Editing Monocotyledon

{{Short description|Clade of flowering plants}}{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Monocotyledons
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|125|Recent|[[Early Cretaceous]] – Recent}}
| image = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Wheat_close-up.JPG
| photo1b = Araceae_Colocasia_esculenta_1.jpg
| photo2a =  Phoenix_Dactylifera_Date_Palm_Fields_South_Coast_Wholesale.jpg
| photo2b = Seagrass_Zostera_marina_(Dzharylhach_island).jpg
| photo3a = Lily_Lilium_'Citronella'_Flower.jpg
| photo3b =Pandanus_heterocarpus_02.jpg
| photo4b = Ginger_plants.jpg
}}
| image_caption = Diversity of monocots which includes [[wheat]] (''Triticum''), [[taro]] (''Colocasia esculenta''), [[date palm]], (''Phoenix dactylifera''), ''[[Zostera marina]]'', [[Lilium|lily]] (''Lilium''), ''[[Pandanus heterocarpus]]'', and [[ginger]] (''Zingiber officinale'')
| taxon = Monocots
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision = :* [[alismatid monocots]]
::* [[Acorales]]
::* [[Alismatales]]
:* [[lilioid monocots]]
::* [[Asparagales]]
::* [[Dioscoreales]]
::* [[Liliales]]
::* [[Pandanales]]
::* [[Petrosaviales]]
:* [[commelinid]]s
::* [[Arecales]]
::* [[Commelinales]]
::* [[Poales]]
::* [[Zingiberales]]
| synonyms = * Alternifoliae <small>[[Charles Bessey|Bessey]]</small>{{sfn|Bessey|1915}}
* Endogenae <small>[[DC.]]</small>{{sfn|de Candolle|1819}}
* [[Lilianae]] <small>[[Takht.]]</small><ref name=Tropiclilianae/>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1966}}
* Liliatae <small> [[Arthur Cronquist|Cronquist]], [[Takht.]] & [[W.Zimm.]]</small>{{efn|In 1964, Takhtajan proposed that classes including Monocotyledons, be formally named with the suffix ''-atae'', so that the principle of [[Type (biology)|typification]] resulted in Liliatae for monocotyledons.{{sfn|Takhtajan|1964}} The proposal was formally described in 1966 by Cronquist, Takhtajan and Zimmermann,{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} from which is derived the descriptor "liliates".}}{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} 
* [[Liliidae]] <small>Takht.{{efn|[[Tropicos]] gives an earlier [[botanical authority|authority]], [[J.H. Schaffn.]] 1911<ref name=Tropicliliidae/>}}</small>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1966}}{{sfn|Thorne|1992a}}
* [[Liliopsida]] <small>[[Batsch]]</small><ref name=Tropiclilio/>
* Monocotyleae <small>[[August Eichler|Eichler]]</small>{{sfn|Eichler|1886}}
* Monocotyledonae <small>[[E.Morren]] ex [[Carl Christian Mez|Mez]]</small><ref name=Tropicmono/>{{efn|[[Arthur Cronquist|Cronquist]]{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} attributes this term to De Candolle as DC. 1818 Syst. 1: 122{{sfn|de Candolle|1818–1821}}}}
* Monocotyledones
| type_genus = ''[[Lilium]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}}
}}
'''Monocotyledons''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɒ|n|ə|ˌ|k|ɒ|t|ə|ˈ|l|iː|d|ə|n|z}}),{{efn|An [[traditional English pronunciation of Latin|Anglo-Latin pronunciation]].<br>{{OED|monocotyledon|6968478296}}}}<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|monocotyledon}}</ref><ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|monocotyledon}}</ref> commonly referred to as '''monocots''', ('''[[Lilianae]]''' ''[[sensu]]'' Chase & Reveal) are [[flowering plant]]s whose [[seed]]s contain only one [[Embryo#Plant embryos|embryo]]nic leaf, or [[cotyledon]]. A monocot [[taxon]] has been in use for several decades, but with various ranks and under several different names. The [[APG IV system]] recognises its [[monophyly]] but does not assign it to a taxonomic rank, and instead uses the term "monocots" to refer to the group. 

Monocotyledons are contrasted with the [[Dicotyledon|dicotyledons]], which have two cotyledons. Unlike the monocots however, the dicots are not [[Monophyly|monophyletic]] and the two cotyledons are instead the ancestral characteristic of all flowering plants. Botanists now classify dicots into the [[eudicots]] ("true dicots") and several [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] lineages from which the monocots emerged.

The monocots are extremely important economically, culturally, and ecologically, and make up a majority of plant biomass used in agriculture. Common crops such as [[date palm|dates]], [[onion]]s, [[garlic]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[maize]], and [[sugarcane]] are all monocots. The [[Poaceae|grasses]] alone cover over 40% of Earth's land area{{Efn|Excluding Antarctica and Greenland.}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reynolds |first=S.G. |title=Grassland of the world |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y8344e/y8344e05.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920201355/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y8344e/y8344e05.htm |archive-date=2016-09-20 |access-date=2016-10-04 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref> and contribute a significant portion<!-- The page for grass reports 50%, but is uncited. --> of the human diet. Other monocots, like [[orchid]]s, [[tulip]]s, [[Narcissus (plant)|daffodils]], and [[Lilium|lilies]] are common [[houseplant]]s and have been the subjects of several celebrations, holidays, and artworks for thousands of years.

==Description==
[[File:Allium crenulatum 5231.JPG|thumb|right|''[[Allium crenulatum]]'' ([[Asparagales]]), an onion, with typical monocot [[perianth]] and parallel leaf venation]]
[[Image:Onion slice.jpg|thumb|Onion slice: the cross-sectional view shows the veins that run in parallel along the length of the bulb and stem]]
The monocots have, as the name implies, a single (mono-) [[cotyledon]], or embryonic leaf, in their [[seed]]s. Historically, this feature was used to contrast the monocots with the [[dicotyledon]]s or dicots which typically have two cotyledons; however, modern research has shown that the dicots are [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]]. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic (as they are only present for a very short period in a plant's life), nor is it completely reliable. The single cotyledon is only one of a number of modifications of the [[body plan]] of the ancestral monocotyledons, whose adaptive advantages are poorly understood, but may have been related to adaption to [[aquatic habitats]], prior to [[adaptive radiation|radiation]] to terrestrial habitats. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, despite considerable diversity in terms of external morphology.{{sfn|Tillich|1998}}

With over 70,000 species, monocots are extremely evolutionarily successful and occupy a diverse set of [[Ecological niche|niches]]:{{sfn|Vogel|1998}} [[Perennial]] [[geophytes]] including [[orchids]] ([[Asparagales]]); [[tulips]] and [[lilies]] ([[Liliales]]); rosette and succulent [[epiphytes]] (Asparagales); [[mycoheterotrophs]] (Liliales, [[Dioscoreales]], [[Pandanales]]), all in the [[lilioid monocots]]; major [[cereal]] [[food grains|grains]] ([[maize]], [[rice]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[oats]], [[millet]], [[sorghum]] and [[wheat]]) in the [[grass family]]; and forage grasses ([[Poales]]) as well as [[woody plants|woody]] tree-like [[palm trees]] ([[Arecales]]), [[bamboo]], [[reed (plant)|reed]]s and [[bromeliads]] (Poales), [[bananas]] and [[ginger]] ([[Zingiberales]]) in the [[commelinid monocots]], as well as floating or submerged [[aquatic plants]] such as [[seagrass]] ([[Alismatales]]) are all monocots.{{sfn|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}{{sfn|Kubitzki|1998}}{{sfn|Davis et al.|2013}}{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

=== Vegetative ===
====Organisation, growth and life forms====
The most important distinction is their growth pattern, lacking a [[lateral meristem]] ([[cambium]]) that allows for continual growth in diameter with height ([[secondary growth]]), and therefore this characteristic is a basic limitation in shoot construction. Although largely herbaceous, some [[arboraceous]] monocots reach great height, length and mass. The latter include [[agaves]], [[palm (plant)|palms]], [[pandans]], and [[bamboos]].{{sfn|Du et al|2016}}{{sfn|Soltis|Soltis|2016}} This creates challenges in water transport that monocots deal with in various ways. Some, such as species of ''[[Yucca]]'', develop anomalous secondary growth, while palm trees utilise an anomalous primary growth form described as [[:wikt:establishment growth|establishment growth]] (''see'' [[#Vascular system|Vascular system]]). The axis undergoes primary thickening, that progresses from [[internode (botany)|internode]] to internode, resulting in a typical inverted conical shape of the basal primary axis (''see'' Tillich, Figure 1). The limited conductivity also contributes to limited branching of the stems. Despite these limitations a wide variety of adaptive [[growth forms]] has resulted (Tillich, Figure 2) from [[epiphytic]] [[orchids]] (Asparagales) and [[bromeliads]] (Poales) to submarine [[Alismatales]] (including the reduced [[Lemnoideae]]) and [[mycotrophic]] [[Burmanniaceae]] (Dioscreales) and [[Triuridaceae]] (Pandanales). Other forms of adaptation include the climbing vines of [[Araceae]] (Alismatales) which use negative phototropism ([[skototropism]]) to locate [[host (biology)|host]] trees (''i.e.'' the darkest area),{{sfn|Strong|Ray|1975}} while some palms such as ''[[Calamus (palm)|Calamus manan]]'' ([[Arecales]]) produce the longest shoots in the plant kingdom, up to 185&nbsp;m long.{{sfn|Dransfield|1978}} Other monocots, particularly [[Poales]], have adopted a [[therophyte]] [[life form]].<ref name=Tillichfig1/><ref name=MausethAFG/>{{sfn|Petit et al|2014}}{{sfn|Tomlinson|Esler|1973}}{{sfn|Leck et al|2008}}

====Leaves====
<!--there's at least one wikilink here so leave an anchor if you change the heading-->
The cotyledon, the primordial Angiosperm [[leaf]] consists of a proximal leaf base or hypophyll and a distal hyperphyll. In monocots the hypophyll tends to be the dominant part in contrast to other angiosperms. From these, considerable diversity arises. Mature monocot leaves are generally narrow and linear, forming a sheathing around the stem at its base, although there are many exceptions. [[Leaf venation]] is of the striate type, mainly arcuate-striate or longitudinally striate (parallel), less often palmate-striate or pinnate-striate with the leaf veins emerging at the leaf base and then running together at the apices. There is usually only one leaf per node because the leaf base encompasses more than half the circumference.{{sfn|Tomlinson|1970}} The evolution of this monocot characteristic has been attributed to developmental differences in early zonal differentiation rather than meristem activity (leaf base theory).{{sfn|Tillich|1998}}{{sfn|Rudall|Buzgo|2002}}<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>

