
[[File:Mudbricks in Palestine 2011.jpg|thumb|New, unlaid mudbricks in the [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]], [[West Bank]]
[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], (2011)]]
[[File:Choghazanbil2.jpg|right|thumb|Mudbrick was used for the construction of [[Elam]]ite [[ziggurat]]s—some of the world's largest and oldest constructions. ''[[Choqa Zanbil]]'', a 13th-century BCE [[ziggurat]] in [[Iran]], is similarly constructed from clay bricks combined with burnt bricks.<ref>Roman Ghirshman, La ziggourat de Tchoga-Zanbil (Susiane), Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, vol. 98 lien Issue 2, pp. 233–238, 1954</ref>]]

'''Mudbrick''' or '''mud-brick''', also known as unfired brick, is an air-dried [[brick]], made of a mixture of [[mud]] (containing [[loam]], [[clay]], [[sand]] and [[water]]) mixed with a binding material such as [[rice]] husks or [[straw]]. Mudbricks are known from 9000&nbsp;BCE.

From around 5000–4000&nbsp;BCE, mudbricks evolved into [[Brick#Fired brick|fired bricks]] to increase strength and durability. Nevertheless, in some warm regions with very little [[timber]] available to fuel a [[kiln]], mudbricks continued to be in use. Even today, mudbricks are the standard of [[vernacular architecture]] in some warmer regions- mainly in parts of [[Africa]] and western [[Asia]]. In the 20th century, the [[compressed earth block]] was developed using high pressure as a cheap and eco-friendly alternative to obtain non-fired bricks with more strength than the simpler air-dried mudbricks.

==Ancient world==
[[File:Mud-brick stamped with seal impression of raised relief of the Treasury of the Vizier. From Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|Mud-brick stamped with seal impression of raised relief of the Treasury of the Vizier. From Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. 12th Dynasty. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London]]

The history of mudbrick production and construction in the [[southern Levant]] may be dated as far back to the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] (e.g., PPNA Jericho).<ref name="Rosenberg2020">{{cite journal |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Danny |last2=Love |first2=Serena |last3=Hubbard |first3=Emily |last4=Klimscha |first4=Florian |title=7,200 years old constructions and mudbrick technology: The evidence from Tel Tsaf, Jordan Valley, Israel |journal=PLOS ONE |date=22 January 2020 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=e0227288 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0227288 |pmid=31968007 |pmc=6975557 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1527288R |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref> These sun dried mudbricks, also known as adobe or just mudbrick, were made from a mixture of sand, clay, water and frequently tempered (e.g. chopped straw and chaff branches), and were the most common method/material for constructing earthen buildings throughout the ancient Near East for millennia.<ref name="Rosenberg2020"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hasel |first1=Michael G. |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=David Noel |title=Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible |date=2019 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-4674-6046-0 |pages=246–247? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fq7qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT246 |chapter=Architecture |access-date=2023-03-23 |archive-date=2023-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924173123/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fq7qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT246 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Morgenstein1998">{{cite journal |last1=Morgenstein |first1=Maury E. |last2=Redmount |first2=Carol A. |title=Mudbrick Typology, Sources, and Sedimentological Composition: A Case Study from Tell el-Muqdam, Egyptian Delta |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |date=1998 |volume=35 |pages=129–146 |doi=10.2307/40000466 |jstor=40000466 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40000466 |issn=0065-9991 |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2023-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923195348/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40000466 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unfired mud-brick is still made throughout the world today, using both modern and traditional methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Littman |first1=Robert |last2=Lorenzon |first2=Marta |last3=Silverstein |first3=Jay |title=With & without straw: How Israelite slaves made bricks |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |date=2014 |volume=40 |issue=2 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287786412 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emery |first1=Virginia L. |title=Mud-Brick |journal=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology |date=2009 |volume=1 |issue=1 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt7v84d6rh/qt7v84d6rh.pdf |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2023-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924082904/https://escholarship.org/content/qt7v84d6rh/qt7v84d6rh.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 9000 BCE dwellings of [[Jericho]] were constructed from mudbricks,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tellier|first=Luc-Normand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&q=jericho+9000+bc+bricks&pg=PA37|title=Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective|date=2009|publisher=PUQ|isbn=978-2-7605-2209-1|language=en}}</ref> affixed with mud, as were those at  numerous sites across the [[Levant]] over the following millennia. Well-preserved mudbricks from a site at [[Tel Tsaf]], in the Jordan Valley, have been dated to 5200 BCE,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Rosenberg|first1=Danny|last2=Love|first2=Serena|last3=Hubbard|first3=Emily|last4=Klimscha|first4=Florian|date=2020-01-22|title=7,200 years old constructions and mudbrick technology: The evidence from Tel Tsaf, Jordan Valley, Israel|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=e0227288|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0227288|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6975557|pmid=31968007|bibcode=2020PLoSO..1527288R|doi-access=free}}</ref> though there is no evidence that either site was the first to use the technology. Evidence suggests that the mudbrick composition at Tel Tsaf was stable for at least 500 years, throughout the middle [[Chalcolithic]] period.<ref name="Rosenberg2020"/>