====Roots and underground organs====
The lack of cambium in the primary [[root]] limits its ability to grow sufficiently to maintain the plant. This necessitates early development of roots derived from the shoot (adventitious roots). In addition to roots, monocots develop [[stolon|runners]] and [[rhizomes]], which are creeping shoots. Runners serve [[vegetative propagation]], have elongated [[internodes]], run on or just below the surface of the soil and in most case bear [[scale leaves]]. Rhizomes frequently have an additional storage function and rhizome producing plants are considered [[geophytes]] (Tillich, Figure 11). Other geophytes develop [[bulbs]], a short axial body bearing leaves whose bases store food. Additional outer non-storage leaves may form a protective function (Tillich, Figure 12). Other storage organs may be [[tubers]] or [[corms]], swollen axes. Tubers may form at the end of underground runners and persist. Corms are short lived vertical shoots with terminal [[inflorescences]] and shrivel once flowering has occurred. However, intermediate forms may occur such as in ''[[Crocosmia]]'' (Asparagales). Some monocots may also produce shoots that grow directly down into the soil, these are [[wikt:geophilous|geophilous]] shoots (Tillich, Figure 11) that help overcome the limited trunk stability of large woody monocots.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/><ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>{{sfn|Chase|2004}}{{sfn|Tillich|1998}}

=== Reproductive ===
====Flowers====
In nearly all cases the [[perianth|perigone]] consists of two alternating [[trimerous]] [[whorl (botany)|whorls]] of [[tepals]], being [[wikt:homochlamydeous|homochlamydeous]], without differentiation between [[calyx (flower)|calyx]] and [[corolla (flower)|corolla]]. In [[wikt:zoophilous|zoophilous]] (pollinated by animals) taxa, both whorls are [[corolline]] (petal-like). [[Anthesis]] (the period of flower opening) is usually [[wikt:fugacious|fugacious]] (short lived). Some of the more persistent perigones demonstrate [[thermonastic]] opening and closing (responsive to changes in temperature). About two thirds of monocots are [[zoophilous]], predominantly by [[insects]]. These plants need to advertise to pollinators and do so by way of [[Glossary of botanical terms#phaneranthous|phaneranthous]] (showy) flowers. Such optical signalling is usually a function of the tepal whorls but may also be provided by [[semaphylls]] (other structures such as [[stamen|filaments]], [[staminodes]] or [[stylodia]] which have become modified to attract pollinators). However, some monocot plants may have [[Glossary of botanical terms#aphananthous|aphananthous]] (inconspicuous) flowers and still be pollinated by animals. In these the plants rely either on chemical attraction or other structures such as coloured [[bracts]] fulfill the role of optical attraction. In some phaneranthous plants such structures may reinforce floral structures. The production of fragrances for olfactory signalling are common in monocots. The perigone also functions as a landing platform for pollinating insects.
{{sfn|Vogel|1998}}

====Fruit and seed====
The [[embryo#Plant embryos|embryo]] consists of a single cotyledon, usually with two [[vascular bundles]].<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>

===Comparison with dicots===
[[File:Monocot vs dicot crop Pengo.jpg|thumb|Comparison of a monocot ([[grass]]: [[Poales]]) sprouting (left) with a dicot (right){{efn|Monocots show [[hypogeal]] development in which the cotyledon remains invisible within the seed, underground. The visible part is the first true leaf produced from the [[meristem]]}}]]
[[File:Joshua Tree 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Yucca brevifolia]]'' (Joshua Tree: Asparagales)
]]
The traditionally listed differences between monocots and dicots are as follows. This is a broad sketch only, not invariably applicable, as there are a number of exceptions. The differences indicated are more true for [[monocots]] versus [[eudicots]].{{sfn|Chase|2004}}{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}}{{sfn|Stevens|2015}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Feature
! In monocots
! In dicots
|-
| [[Growth form]]
| Mostly [[herbaceous]], occasionally [[arboraceous]]
| Herbaceous or arboraceous
|-
| [[Leaves]]{{sfn|Rudall|Buzgo|2002}} 
| [[Leaf shape]] oblong or linear, often sheathed at base, [[petiole (botany)|petiole]] seldom developed, [[stipules]] absent. Major [[leaf#Veins|leaf veins]] usually [[leaf#Venation|parallel]] 
| Broad, seldom sheathed, petiole common often with stipules. Veins usually [[Leaf#Venation|reticulate]] (pinnate or palmate)
|-
| [[Root]]s
| Primary root of short duration, replaced by [[Adventious roots|adventitial]] roots forming fibrous or fleshy root systems 
| Develops from the [[radicle]]. Primary root often persists forming strong taproot and secondary roots
|-
| [[Plant stem]]: [[Vascular bundles]] 
| Numerous scattered bundles in [[ground parenchyma]], [[cambium]] rarely present, no differentiation between [[cortex (botany)|cortical]] and [[stele (biology)|stelar]] regions
| Ring of primary bundles with cambium, differentiated into cortex and stele ([[wikt:eustele|eustelic]])
|-
| [[Flowers]]
| Parts in threes ([[merosity|trimerous]]) or multiples of three (''e.g.'' 3, 6 or 9 petals)
| Fours (tetramerous) or fives (pentamerous)
|-
| [[Pollen]]: Number of [[aperture (botany)|apertures]] (furrows or pores)
| [[Monocolpate]] (single aperture or colpus)
| [[Tricolpate]] (three)
|-
| [[Plant embryo|Embryo]]: Number of [[cotyledon]]s (leaves in the [[seed]])
| One, [[endosperm]] frequently present in seed
| Two, endosperm present or absent
|}
{{multiple image
| header    = Comparison of monocots and dicots
| align     = center
| image1    = Monocot vs Dicot.svg
| caption1  =
| alt1      = Illustrations of differences between monocots and dicots
| width1    = 450
}}

A number of these differences are not unique to the monocots, and, while still useful, no one single feature will infallibly identify a plant as a monocot.{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}} For example, trimerous flowers and monosulcate pollen are also found in [[magnoliid]]s,{{sfn|Chase|2004}} and exclusively adventitious roots are found in some of the [[Piperaceae]].{{sfn|Chase|2004}} Similarly, at least one of these traits, parallel leaf veins, is far from universal among the monocots. Broad leaves and reticulate leaf veins, features typical of dicots, are found in a wide variety of monocot families: for example, ''[[Trillium]]'', ''[[Smilax]]'' (greenbriar), ''[[Pogonia (plant)|Pogonia]]'' (an orchid), and the [[Dioscoreales]] (yams).{{sfn|Chase|2004}} ''[[Potamogeton]]'' and ''[[Paris quadrifolia]]'' (herb-paris) are examples of monocots with tetramerous flowers. Other plants exhibit a mixture of characteristics. [[Nymphaeaceae]] (water lilies) have reticulate veins, a single cotyledon, adventitious roots, and a monocot-like vascular bundle. These examples reflect their shared ancestry.{{sfn|NBGI|2016|loc=[http://www.botanicgardens.ie/educ/monodic.pdf Monocots versus Dicots]}} Nevertheless, this list of traits is generally valid, especially when contrasting monocots with [[eudicot]]s, rather than non-monocot flowering plants in general.{{sfn|Chase|2004}}

=== Apomorphies ===

Monocot [[Glossary of botanical terms#apomorphy|apomorphies]] (characteristics derived during [[adaptive radiation|radiation]] rather than inherited from an ancestral form) include [[herbaceous]] habit, leaves with parallel venation and sheathed base, an embryo with a single cotyledon, an [[stele (biology)|atactostele]], numerous adventitious roots, [[sympodial]] growth, and trimerous (3 parts per [[whorl (botany)|whorl]]) flowers that are [[pentacyclic]] (5 whorled) with 3 sepals, 3 petals, 2 whorls of 3 stamens each, and 3 carpels. In contrast, monosulcate pollen is considered an ancestral trait, probably [[plesiomorphic]].{{sfn|Stevens|2015}}

=== Synapomorphies ===

The distinctive features of the monocots have contributed to the relative taxonomic stability of the group. [[Douglas E. Soltis]] and others{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005|loc=p.&nbsp;92}}{{sfn|Donoghue|Doyle|1989b}}{{sfn|Loconte|Stevenson|1991}}{{sfn|Doyle|Donoghue|1992}} identify thirteen [[synapomorphies]] (shared characteristics that unite monophyletic groups of taxa);
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}  
# [[Calcium oxalate]] [[raphides]]
# Absence of vessels in leaves
# Monocotyledonous [[anther]] wall formation*
# Successive [[microsporogenesis]]
# [[Syncarpous]] [[gynoecium]]
# Parietal [[placentation]]
# Monocotyledonous [[seedling]]
# Persistent radicle
# [[:wikt:Haustorium|Haustorial]] cotyledon tip{{sfn|Lersten|2004}}
# Open cotyledon sheath
# Steroidal [[saponins]]*
# Fly pollination*
# Diffuse vascular bundles and absence of [[secondary growth]]{{efn|* Lacking in ''[[Acorus]]'', so that if this genus is [[sister group|sister]] to the rest of the monocots, the synapomorphies do not apply to monocots as a whole.}}
{{div col end}}

===Vascular system===
[[File:Royal Palm Trunk.jpg|thumb|''[[Roystonea regia]]'' palm ([[Arecales]]) stems showing anomalous secondary growth in monocots, with characteristic fibrous roots]]

Monocots have a distinctive arrangement of vascular tissue known as an [[Stele (biology)|atactostele]] in which the vascular tissue is scattered rather than arranged in concentric rings. [[Collenchyma]] is absent in monocot stems, roots and leaves. Many monocots are [[herbaceous]] and do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem ([[secondary growth]]) via the same kind of [[vascular cambium]] found in non-monocot [[woody plant]]s.{{sfn|Chase|2004}} However, some monocots do have secondary growth; because this does not arise from a single vascular cambium producing [[xylem]] inwards and phloem outwards, it is termed "anomalous secondary growth".{{sfn|Donoghue|2005}}  Examples of large monocots which either exhibit secondary growth, or can reach large sizes without it, are palms ([[Arecaceae]]), screwpines ([[Pandanaceae]]), bananas ([[Musaceae]]), ''[[Yucca]]'', ''[[Aloe]]'', ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'', and ''[[Cordyline]]''.{{sfn|Chase|2004}}

==Taxonomy==

===Early history===

==== Pre-Linnean ====
[[File:Ray-Malpighi cotyledon.jpg|thumb|Illustrations of [[cotyledons]] by [[John Ray]] 1682, after [[Marcello Malpighi|Malpighi]]]]
Monocots were first recognized as a group in [[Matthias de l'Obel]]'s [[Matthias de l'Obel#Stirpium adversaria nova (1570-71)|''Stirpium adversaria nova'']]. Searching for non-pharmacological characteristics to classify plants by, he chose on [[leaf]] form and [[Leaf#Venation|venation]], and observed that the majority of plants had broad leaves with net-like venation, but some had long and straight leaves with parallel veins.<ref name=ObelStirp65/> He did not decide on any formal name for the two groups he discovered, and his new classification scheme did not receive much appraisal and only saw moderate success within academic circles.{{sfn|Vines|1913|loc=p.&nbsp;10}}{{sfn|Hoeniger|Hoeniger|1969}}<ref name=pavordN.339/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houtzager |first1=HL |date=27 November 1976 |title=Matthias Lobelius, 16e eeuwse kruidkundige en geneesheer |trans-title=Mathias Lobelius, 16th century herbalist and physician |url=https://www.ntvg.nl/system/files/publications/1976121100001a.pdf |journal=[[Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde]] |language=nl |volume=120 |issue=4– |pages=2110–3 |pmid=796733}}</ref>

Formal description dates from [[John Ray]]'s studies of [[seed]] structure in the 17th century. Ray, who is often considered the first botanical [[systematist]],{{sfn|Pavord|2005}} observed the [[dichotomy]] of [[cotyledon]] structure in his examination of seeds. He reported his findings in a paper read to the [[Royal Society]] on 17 December 1674, entitled "A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants".{{sfn|Chase|2004}}
{{Quotebox|title=''A Discourse on the Seeds of Plants''|align=center| salign=right|quote= <poem>The greatest number of plants that come of seed spring at first out of the earth with two leaves which being for the most part of a different figure from the succeeding leaves are by our gardeners not improperly called the seed leaves...  <br/>In the first kind the seed leaves are nothing but the two lobes of the seed having their plain sides clapt together like the two halves of a walnut and therefore are of the just figure of the seed slit in sunder flat wise...<br/>Of seeds that spring out of the earth with leaves like the succeeding and no seed leaves I have observed two sorts. 1. Such as are congenerous to the first kind precedent that is whose pulp is divided into two lobes and a radicle... <br/>2. Such which neither spring out of the ground with seed leaves nor have their pulp divided into lobes </poem>|source= John Ray (1674), pp.&nbsp;164, 166{{sfn|Ray|1674|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o2EVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA164 pp.&nbsp;164, 166]}}}} Since this paper appeared a year before the publication of [[Malpighi]]'s ''Anatome Plantarum'' (1675–1679), Ray has the priority. At the time, Ray did not fully realise the importance of his discovery{{sfn|Raven|1950}} but progressively developed this over successive publications. And since these were in Latin, "seed leaves" became ''folia seminalia''{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/35/mode/1up ''De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis'' p.&nbsp;7]}} and then ''cotyledon'', following [[Malpighi]].{{sfn|Short|George|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dFcKLxqEAj4C&pg=PA15 p.&nbsp;15]}}{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/methodusplantaru00rayj#page/12/mode/2up ''De plantula seminali reliquisque femine contentis'' p.&nbsp;13]}} Malpighi and Ray were familiar with each other's work,{{sfn|Raven|1950}} and Malpighi in describing the same structures had introduced the term cotyledon,{{sfn|Malpighi|1679|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nSEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA18 ''De seminum vegetatione'' p.&nbsp;18]}} which Ray adopted in his subsequent writing.
{{Quotebox|title=''De seminum vegetatione''|align=center| salign=right|quote= <poem>''Mense quoque Maii, alias seminales plantulas Fabarum, & Phaseolorum, ablatis pariter binis seminalibus foliis, seu cotyledonibus, incubandas posui''<br/>In the month of May, also, I incubated two seed plants, [[Vicia faba|Faba]] and [[Phaseolus]], after removing the two seed leaves, or cotyledons</poem>|source= Marcello Malpighi (1679), p.&nbsp;18{{sfn|Malpighi|1679|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nSEOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA18 ''De seminum vegetatione'' p.&nbsp;18]}}}} In this experiment, Malpighi also showed that the cotyledons were critical to the development of the plant, proof that Ray required for his theory.{{sfn|Bewley|Black|Halmer|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aE414KuXu4gC&pg=PA334 History of seed research p.&nbsp;334]}} In his ''Methodus plantarum nova''{{sfn|Ray|1682}} Ray also developed and justified the "natural" or pre-evolutionary approach to classification, based on characteristics selected ''[[a posteriori]]'' in order to group together taxa that have the greatest number of shared characteristics. This approach, also referred to as polythetic would last till [[evolutionary theory]] enabled [[Eichler system|Eichler]] to develop the [[phyletic]] system that superseded it in the late nineteenth century, based on an understanding of the acquisition of characteristics.{{sfn|Stuessy|2009|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b9Q2EOkw7toC&pg=PA47 Natural classification p.&nbsp;47]}}{{sfn|Datta|1988|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C&pg=PA21 Systems of classification p.&nbsp;21]}}{{sfn|Stace|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C&pg=PA19 The development of plant taxonomy p.&nbsp;17]}} He also made the crucial observation ''Ex hac seminum divisione sumum potest generalis plantarum distinctio, eaque meo judicio omnium prima et longe optima, in eas sci. quae plantula seminali sunt bifolia aut διλόβω, et quae plantula sem. adulta analoga.'' (From this division of the seeds derives a general distinction amongst plants, that in my judgement is first and by far the best, into those seed plants which are bifoliate, or bilobed, and those that are analogous to the adult), that is between monocots and dicots.{{sfn|Raven|1950|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ETusSTe5O8YC&pg=PA195 p.&nbsp;195]}}{{sfn|Bewley|Black|Halmer|2006|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aE414KuXu4gC&pg=PA334 History of seed research p.&nbsp;334]}} He illustrated this by quoting from Malpighi and including reproductions of Malpighi's drawings of cotyledons (see figure).{{sfn|Ray|1682|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/methodusplantaru00rayj#page/n39/mode/2up ''De foliis plantarum seminalibus dictis'' p.&nbsp;11]}} Initially Ray did not develop a classification of flowering plants (florifera) based on a division by the number of cotyledons, but developed his ideas over successive publications,{{sfn|Ray|1696}} coining the terms ''Monocotyledones'' and ''Dicotyledones'' in 1703,{{sfn|Ray|1703|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/joannisrajisocie00rayj#page/n39/mode/2up pp.&nbsp;1–2]}} in the revised version of his ''Methodus'' (''Methodus plantarum emendata''), as a primary method for dividing them, ''Herbae floriferae, dividi possunt, ut diximus, in Monocotyledones & Dicotyledones'' (Flowering plants, can be divided, as we have said, into Monocotyledons & Dicotyledons).{{sfn|Ray|1703|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/joannisrajisocie00rayj#page/16/mode/2up p.&nbsp;16]}}

==== Post Linnean ====

Although [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] (1707–1778) did not utilise Ray's discovery, basing his own classification solely on [[floral reproductive morphology]], the term was used shortly after his classification appeared (1753) by [[Scopoli]] and who is credited for its introduction.{{efn|Scopoli, in his treatment of Linnaeus' scheme comments in the ''Hexandria polygynia'' on the fact that ''[[Alisma]]'' is a member of the ''Gens monocotyledon''<ref name=ScopoliAlisma/>}} Every [[taxonomist]] since then, starting with [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|De Jussieu]] and [[Augustin De Candolle|De Candolle]], has used Ray's distinction as a major classification characteristic.{{efn|See also [[John Lindley|Lindley]]'s review of classification systems up to 1853,{{sfn|Lindley|1853}} and [[Rolf Dahlgren|Dahlgren]]'s from 1853–1982{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|1982}}}}<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/> In [[De Jussieu system|De Jussieu's system]] (1789), he followed Ray, arranging his Monocotyledones into three classes based on stamen position and placing them between [[Acotyledones]] and Dicotyledones.{{sfn|Jussieu|1789}} [[De Candolle system|De Candolle's system]] (1813) which was to predominate thinking through much of the 19th century used a similar general arrangement, with two subgroups of his ''Monocotylédonés'' (Monocotyledoneae).{{sfn|de Candolle|1819}} [[John Lindley|Lindley]] (1830) followed De Candolle in using the terms Monocotyledon and Endogenae{{efn|''Endogènes'' (ενδον within + γεναω I create)}} interchangeably. They considered the monocotyledons to be a group of  [[vascular plants]] (''Vasculares'') whose vascular bundles were thought to arise from within (''Endogènes'' or [[endogenous]]).{{sfn|Lindley|1830}}

Monocotyledons remained in a similar position as a major division of the flowering plants throughout the nineteenth century, with minor variations. [[George Bentham]] and [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hooker]] (1862–1883) used Monocotyledones, as would [[Richard Wettstein|Wettstein]],{{sfn|Wettstein|1924}} while [[August Eichler]] used Mononocotyleae{{sfn|Eichler|1886}} and [[Adolf Engler|Engler]], following de Candolle, Monocotyledoneae.{{sfn|Engler|1886}} In the twentieth century, some authors used alternative names such as [[Charles Bessey|Bessey]]'s (1915) Alternifoliae{{sfn|Bessey|1915}} and [[Arthur Cronquist|Cronquist]]'s (1966) Liliatae.{{sfn|Cronquist|Takhtajan|Zimmermann|1966}} Later (1981) Cronquist changed Liliatae to Liliopsida,{{sfn|Cronquist|1981}} usages also adopted by [[Takhtajan]] simultaneously.<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops/>  [[Robert F. Thorne|Thorne]] (1992){{sfn|Thorne|1992a}} and [[Rolf|Dahlgren]] (1985){{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|Yeo|1985}} also used Liliidae as a synonym.

Taxonomists had considerable latitude in naming this group, as the Monocotyledons were a group above the rank of family. Article 16 of the ''[[ICBN]]'' allows either a [[descriptive botanical name]] or a name formed from the name of an included family.