The [[South Asia]]n inhabitants of [[Mehrgarh]] constructed and lived in mud-brick houses between 7000–3300 BCE.<ref name="Possehl">Possehl, Gregory L. (1996)</ref> Mud bricks were used at more than 15 reported sites attributed to the 3rd millennium BCE in the ancient [[Indus Valley civilization]]. In the [[Mature Harappan]] phase fired bricks were used.<ref name="Bricks and Urbanism in Indus Valley">[https://www.academia.edu/1285495/Bricks_and_urbanism_in_the_Indus_Valley_rise_and_decline Bricks and urbanism in the Indus Valley rise and decline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517180023/https://www.academia.edu/1285495/Bricks_and_urbanism_in_the_Indus_Valley_rise_and_decline |date=2019-05-17 }}, bricks in antiquity</ref>

The [[Mesopotamia]]ns used sun-dried bricks in their city construction;<ref>Mogens Herman Hansen, ''A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures'', Københavns universitet Polis centret (2002) Videnskabernes Selskab, 144 pages {{ISBN|87-7876-316-9}}</ref> typically these bricks were flat on the bottom and curved on the top, called plano-convex mud bricks. Some were formed in a square mould and rounded so that the middle was thicker than the ends.  Some walls had a few courses of fired bricks from their bases up to the splash line to extend the life of the building.
[[File:SudanKhartoum-TutiIsland-BrickmakingCorinthia RomanDeckert20160207.jpg|thumb|Traditional brickyard on [[Tuti Island]] in [[Sudan]].]]
In [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]], at the [[Knossos]] site, there is [[archaeological]] evidence that sun-dried bricks were used in the [[Neolithic]] period (prior to 3400 BCE).<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes ''Knossos fieldnotes'', Modern Antiquarian (2007)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108021923/http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes |date=2017-11-08 }}</ref>

Sun dried mudbrick was the most common construction material employed in [[ancient Egypt]] during pharaonic times and were made in pretty much the same way for millennia. Mud from some locations required sand, chopped straw or other binders such as animal dung to be mixed in with the mud to increase durability and plasticity.<ref name="Morgenstein1998"/> Workers gathered mud from the Nile river and poured it into a pit. Workers then tramped on the mud while straw was added to solidify the mold.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} The mudbricks were chemically suitable as [[Sebakh|fertilizer]], leading to the destruction of many ancient Egyptian ruins, such as at [[Edfu]]. A well-preserved site is [[Amarna]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hawkes|first=Jacquetta|author-link=Jacquetta Hawkes|title=Atlas of Ancient Archaeology|year=1974|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill Book Company]]|isbn=0-07-027293-X|page=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofancientar00hawk/page/146 146]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofancientar00hawk/page/146}}</ref> Mudbrick use increased at the time of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] influence.<ref>[[Kathryn A. Bard]] and Steven Blake Shubert, eds., ''Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt'', 1999, Routledge, 938 pages  {{ISBN|0-415-18589-0}}</ref>