In summary they have been variously named, as follows:
* class Monocotyledoneae in the [[de Candolle system]] and the [[Engler system]]
* class Monocotyledones in the [[Bentham & Hooker system]] and the [[Wettstein system]]
* class Monocotyleae in the [[Eichler system]]
* class Liliatae then [[Liliopsida]] in the [[Takhtajan system]] and the [[Cronquist system]]
* subclass [[Liliidae]] in the [[Dahlgren system]] and the [[Thorne system (1992)|Thorne system]]

=== Modern era ===

Over the 1980s, a more general review of the classification of [[angiosperms]] was undertaken. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant [[phylogenetics]] and [[cladistic]] theory, initially based on ''[[rbcL]]'' gene sequencing and cladistic analysis, enabling a [[phylogenetic tree]] to be constructed for the flowering plants.{{sfn|Chase et al|1993}} The establishment of major new [[clades]] necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne, based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. These developments complicated discussions on [[plant evolution]] and necessitated a major taxonomic restructuring.{{sfn|APG|1998}}{{sfn|APG III|2009}}

This [[DNA]] based [[molecular phylogenetic]] research confirmed on the one hand that the monocots remained as a well defined [[monophyly|monophyletic]] group or [[clade]], in contrast to the other historical divisions of the flowering plants, which had to be substantially reorganized.{{sfn|Chase|2004}} No longer could the angiosperms be simply divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons; it was apparent that the monocotyledons were but one of a relatively large number of defined groups within the angiosperms.{{sfn|Bremer|Wanntorp|1978}} Correlation with morphological criteria showed that the defining feature was not cotyledon number but the separation of angiosperms into two major [[pollen]] types, [[uniaperturate]] ([[monosulcate]] and monosulcate-derived) and triaperturate (tricolpate and tricolpate-derived), with the monocots situated within the uniaperturate groups.{{sfn|Chase et al|1993}} The formal taxonomic ranking of Monoctyledons thus became replaced with monocots as an informal clade.{{sfn|Chase|Stevenson|Wilkin|Rudall|1995b}}{{sfn|Chase|2004}} This is the name that has been most commonly used since the publication of the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] [[APG system|(APG) system]] in 1998 and regularly updated since.{{sfn|APG|1998}}{{sfn|APG II|2003}}{{sfn|APG III|2009}}{{sfn|LAPGIII|2009}}{{sfn|Chase|Reveal|2009}}{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}

Within the angiosperms, there are two major [[evolutionary grade|grade]]s, a small early branching [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] grade, the [[basal angiosperms]] (ANA grade) with three [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] and a larger late branching grade, the [[core angiosperms]] (mesangiosperms) with five lineages, as shown in the [[cladogram]].

{|
|{{anchor|Clad1}}'''Cladogram I: Phylogenetic position of the monocots within the angiosperms in APG IV (2016)'''{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}
{{barlabel
|size=8
|at1=2|bar1=green|label1=basal angiosperms
|at2=6|bar2=purple|label2=core angiosperms
|cladogram=
{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%

|label1=[[angiosperms]]
|1={{clade
  |1=[[Amborellales]]|barbegin1=green
  |2={{clade
    |1=[[Nymphaeales]]|bar1=green
    |2={{clade
      |1=[[Austrobaileyales]]|barend1=green
      |label2=
      |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=[[magnoliids]]|barbegin1=purple
          |2=[[Chloranthales]]|bar2=purple
           }}
        |2={{clade
          |1='''monocots'''|bar1=purple
          |2={{clade
            |1=[[Ceratophyllales]]|bar1=purple
            |2=[[eudicots]]|barend2=purple
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
}}
|}

=== Subdivision===

While the monocotyledons have remained extremely stable in their outer borders as a well-defined and coherent monophylectic group, the deeper internal relationships have undergone considerable flux, with many competing classification systems over time.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/>

Historically, [[George Bentham|Bentham]] (1877), considered the monocots to consist of four [[alliance (taxonomy)|alliances]], Epigynae, Coronariae, Nudiflorae and Glumales, based on floral characteristics. He describes the attempts to subdivide the group since the days of [[John Lindley|Lindley]] as largely unsuccessful.{{sfn|Bentham|1877}} Like most subsequent classification systems it failed to distinguish between two major orders, [[Liliales]] and [[Asparagales]], now recognised as quite separate.{{sfn|Fay|2013}} A major advance in this respect was the work of [[Rolf Dahlgren]] (1980),{{sfn|Dahlgren|1980}} which would form the basis of the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]'s (APG) subsequent modern classification of monocot families. Dahlgren who used the alternate name [[Lilliidae]] considered the monocots as a [[Subclass (biology)|subclass]] of [[angiosperms]] characterised by a single cotyledon and the presence of triangular protein bodies in the [[sieve tube]] [[plastids]]. He divided the monocots into seven [[Order (biology)|superorders]], Alismatiflorae, Ariflorae, Triuridiflorae, [[Liliiflorae]], Zingiberiflorae, Commeliniflorae and Areciflorae. With respect to the specific issue regarding Liliales and Asparagales, Dahlgren followed [[Herbert Huber (botanist)|Huber]] (1969){{sfn|Huber|1969}} in adopting a [[Lumpers and splitters|splitter]] approach, in contrast to the longstanding tendency to view [[Liliaceae]] as a very broad [[sensu lato]] [[Family (biology)|family]]. Following Dahlgren's untimely death in 1987, his work was continued by his widow, [[Gertrud Dahlgren]], who published a revised version of the classification in 1989. In this scheme the [[suffix]] ''-florae'' was replaced with ''-anae'' (''e.g.'' [[Alismatanae]]) and the number of superorders expanded to ten with the addition of Bromelianae, Cyclanthanae and Pandananae.{{sfn|Dahlgren|1989}}

Molecular studies have both confirmed the [[monophyly]] of the monocots and helped elucidate relationships within this group. The [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG]] system does not assign the monocots to a taxonomic rank, instead recognizing a monocots clade.{{sfn|Chase et al| 1995}}{{sfn|Chase et al|2000}}{{sfn|Davis et al|2004}}{{sfn|Soltis|Soltis|2004}} However, there has remained some uncertainty regarding the exact relationships between the major lineages, with a number of competing models (including APG).{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

The APG system establishes eleven orders of monocots.{{sfn|Cantino et al|2007}}{{sfn|APG IV|2016}} These form three grades, the [[alismatid monocots]], [[lilioid monocots]] and the [[commelinid monocots]] by order of branching, from early to late. In the following [[cladogram]] numbers indicate [[crown group]] (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in [[mya (unit)|mya]] (million years ago).{{sfn|Hertwick et al.|2015}}

{|
|{{anchor|Clad2}}'''Cladogram 2: The phylogenetic composition of the monocots'''{{sfn|APG IV|2016}}{{sfn|Givnish et al|2018}}

{{barlabel|size=12|at1=5.5|label1=[[Lilioid monocots]] |bar1=purple|at2=2|label2=[[Alismatid monocots]]|bar2=green|style=font-size:100%;line-height:125%;width:400px;|cladogram=

{{clade
|align=center
|label1='''monocots''' (131 [[myr|MYA]])
|1={{clade
    |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
       |label1=
        |1=[[Acorales]]|barbegin1=green
        |2={{clade
           |label1=
           |1=[[Alismatales]]|barend1=green
          |label2=122 MYA
          |2={{clade
            |1=[[Petrosaviales]] | barbegin1=purple
            |label1=
            |2={{clade
              |label1=120 MYA
              |1={{clade
                |1=[[Dioscoreales]] (115 MYA)| bar1=purple
                |2=[[Pandanales]] (91 MYA) | bar2=purple
                 }}
              |2={{clade 
                |1=[[Liliales]] (121 MYA)| bar1=purple
                |label2=121 MYA
                |2={{clade 
                  |1=[[Asparagales]] (120 MYA)| barend1=purple
                  |label2=[[commelinids]] (118 MYA)
                  |2={{clade
                    |label1=
                    |1=[[Arecales]]
                    |2={{clade
                      |label1=
                      |1=[[Poales]]
                      |2={{clade
                        |label1=
                        | 1= [[Zingiberales]]
                        | 2= [[Commelinales]]
                         }}
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
|}

{{Clear}}
Of some 70,000 [[species]],<ref name=CoL/> by far the largest number (65%) are found in two [[Family (biology)|families]], the orchids and grasses. The orchids ([[Orchidaceae]], [[Asparagales]]) contain about 25,000 species and the grasses ([[Poaceae]], [[Poales]]) about 11,000. Other well known groups within the Poales [[Order (biology)|order]] include the [[Cyperaceae]] (sedges) and [[Juncaceae]] (rushes), and the monocots also include familiar families such as the palms ([[Arecaceae]], Arecales) and lilies ([[Liliaceae]], [[Liliales]]).{{sfn|Fay|2013}}{{sfn|Panis|2008}}

===Evolution===

In [[phyletic|prephyletic]] classification systems monocots were generally positioned between plants other than angiosperms and dicots, implying that monocots were more primitive. With the introduction of phyletic thinking in taxonomy (from the [[Eichler system|system of Eichler]] 1875–1878 onwards) the predominant theory of monocot origins was the ranalean (ranalian) theory, particularly in the work of [[Charles Bessey|Bessey]] (1915),{{sfn|Bessey|1915}} which traced the origin of all flowering plants to a Ranalean type, and reversed the sequence making dicots the more primitive group.<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist/>

The monocots form a [[monophyletic]] group arising early in the history of the [[flowering plant]]s, but the fossil record is meagre.{{sfn|Ganfolfo et al|1998}} The earliest fossils presumed to be monocot remains date from the [[Cretaceous|early Cretaceous]] period. For a very long time, [[fossil]]s of palm trees were believed to be the oldest monocots,{{sfn|Smith et al|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eC0WBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 p.&nbsp;38]}} first appearing 90 million years ago ([[mya (unit)|mya]]), but this estimate may not be entirely true.{{sfn|Herendeen|Crane|1995}} At least some putative monocot fossils have been found in strata as old as the eudicots.{{sfn|Herendeen|Crane|Drinnan|1995}} The oldest fossils that are unequivocally monocots are pollen from the Late [[Barremian]]–[[Aptian]] – Early [[Cretaceous]] period, about 120-110 million years ago, and are assignable to [[clade]]-[[Pothoideae]]-Monstereae Araceae; being Araceae, sister to other [[Alismatales]].{{sfn|Gandolfo|Nixon|Crepet|2002}}{{sfn|Friis|Pedersen|Crane|2004}}{{sfn|Friis|Pedersen|Crane|2006}} They have also found flower fossils of Triuridaceae (Pandanales) in Upper Cretaceous rocks in New Jersey,{{sfn|Gandolfo|Nixon|Crepet|2002}} becoming the oldest known sighting of [[saprophytic]]/[[mycotrophic]] habits in [[angiosperm]] plants and among the oldest known fossils of monocotyledons.

Topology of the angiosperm [[phylogenetic]] tree could imply that the monocots are among the oldest lineages of angiosperms, which would support the theory that they are just as old as the eudicots. The pollen of the eudicots dates back 125 million years, so the lineage of monocots should be that old too.{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}}

==== Molecular clock estimates  ====

[[Kåre Bremer]], using [[RuBisCO large subunit|rbcL]] sequences and the [[Network science|mean path length method]] for estimating [[genetic divergence|divergence times]], estimated the age of the monocot crown group (i.e. the time at which the ancestor of today's ''Acorus'' diverged from the rest of the group) as 134 million years.{{sfn|Bremer|2000}}{{sfn|Bremer|2002}} Similarly, Wikström ''et al.'',{{sfn|Wikström|Savolainen|Chase|2001}} using Sanderson's [[Robust statistics|non-parametric rate smoothing approach]],{{sfn|Sanderson|1997}} obtained ages of 127–141 million years for the crown group of monocots.{{sfn|Sanderson et al|2004}} All these estimates have large error ranges (usually 15-20%), and Wikström ''et al.'' used only a single calibration point,{{sfn|Wikström|Savolainen|Chase|2001}} namely the split between [[Fagales]] and [[Cucurbitales]], which was set to 84&nbsp;Ma, in the late [[Santonian]] period. Early molecular clock studies using strict clock models had estimated the monocot crown age to 200 ± 20 million years ago{{sfn|Savard et al|1994}} or 160 ± 16 million years,{{sfn|Goremykin|Hansman|Martin|1997}} while studies using relaxed clocks have obtained 135-131 million years{{sfn|Leebens-Mack et al|2005}} or 133.8 to 124 million years.{{sfn|Moore et al|2007}} Bremer's estimate of 134 million years{{sfn|Bremer|2000}} has been used as a secondary calibration point in other analyses.{{sfn|Janssen|Bremer|2004}} Some estimates place the diversification of the monocots as far back as 150&nbsp;mya in the [[Jurassic]] period.{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

The lineage that led to monocots (stem group) split from other plants about 136 million years ago{{sfn|Magallon|Gomez-Acevedo|Sanchez-Reyes|Tania Hernandez-Hernandez|2015}} or 165-170 million years ago.{{sfn|Zeng et al|2014}}

====Core group====
The age of the core group of so-called 'nuclear monocots' or 'core monocots', which correspond to all orders except [[Acorales]] and Alismatales,{{sfn|Hedges|Kumar|2009|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9rt1c1hl49MC&pg=PA205 p.&nbsp;205]}} is about 131 million years to present, and crown group age is about 126 million years to the present. The subsequent branching in this part of the tree (i.e. [[Petrosaviaceae]], [[Dioscoreales]] + Pandanales and [[Liliales]] clades appeared), including the crown [[Petrosaviaceae]] group may be in the period around 125–120 million years BC (about 111 million years so far{{sfn|Bremer|2000}}), and stem groups of all other orders, including [[Commelinidae]] would have diverged about or shortly after 115 million years.{{sfn|Janssen|Bremer|2004}} These and many clades within these orders may have originated in southern [[Gondwana]], i.e. Antarctica, Australasia, and southern South America.{{sfn|Bremer|Janssen|2006}}

====Aquatic monocots====
The aquatic monocots of Alismatales have commonly been regarded as "primitive".{{sfn|Hallier|1905}}{{sfn|Arber|1925}}{{sfn|Hutchinson|1973}}{{sfn|Cronquist| 1981}}{{sfn|Cronquist| 1988}}{{sfn|Takhtajan| 2009}}{{sfn|Takhtajan|1991}}{{sfn|Stebbins|1974}}{{sfn|Thorne|1976}} They have also been considered to have the most primitive foliage, which were cross-linked as Dioscoreales{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|Yeo|1985}} and [[Melanthiales]].{{sfn|Thorne|1992a}}{{sfn|Thorne|1992b}} Keep in mind that the "most primitive" monocot is not necessarily "the sister of everyone else".{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}} This is because the ancestral or primitive characters are inferred by means of the reconstruction of character states, with the help of the phylogenetic tree. So primitive characters of monocots may be present in some derived groups. On the other hand, the basal taxa may exhibit many [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] [[autapomorphy|autapomorphies]]. So although Acoraceae is the sister group to the remaining monocotyledons, the result does not imply that Acoraceae is "the most primitive monocot" in terms of its character states. In fact, Acoraceae is highly derived in many morphological characters, and that is precisely why Acoraceae and Alismatales occupied relatively derived positions in the trees produced by Chase ''et al.''{{sfn|Chase et al| 1995}} and others.{{sfn|Loconte|Stevenson|1991}}{{sfn|Stevenson|Loconte|1995}}

Some authors support the idea of an aquatic phase as the origin of monocots.{{sfn|Henslow|1893}} The phylogenetic position of Alismatales (many water), which occupy a relationship with the rest except the Acoraceae, do not rule out the idea, because it could be 'the most primitive monocots' but not 'the most basal'. The Atactostele stem, the long and linear leaves, the absence of secondary growth (see the [[biomechanics]] of living in the water), roots in groups instead of a single root branching (related to the nature of the [[substrata (gardening)|substrate]]), including [[sympodial]] use, are consistent with a water source. However, while monocots were sisters of the aquatic [[Ceratophyllales]], or their origin is related to the adoption of some form of aquatic habit, it would not help much to the understanding of how it evolved to develop their distinctive anatomical features: the monocots seem so different from the rest of angiosperms and it's difficult to relate their morphology, anatomy and development and those of broad-leaved angiosperms.{{sfn|Zimmermann| Tomlinson| 1972}}{{sfn|Tomlinson|1995}}

====Other taxa====
In the past, taxa which had [[petiole (botany)|petiolate]] leaves with [[reticulate venation]] were considered "primitive" within the monocots, because of the superficial resemblance to the leaves of [[dicotyledons]]. Recent work suggests that while these taxa are sparse in the phylogenetic tree of monocots, such as fleshy fruited taxa (excluding taxa with aril seeds dispersed by ants), the two features would be adapted to conditions that evolved together regardless.{{sfn|Dahlgren|Clifford|1982}}{{sfn|Patterson|Givnish|2002}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2005}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2006}} Among the taxa involved were ''[[Smilax]]'', ''[[Trillium]]'' (Liliales), ''[[Dioscorea]]'' (Dioscoreales), etc. A number of these plants are [[vine]]s that tend to live in shaded habitats for at least part of their lives, and this fact may also relate to their shapeless [[stomata]].{{sfn|Cameron|Dickison|1998}} Reticulate venation seems to have appeared at least 26 times in monocots, and fleshy fruits have appeared 21 times (sometimes lost later); the two characteristics, though different, showed strong signs of a tendency to be good or bad in tandem, a phenomenon described as "concerted convergence" ("coordinated convergence").{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2005}}{{sfn|Givnish et al.|2006}}

=== Etymology ===
The name monocotyledons is derived from the traditional botanical name "Monocotyledones" or ''Monocotyledoneae'' in [[Latin]], which refers to the fact that most members of this group have one [[cotyledon]], or embryonic leaf, in their [[seed]]s.

== Ecology ==

=== Emergence ===
{{Main|Epigeal germination|Hypogeal germination}}
Some monocots, such as grasses, have [[hypogeal germination|hypogeal emergence]], where the mesocotyl elongates and pushes the coleoptile (which encloses and protects the shoot tip) toward the soil surface.{{sfn|Radosevich et al|1997|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XA1ioKqctwwC&pg=PA149 p.&nbsp;149]}} Since elongation occurs above the cotyledon, it is left in place in the soil where it was planted. 
Many dicots have [[epigeal germination|epigeal emergence]], in which the hypocotyl elongates and becomes arched in the soil. As the hypocotyl continues to elongate, it pulls the cotyledons upward, above the soil surface.

== Conservation ==

The [[IUCN]] [[Red List]] describes four species as [[extinct]], four as [[extinct in the wild]], 626 as possibly extinct, 423 as [[critically endangered]], 632 [[endangered]], 621 [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]], and 269 [[near threatened]] of 4,492 whose status is known.<ref name=redlist/>

== Uses ==

Monocots are among the most important plants economically and culturally, and account for most of the [[staple foods]] of the world, such as [[cereal]] [[food grains|grains]] and [[starchy root crops]], and palms, orchids and lilies, [[building materials]], and many [[medicines]].{{sfn|Soltis et al.|2005}} Of the monocots, the grasses are of enormous economic importance as a source of animal and human food,{{sfn|Fay|2013}} and form the largest component of agricultural species in terms of [[biomass]] produced.{{sfn|Panis|2008}}{{sfn|Tang et al|2016}}

Other economically important monocotyledon [[crops]] include various [[palm (plant)|palms]] ([[Arecaceae]]), bananas and plantains ([[Musaceae]]), [[ginger]]s and their relatives, [[turmeric]] and [[cardamom]] ([[Zingiberaceae]]), [[asparagus]] ([[Asparagaceae]]), [[pineapple]] ([[Bromeliaceae]]), sedges ([[Cyperaceae]]) and rushes ([[Juncaceae]]), [[vanilla]] ([[Orchidaceae]]), [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]] ([[Dioscoreaceae]]), [[taro]] ([[Araceae]]), and [[leek]]s, [[onion]] and [[garlic]] ([[Amaryllidaceae]]). Many [[houseplant]]s are monocotyledon [[epiphyte]]s. Most of the [[horticultural]] [[bulbs]], plants cultivated for their blooms, such as [[Lilium|lilies]], [[daffodil]]s, [[Iris (plant)|iris]]es, [[amaryllis]], [[Canna (plant)|cannas]], [[Hyacinthoides non-scripta|bluebells]] and [[tulip]]s, are monocotyledons.