In the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] world, mudbrick was commonly used for the building of walls, fortifications and citadels, such as the walls of the Citadel of [[Troy]] (Troy II).<ref>[[Richard T. Neer|Neer, Richard. T]]., ''Art & archaeology of the Greek world: a new history, c. 2500-c.150 BCE,'' Second edition, Thames and Hudson, London, 2019, pp.23</ref> These mudbricks were often made with straw or dried vegetable matter.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Birge |first1=Darice Elizabeth |last2=Miller |first2=Stephen Gaylord |last3=Kraynak |first3=Lynn Harriett |last4=Miller |first4=S. G. |title=Excavations at Nemea. |date=1992–2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-07027-1 |page=113n345 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojTPxLcWGTwC&pg=PA113 |quote=Adding straw or dried vegetable matter to the clay of mudbricks was a common practice |access-date=2023-03-23 |archive-date=2023-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630161019/https://books.google.com/books?id=ojTPxLcWGTwC&pg=PA113 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Adobe==
{{main article|Adobe}}
In areas of Spanish influence, mud-brick construction is called [[adobe]], and developed over time into a complete system of wall protection, flat roofing and finishes which in modern English usage is often referred to as ''adobe style'', regardless of the construction method.

==Banco==
[[Image:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|thumb|[[Great Mosque of Djenné|The Grand Mosque of Djenné]] as reconstructed in 1907 is the largest mudbrick structure in the world.]]

The [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], in central [[Mali]], is the world's largest mudbrick structure. It, like much of [[Sahelian]] architecture, is built with a mudbrick called '''Banco''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kyoto-seika.ac.jp/researchlab/wp/wp-content/uploads/kiyo/pdf-data/no41/oussouby_sacko.pdf|title=Issues of Cultural Conservation and Tourism Development in the Process of World Heritage Preservation|last=SACKO|first=Oussouby|date=15 November 2015|publisher=Area Studies|access-date=7 October 2016|archive-date=27 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927003156/http://www.kyoto-seika.ac.jp/researchlab/wp/wp-content/uploads/kiyo/pdf-data/no41/oussouby_sacko.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> a recipe of mud and [[grain]] husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a [[plaster]] like paste in broad strokes. This plaster must be reapplied annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/3562677/Timbuktu-Mud-mud-glorious-mud.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/3562677/Timbuktu-Mud-mud-glorious-mud.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Timbuktu: Mud, mud, glorious mud|last=Bradbury|first=Dominic|date=30 October 2008|publisher=The Telegraph|access-date=25 February 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==Durability==
In some cases, brickmakers extended the life of mud bricks by putting fired bricks on top or covering them with [[stucco]].

==Mudbrick architecture worldwide==
<gallery>
File:Mudbrick production Niger 2007.jpg|Production of mudbricks for construction in [[Niger]], 2007.
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Mudbrick is still used today, as seen here in the [[Romania]] [[Danube River]] Delta.
File:Zinder Old Town Niger 2007.jpg|The "Old Town" area of [[Zinder]], [[Niger]], with traditional painted mudbrick buildings.
File:Punjabi Home.JPG|A [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] mudbrick home in [[Pakistan]].
File:Shibam Wadi Hadhramaut Yemen.jpg|Mudbrick [[tower house|high-rises]] in [[Shibam]], [[Yemen]].
File:Working mudbrick press 5.jpg|Making mudbricks near [[Cooktown, Australia]]
</gallery>

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Cob (material)|Cob}}
*{{annotated link|Earth structure}}
*{{annotated link|Loam}}
*{{annotated link|Rammed earth}}
*{{annotated link|Sod house}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.

==External links==
*[http://eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture], website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture.
*[http://eartha.org.uk/ '''EARTHA''': ''Earth Architecture and Conservation in East Anglia''], British organisation that focuses on the proper maintenance and conservation of earth buildings in a region of the UK that has a long history of building with mud. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150912063954/http://one.revver.com/find/video/stepping+gently Video showing mud brick making], mud brick building and biolytic sewerage in South Africa.
*[http://www.craterre.org/ '''CRAterre''': ''Centre de recherche architectural en terre''], French university research organisation dedicated to unfired earth construction

{{Prehistoric technology|state=expanded}}

[[Category:Bricks]]
[[Category:Sustainable building]]
[[Category:Appropriate technology]]
[[Category:Sustainable products]]
[[Category:Soil-based building materials]]
[[Category:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]]
[[Category:Earth structures]]