==See also==
* [[Monocotyledon reproduction]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|20em|refs=

<ref name=CoL>{{harvnb|CoL|2015|loc=[http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/browse/classification/class/Liliopsida/fossil/0/match/1 Liliopsida]}}</ref>

<ref name=redlist>{{harvnb|IUCN|2016|loc=[http://cmsdocs.s3.amazonaws.com/summarystats/2016-3_Summary_Stats_Page_Documents/2016_3_RL_Stats_Table_4b.pdf Red List summary: All plant classes and families]}}</ref>

<ref name=Kubitzmmonohist>{{harvnb|Kubitzki|Rudall|Chase|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 A brief history of monocot classification p.&nbsp;23]}}</ref>

<ref name=MausethAFG>{{harvnb|Mauseth|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4WkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 Anomalous forms of growth pp.&nbsp;211–219]}}</ref> 

<ref name=ObelStirp65>{{harvnb|l'Obel|1571|loc=[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=4137&Pagina=88 p.&nbsp;65]}}</ref>

* <ref name=pavordN.339>{{harvnb|Pavord|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvP92qGbI08C&pg=PT339 p.&nbsp;339]}}</ref>

<ref name=ScopoliAlisma>{{harvnb|Scopoli|1772|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jl9CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA266 ''Alisma'' pp.&nbsp;266–267]}}</ref>

<ref name=TakhtajanLiliops>{{harvnb|Takhtajan|2009|loc=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9609-9_3 Liliopsida pp.&nbsp;589–750]}}</ref>

<ref name=Tillichfig1>{{harvnb|Tillich|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 Figure 1]}}</ref>

<ref name=Tropiclilianae>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[https://www.tropicos.org/name/100352386 Lilianae]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropicliliidae>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000105 Liliidae]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropiclilio>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000083 Liliopsida]}}</ref>
<ref name=Tropicmono>{{harvnb|Tropicos|2015|loc=[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/43000113 Monocotylondoneae]}}</ref>

}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
=== Books  ===

==== Historical ====

* {{cite book|last1=Batsch|first1=August Johann Georg Karl|author-link=August Batsch|title=Tabula affinitatum regni vegetabilis, quam delineavit, et nunc ulterius adumbratam tradit A.J.G.C. Batsch ...|date=1802|publisher=Landes-Industrie-Comptoir|location=[[Weimar]]|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7569#/summary|language=la}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bentham|first1=G.|last2=Hooker|first2=J.D.|author-link1=George Bentham|author-link2=Joseph Dalton Hooker|title=Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita|year=1862–1883|publisher=L Reeve & Co.|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/747#/summary|language=la}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Birch|editor-first=Thomas|editor-link=Thomas Birch|title=The History of the Royal Society of London for Improving of Natural Knowledge from Its First Rise, in which the Most Considerable of Those Papers Communicated to the Society, which Have Hitherto Not Been Published, are Inserted as a Supplement to the Philosophical Transactions, Volume 3|date=1757|publisher=Millar|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2EVAAAAQAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=de Candolle|first1=Augustin Pyramus|author-link=Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|title=Regni vegetabilis systema naturale, sive Ordines, genera et species plantarum secundum methodi naturalis normas digestarum et descriptarum 2 vols.|date=1818–1821|publisher=Treuttel et Würtz|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/59874#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last=de Candolle|first=AP|author-link=A. P. de Candolle|year=1819|orig-year=1813|edition=2nd|title=Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, ou exposition des principes de la classification naturelle et de l'art de décrire et d'etudier les végétaux|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/39705#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last1=Eichler|first1=August W.|author-link=August Eichler|title=Syllabus der Vorlesungen über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik|date=1886|orig-year=1876|publisher=Borntraeger|location=Berlin|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XE0bAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Engler|first1=Adolf|author-link=Adolf Engler|title=Führer durch den Königlich botanischen Garten der Universität zu Breslau|date=1886|publisher=J.U. Kerns Verlag (Max Müller)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUcyAQAAMAAJ|access-date=2 May 2015|language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |author-link=Antoine de Jussieu |title=Genera Plantarum, secundum ordines naturales disposita juxta methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi exaratam |year=1789 |location=Paris |oclc=5161409 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/284#/summary }}
* {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=An introduction to the natural system of botany: or, A systematic view of the organisation, natural affinities, and geographical distribution, of the whole vegetable kingdom: together with the uses of the most important species in medicine, the arts, and rural or domestic economy|year=1830|publisher=Longman|location=London|edition=1st|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7551#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system|publisher=Bradbury & Evans|location=London|date=1853|orig-year=1846|edition=3rd.|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/95459#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last1=l'Obel|first1=Matthias de|author-link=Matthias de l'Obel|title=Stirpium adversaria nova|trans-title=A new notebook of plants|date=1571|publisher=Thomae Purfoetii|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/74457#/summary}}
* {{cite book|last1=Malpighi|first1=Marcello|author-link=Marcello Malpighi|title=Anatome plantarum: Cui subjungitur appendix, iteratas & auctas ejusdem authoris de ovo incubato observationes continens|date=1675|publisher=Johannis Martyn|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/marcellimalpigh00malpgoog|access-date=13 December 2015|language=la}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=John|author-link=John Ray|title=De Variis Plantarum Methodis Dissertatio Brevis|date=1696|publisher=Smith & Walford|location=London|url=http://digital.onb.ac.at/OnbViewer/viewer.faces?doc=ABO_%2BZ184733202|language=la}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=John|author-link=John Ray|title=Methodus plantarum emendata et aucta: In quãa notae maxime characteristicae exhibentur, quibus stirpium genera tum summa, tum infima cognoscuntur & áa se mutuo dignoscuntur, non necessariis omissis. Accedit methodus graminum, juncorum et cyperorum specialis|date=1703|publisher=Smith & Walford|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/105652#/summary|language=la}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sachs|first1=Julius von|author-link=Julius von Sachs|title=Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860|date=1875|publisher=Oldenbourg|location=Munich|url=https://archive.org/details/geschichtederbot00sachuoft|access-date=13 December 2015|language=de}}
** {{cite book|last1=Sachs|first1=Julius von|author-link=Julius von Sachs|title=Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860|trans-title=[[History of Botany (1530-1860)|History of botany (1530-1860)]]|date=1890|orig-year=1875|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|others=translated by Henry E. F. Garnsey, revised by Isaac Bayley Balfour|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/30585#/summary|access-date=13 December 2015|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.30585}}, see also {{Google books|iT5-CgAAQBAJ|History of botany (1530-1860)}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scopoli|first1=Giovanni Antonio|author-link=Scopoli|title=Flora Carniolica exhibens plantas Carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes, genera, species, varietates, ordine Linnaeano|date=1772|publisher=Ioannis Pauli Krauss|location=[[Vindobonensis]] (Vienna)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jl9CAAAAYAAJ}}

==== Modern ====

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** [https://archive.org/details/plantform00adri 1st edition] {{ISBN|9780198542193}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Stebbins|first1=G. Ledyard|author-link=G. Ledyard Stebbins|title=Flowering plants: evolution above the species level|date=1974|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=0-674-30685-6|url=https://archive.org/details/floweringplantse0000steb|url-access=registration|access-date=16 December 2015}}
* {{cite book|last=Stuessy|first=Tod F.|title=Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14712-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC|access-date=6 February 2014|year=2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Soltis |first1=D.E. |author-link1=Douglas E. Soltis |last2=Soltis |first2=P.S. |author-link2=Pamela S. Soltis |last3=Endress |first3=P.K. |last4=Chase |first4=M.W. |author-link4=Mark Wayne Chase |title=Phylogeny and evolution of angiosperms |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgbJkQEACAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Sinauer |location=Sunderland, MA |isbn=9781588342010 |ref={{harvid|Soltis et al.|2005}} }}  (''see also'': [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Phylogeny-Evolution-Angiosperms-Douglas-Soltis/dp/0878938176 Excerpts at Amazon]
* {{cite book|last1=Takhtajan|first1=Armen Leonovich|author-link=Takhtajan|chapter=Lilianae|title=Система и филогения цветкорых растений (Sistema i filogeniia tsvetkovykh rastenii)|trans-title=Systema et Phylogemia Magnoliophytorum|chapter-url={{Google books|xljPEon9Qy0C|page=473|plainurl=yes}}|date=1966|page=473|access-date=14 August 2015|language=ru|publisher=Наука|location=Moscow|others=trans. C Jeffrey, as ''Flowering plants: Origin and dispersal'', Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1969.|isbn=0-05-001715-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Takhtajan|first=Armen|author-link=Armen Takhtajan|title=Evolutionary trends in flowering plants|date=1991|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=9780231073288|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c11HBwElG-4C}}
* {{cite book |last=Takhtajan |first=Armen Leonovich |author-link=Armen Takhtajan |title=Flowering Plants |year=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9609-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oumyfO-NHuUC |access-date=7 January 2014 }}
* {{cite book|first=Richard|last=Wettstein|author-link=Richard Wettstein|year=1924|edition=3rd|title=Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik 2 vols.|url=http://biolib.mpipz.mpg.de/library/authors/author_00267_de.html|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218170153/http://biolib.mpipz.mpg.de/library/authors/author_00267_de.html|url-status=dead}}

=== Symposia ===

* {{cite journal|editor1-last=Columbus|editor1-first=J. T.|editor2-last=Friar|editor2-first=E. A.|editor3-last=Porter|editor3-first=J. M.|editor4-last=Prince|editor4-first=L. M.|editor5-last=Simpson|editor5-first=M. G.|title=Symposium issue: Monocots: comparative biology and evolution (excluding Poales).'' Proceedings of the Third International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, 31 Mar–4 Apr 2003''|journal=[[Aliso: A Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany|Aliso]]|year=2006|volume=22|issue=1|publisher=Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden|location=Claremont, Ca.|issn=0065-6275|url=http://www.mbgpress.info/index.php?task=id&id=07015|access-date=18 January 2014}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Rudall |editor1-first=P.J. |editor2-last=Cribb |editor2-first=P.J. |editor3-last=Cutler |editor3-first=D.F. |editor4-last=Humphries |editor4-first=C.J. |editor-link1=Paula Rudall |year=1995 |title=Monocotyledons: systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the International Symposium on Monocotyledons: Systematics and Evolution, Kew 1993) |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens |location=Kew |isbn=978-0-947643-85-0 |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/M/bo9856357.html |access-date=14 January 2014 }}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Wilkin|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Mayo|editor2-first=Simon J|title=Early events in monocot evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEfKwaRHQj4C|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-107-01276-9|access-date=9 December 2015}}
* {{citation|editor1-last=Wilson|editor1-first=K. L.|editor2-last=Morrison|editor2-first=D. A.|title=Monocots: Systematics and evolution (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons, Sydney, Australia 1998)|year=2000|publisher=[[CSIRO]]|location=Collingwood, Australia|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/2424.htm|isbn=0-643-06437-0|access-date=14 January 2014}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YzQBUQqLS0YC Excerpts]
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Seberg|editor1-first=Ole|editor2-last=Petersen|editor2-first=Gitte|editor3-last=Barfod|editor3-first=Anders|editor4-last=Davis|editor4-first=Jerrold I.|title=Diversity, phylogeny, and evolution in the Monocotyledons: proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on the Comparative Biology of the Monocotyledons and the Fifth International Symposium on Grass Systematics and Evolution|url=http://en.unipress.dk/udgivelser/d/diversity,-phylogeny,-and-evolution-in-the-monocotyledons/|date=2010|publisher=[[Aarhus University Press]]|location=Århus|isbn=978-87-7934-398-6|ref={{harvid|Seberg et al|2010}}}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Tomlinson|editor1-first=P. B.|editor2-last=Zimmerman|editor2-first=Martin|title=Tropical Trees as Living Systems (Proceedings of the fourth Cabot Symposium held at Harvard Forest, Petersham Massachusetts on April 26-30, 1976)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxT1M8-bu3IC|date=1978|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-14247-2}}

=== Chapters  ===

* {{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=CL|last2=Janssen|first2=T|title=Monocots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9rt1c1hl49MC&pg=PA203|pages=203–212|isbn=9780191560156|date=2009-04-23|publisher=OUP Oxford}}, in {{harvtxt|Hedges|Kumar|2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M. W. |author-link1=Mark Wayne Chase |last2=Duvall |first2=M. R. |last3=Hills |first3=H. G. |last4=Conran |first4=J. G. |last5=Cox |first5=A. V. |last6=Eguiarte |first6=L. E. |last7=Hartwell |first7=J. |last8=Fay |first8=M. F. |last9=Caddick |first9=L. R. |last10=Cameron |first10=K. M. |last11=Hoot |first11=S. |title=Molecular phylogenetics of Lilianae |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257705581 |pages=109–137 |ref={{harvid|Chase et al| 1995}} }}, In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M.W. |author-link1=Mark Wayne Chase |last2=Soltis |first2=D. E. |author-link2=Douglas E. Soltis |last3=Soltis |first3=P. S. |author-link3 = Pamela S. Soltis|last4=Rudall |first4=P. J. |author-link4=Paula Rudall |last5=Fay |first5=M. F. |author-link5=Michael Francis Fay |last6=Hahn |first6=W. H. |last7=Sullivan |first7=S. |last8=Joseph |first8=J. |last9=Molvray |first9=M. |last10=Kores |first10=P. J. |last11=Givnish |first11=T. J. |author-link11=Thomas J. Givnish |last12=Sytsma |first12=K. J. |last13=Pires |first13=J. C.|title=Higher-level systematics of the monocotyledons: An assessment of current knowledge and a new classification|pages=3–16|ref={{harvid|Chase et al|2000}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Wilson|Morrison|2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chase |first1=M. W. |last2=Stevenson |first2=D. W. |last3=Wilkin |first3=P. |last4=Rudall |first4=P. J. |author-link1=Mark Chase|author-link4=Paula Rudall|volume=2 | pages=685–730 |title=Monocot systematics: A combined analysis|ref={{harvid|Chase|Stevenson|Wilkin|Rudall|1995b}}}}, In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{citation |last1=Davis|first1=Jerrold I.|title=Early Events in Monocot Evolution|last2=Mcneal|first2=Joel R.|last3=Barrett|first3=Craig F.|last4=Chase|first4=Mark W.|last5=Cohen|first5=James I.|last6=Duvall|first6=Melvin R.|last7=Givnish|first7=Thomas J.|author-link7=Thomas J. Givnish|last8=Graham|first8=Sean W.|last9=Petersen|first9=Gitte|last10=Pires|first10=J. Chris|last11=Seberg|first11=Ole|last12=Stevenson|first12=Dennis W.|last13=Leebens-Mack|first13=Jim|author-link4=Mark Wayne Chase|pages=315–349|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139002950.015|ref={{harvid|Davis et al.|2013}}|chapter=Contrasting patterns of support among plastid genes and genomes for major clades of the monocotyledons|year=2013|isbn=9781139002950}}, in {{harvtxt|Wilkin|Mayo|2013}}
* {{cite book|last1=Donoghue|first1=Michael J.|last2=Doyle|first2=James A.|title=Phylogenetic studies of seed plants and angiosperms based on morphological characters|url=http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1989/024_MJD_HierarchyOfLife89.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827164046/http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1989/024_MJD_HierarchyOfLife89.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=August 27, 2008|date=1989|pages=181–193}}, in {{harvtxt|Fernholm|Bremer|
Jörnvall|1989}}
* {{cite book|last1=Donoghue|first1=Michael J.|last2=Doyle|first2=James A.|title=Phylogenetic analysis of angiosperms and the relationships of Hamamelidae|date=1989|pages=17–45|url=http://donoghuelab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/023_donoghue89.pdf|ref={{harvid|Donoghue|Doyle|1989b}}}}, In {{harvtxt|Crane|Blackmore|1989}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dransfield|first1=John|author-link=John Dransfield|title=Growth forms of rain forest palms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxT1M8-bu3IC&pg=PA247|pages=247–268|ref={{harvid|Dransfield|1978}}|isbn=9780521142472|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}, in {{harvtxt|Tomlinson|Zimmerman|1978}}
* {{cite book |last1=Givnish |first1=T.J. |author-link1=Thomas J. Givnish |last2=Pires |first2=J.C. |last3=Graham |first3=S.W. |last4=McPherson |first4=M.A. |last5=Prince |first5=L.M. |last6=Patterson |first6=T.B. |last7=Rai |first7=H.S. |last8=Roalson |first8=E.R. |last9=Evans |first9=T.M. |last10=Hahn |first10=W.J |last11=Millam |first11=K.C. |last12=Meerow |first12=A.W. |last13=Molvray |first13=M. |last14=Kores |first14=P. |last15=O'Brien |first15=H.E. |last16=Kress |first16=W.J. |last17=Hall |first17=J. |last18=Sytsma |first18=K.J. |author-link12=Alan Meerow |title=Phylogeny of the monocotyledons based on the highly informative plastid gene ''ndh''F: evidence for widespread concerted convergence |pages=28–51 |url=http://www.botany.wisc.edu/sytsma/pdf/ConcertedConvMonocots06.pdf |access-date=4 January 2014 |ref={{harvid|Givnish et al.|2006}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116103031/http://www.botany.wisc.edu/sytsma/pdf/ConcertedConvMonocots06.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2014 |url-status=dead }} In {{Harvtxt|Columbus|Friar|Porter|Prince|2006}}
* {{cite book |last1= Herendeen |first1= P. S. |last2=Crane|first2= P. R.|author-link2=Peter Crane |title=The fossil history of the monocotyledons| date=1995| pages=1–21 }} In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kubitzki|first1=K|last2=Rudall|first2=PJ|last3=Chase|first3=MW|author-link1=Klaus Kubitzki|author-link2=Paula Rudall|author-link3=Mark Wayne Chase|title=Systematics and evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|date=1998|pages=23–33|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783662035337}}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Panis|first1=Bart|title=Plant Cryopreservation: A Practical Guide|chapter=Cryopreservation of monocots|pages=241–280|date=2008|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-72276-4_11|isbn=978-0-387-72275-7}}, in {{harvtxt|Reed|2008}}
*{{cite book|last1=Ray|first1=John|author-link=John Ray|title=A discourse on the seeds of plants|date=1674|pages=162–169|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2EVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA162}}, in {{harvtxt|Birch|1757}}
*{{cite book|last1=Rudall|first1=Paula J.|title=Developmental Genetics and Plant Evolution|volume=20020544|author-link=Paula Rudall|last2=Buzgo|first2=Matyas|chapter=Evolutionary history of the monocot leaf|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260967325|pages=431–458|doi=10.1201/9781420024982.ch23|series=Systematics Association Special Volumes|year=2002|doi-broken-date=2024-11-12 |isbn=978-0-415-25790-9}}, in {{harvtxt|Cronk|Bateman|Hawkins|2002}}
* {{cite book|last1=Stevenson|first1= D.W.|last2=Loconte|first2= H.|title=Cladistic analysis of monocot families|pages=543–578|ref={{harvid|Stevenson|Loconte|1995}}}} in {{harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tillich|first1=H.-J.|title=Development and Organization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|pages=1–19|ref={{harvid|Tillich|1998}}|isbn=9783662035337|date=2013-06-29|publisher=Springer }}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}
* {{cite book |last=Tomlinson|first= P. B. |title=Non-homology of vascular organisation in monocotyledons and dicotyledons|date=1995 | pages=589–622 }} In {{Harvtxt|Rudall|Cribb|Cutler|Humphries|1995}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vines|first1=Sydney Howard|author-link=Sydney Howard Vines|title=Robert Morison 1620–1683 and John Ray 1627–1705|pages=8–43|ref={{harvid|Vines|1913}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Oliver|1913}}
* {{cite book|last1=Vogel|first1=S|title=Floral biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSfrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34|date=1998|pages=34–48|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783662035337}}, In {{Harvtxt|Kubitzki|Huber|1998}}.

=== Articles ===

* {{cite journal|last1=Bentham|first1=George|author-link=George Bentham|title=On the Distribution of the Monocotyledonous Orders into Primary Groups, more especially in reference to the Australian Flora, with notes on some points of Terminology.|journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany|date=February 1877|volume=15|issue=88|pages=490–520|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1877.tb00261.x|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1432977|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last = Bessey|first = Charles E.|author-link = Charles E. Bessey|year = 1915|title = The phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants|journal = [[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]]|volume = 2|pages = 109–164|doi = 10.2307/2990030|jstor = 2990030|issue = 1/2|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/17811}} (also at {{cite web|url= http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753999990002|title= Botanicus.org|publisher= [[Missouri Botanical Garden]]|access-date= 5 February 2017}})
* {{cite journal |last= Bremer |first= K. |author-link= Kare Bremer |year= 2000 |title= Early Cretaceous lineages of monocot flowering plants |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume= 97 |issue= 9 |pages= 4707–4711 |url= http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/9/4707.pdf |doi= 10.1073/pnas.080421597 |pmid= 10759567 |pmc= 18297 |bibcode= 2000PNAS...97.4707B |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bremer |first=K. |author-link=Kare Bremer |year=2002 |title=Gondwanan evolution of the grass alliance families (Poales) |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=1374–1387 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1554%2F0014-3820(2002)056%5B1374%3AGEOTGA%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |doi=10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01451.x |pmid=12206239 |s2cid=221734079 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1= Bremer |first1= Kåre |last2= Janssen |first2= Thomas |author-link1= Kare Bremer |year= 2006 |title= Gondwanan origin of major monocot groups inferred from dispersal-vicariance analysis |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228700636 |journal= Aliso |volume= 22 |pages= 22–27 |doi= 10.5642/aliso.20062201.03 |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Cameron|first1= K. M. |last2=Dickison|first2= W. C. |year= 1998 |title=Foliar architecture of vanilloid orchids: Insights into the evolution of reticulate leaf venation in monocots |journal= Bot. J. Linn. Soc. |volume=128 |pages=45–70 |doi=10.1006/bojl.1998.0183|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Christenhusz | first1 = Maarten JM | last2 = Byng | first2 = J. W. | author-link1 = Maarten Christenhusz | author-link2 = James W. Byng | name-list-style = amp | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | pages = 201–217 | url = http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | issue = 3 | publisher = Magnolia Press | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite conference <!-- Citation bot no --> |last1=Clifford|first1=H T|chapter=Quantitative Studies of Inter-relationships Amongst the ''Liliatae'' |conference= Evolution and Classification of Higher Categories Symposium, Hamburg, September 8–12, 1976 |title=Flowering Plants|series =Plant Systematics and Evolution / Entwicklungsgeschichte und Systematik der Pflanzen|date=1977|volume=Suppl. 1|pages=77–95|doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-7076-2_6|editor= Klaus Kubitzki |editor-link=Klaus Kubitzki|isbn=978-3-211-81434-5 | publisher = Springer }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cronquist|first1=Arthur|last2=Takhtajan|first2=Armen|last3=Zimmermann|first3=Walter|author-link1=Arthur Cronquist|author-link2=Takhtajan|author-link3=Walter Max Zimmermann|title=On the Higher Taxa of Embryobionta|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|date=April 1966|volume=15|issue=4|pages=129–134|doi=10.2307/1217531|jstor=1217531}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cronquist|first1=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Cronquist|title=Broad Features of the System of Angiosperms|journal=Taxon|date=April 1969|volume=18|issue=2|pages=188–193|doi=10.2307/1218676|jstor=1218676 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=Gertrud|author-link=Gertrud Dahlgren|title=An updated angiosperm classification|journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]|date=July 1989|volume=100|issue=3|pages=197–203|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1989.tb01717.x}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=R. M. T.|author-link=Rolf Dahlgren|title=A revised system of classification of the angiosperms|journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]|date=February 1980|volume=80|issue=2|pages=91–124|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Dahlgren|first1=Rolf|last2=Rasmussen|first2=Finn N.|title=Monocotyledon Evolution: Characters and Phylogenetic Estimation|journal=Evolutionary Biology|date=1983|volume=16|pages=255–395|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-6971-8_7}}
* {{Cite journal | last1 = Donoghue | first1 = Michael J. | title = Key innovations, convergence, and success: macroevolutionary lessons from plant phylogeny | url = http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2005/149_MJD_Paleo05.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110104064338/http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/2005/149_MJD_Paleo05.pdf | url-status = usurped | archive-date = January 4, 2011 | doi = 10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0077:KICASM]2.0.CO;2 | year = 2005 | volume = 31 | pages = 77–93 | journal = Paleobiology | s2cid = 36988476 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=James A|last2=Donoghue|first2=Michael J|title=Fossils and seed plant phylogeny reanalyzed|journal=Brittonia|date=April–June 1992|volume=44|issue=2|pages=89–106|url=http://phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1992/039_Doyle_Britt92.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827212652/http://www.phylodiversity.net/donoghue/publications/MJD_papers/1992/039_Doyle_Britt92.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=August 27, 2008|jstor=2806826|doi=10.2307/2806826|bibcode=1992Britt..44...89D |s2cid=25304267}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Fay|first1=Michael F.|author-link=Michael F Fay|title=Monocots|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=May 2013|volume=172|issue=1|pages=1–4|doi=10.1111/boj.12052|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Friis |first1= E. M. |last2=Pedersen|first2= K. R. |last3=Crane|first3=P. R.|author-link3=Peter Crane |year= 2004 |title= Araceae from the early Cretaceous of Portugal: Evidence on the emergence of monocotyledons |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume=101 |issue=47 |pages= 16565–16570 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0407174101 |pmid=15546982 |pmc=534535|bibcode= 2004PNAS..10116565F |doi-access= free }}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Friis|first1= E. M. |last2=Pedersen|first2= K. R. |last3=Crane|first3= P. R.|author-link3=Peter Crane |year=2006 |title=Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction |journal= Palaeogeog. Palaeoclim. Palaeoecol. |volume=232 |issue= 2–4 |pages=251–293 | doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.006|bibcode= 2006PPP...232..251F }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Gandolfo|first1=M. A|last2=Nixon|first2=K. C.|last3=Crepet|first3=W. L.|last4=Stevenson|first4=D. W.|last5=Friis|first5=E. M.|title=Oldest known fossils of monocotyledons|journal=Nature|date=6 August 1998|volume=394|issue=6693|pages=532–533|doi=10.1038/28974|ref={{harvid|Ganfolfo et al|1998}}|bibcode=1998Natur.394..532G|s2cid=4382842}}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Gandolfo|first1= M. A. |last2= Nixon| first2=K. C.|first3=W. L.|last3= Crepet |year=2002 |title=Triuridaceae fossil flowers from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=89 |issue= 12 |pages=1940–1957 |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.12.1940|pmid=21665623}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hallier|first= Hans |title=Provisional scheme of the natural (phylogenetic) system of the flowering plants |journal= [[New Phytologist]] |volume=4 |issue=7|pages=151–162 |date= 31 July 1905 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1905.tb05894.x|hdl= 2027/hvd.32044107266454 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last =Henslow|first= George |title=A Theoretical Origin of Endogens from Exogens, through Self-Adaptation to an Aquatic Habit|journal= [[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=29 |issue=204|pages=485–528 |date=May 1893 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1893.tb02273.x}}
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* {{cite journal|last=Huber|first=H|author-link=Herbert Huber (botanist)|title=Die Samenmerkmale und Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Liliiflorae|journal=Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml.[Mitteilungen der Botanischen Staatssammlung München]|year=1969|volume=8|pages=219–538|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52263#page/639/mode/1up|access-date=10 February 2015|language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last1 =Moore|first1= John P. |last2=Lindsey|first2= George G. |last3=Farrant|first3= Jill M. |last4=Brandt|first4= Wolf F. |year=2007 |title=An Overview of the Biology of the Desiccation-tolerant Resurrection Plant ''Myrothamnus flabellifolia'' |journal= [[Annals of Botany]] |volume= 99 |issue= 2 |pages=211–217|url= |doi=10.1093/aob/mcl269|pmid= 17218343 |pmc= 2803006 |ref={{harvid|Moore et al|2007}}}}
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==== Phylogenetics ====

* {{cite journal|last1=Bremer|first1=Kåre|last2= Wanntorp |first2=Hans-Erik|author-link=Kare Bremer|title=Phylogenetic Systematics in Botany|journal=Taxon|date=Aug 1978|volume= 27|issue=4|pages=317–329|jstor=1220367|doi=10.2307/1220367}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Chase|first1=Mark W.|author-link1=Mark Wayne Chase|last2=Soltis|first2=Douglas E.|author-link2=Douglas E. Soltis|last3=Olmstead|first3=Richard G.|last4=Morgan|first4=David|last5=Les|first5=Donald H.|last6=Mishler|first6=Brent D.|last7=Duvall|first7=Melvin R.|last8=Price|first8=Robert A.|last9=Hills|first9=Harold G.|last10=Qiu|first10=Yin-Long|last11=Kron|first11=Kathleen A.|last12=Rettig|first12=Jeffrey H.|last13=Conti|first13=Elena|last14=Palmer|first14=Jeffrey D.|last15=Manhart|first15=James R.|last16=Sytsma|first16=Kenneth J.|last17=Michaels|first17=Helen J.|last18=Kress|first18=W. John|last19=Karol|first19=Kenneth G.|last20=Clark|first20=W. Dennis|last21=Hedren|first21=Mikael|last22=Gaut|first22=Brandon S.|last23=Jansen|first23=Robert K.|last24=Kim|first24=Ki-Joong|last25=Wimpee|first25=Charles F.|last26=Smith|first26=James F.|last27=Furnier|first27=Glenn R.|last28=Strauss|first28=Steven H.|last29=Xiang|first29=Qui-Yun|last30=Plunkett|first30=Gregory M.|last31=Soltis|first31=Pamela S.|author-link31=Pamela S. Soltis|last32=Swensen|first32=Susan M.|last33=Williams|first33=Stephen E.|last34=Gadek|first34=Paul A.|last35=Quinn|first35=Christopher J.|last36=Eguiarte|first36=Luis E.|last37=Golenberg|first37=Edward|last38=Learn|first38=Gerald H.|last39=Graham|first39=Sean W.|last40=Barrett|first40=Spencer C. H.|last41=Dayanandan|first41=Selvadurai|last42=Albert|first42=Victor A.|title=Phylogenetics of Seed Plants: An Analysis of Nucleotide Sequences from the Plastid Gene ''rbc''L|journal=[[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]]|date=1993|volume=80|issue=3|pages=528|doi=10.2307/2399846|ref={{harvid|Chase et al|1993}}|jstor=2399846|url=https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/6741/1/Dayanandan_AnnalsMissouriBotanicalGardens_1993.pdf|hdl=1969.1/179875|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chase|first=Mark W.  |author-link=Mark Wayne Chase|date=2004 |title=Monocot relationships: an overview |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1645–1655 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645 |pmid=21652314|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Jerrold I.|last2=Stevenson|first2=Dennis W.|last3=Petersen|first3=Gitte|last4=Seberg|first4=Ole|last5=Campbell|first5=Lisa M.|last6=Freudenstein|first6=John V.|last7=Goldman|first7=Douglas H.|last8=Hardy|first8=Christopher R.|last9=Michelangeli|first9=Fabian A.|last10=Simmons|first10=Mark P.|last11=Specht|first11=Chelsea D.|last12=Vergara-Silva|first12=Francisco|last13=Gandolfo|first13=María|title=A Phylogeny of the Monocots, as Inferred from ''rbcL'' and ''atpA'' Sequence Variation, and a Comparison of Methods for Calculating Jackknife and Bootstrap Values|url=http://spechtlab.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/spechtlab/publications/11%20Davis%20et%20al%202004.pdf|journal=Systematic Botany|date=1 July 2004|volume=29|issue=3|pages=467–510|doi=10.1600/0363644041744365|s2cid=13108898|ref={{harvid|Davis et al|2004}}|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121800/https://spechtlab.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/spechtlab/publications/11%20Davis%20et%20al%202004.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Du|first1=Zhi-Yuan|last2=Wang|first2=Qing-Feng|title=Phylogenetic tree of vascular plants reveals the origins of aquatic angiosperms|journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution|date=July 2016|volume=54|issue=4|pages=342–348|doi=10.1111/jse.12182|s2cid=83881036|ref={{harvid|Du et al|2016}}|doi-access=free}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Soltis|first1=D. E.|author-link1=Douglas E. Soltis|last2=Smith|first2=S. A.|last3=Cellinese|first3=N.|last4=Wurdack|first4=K. J.|last5=Tank|first5=D. C.|last6=Brockington|first6=S. F.|last7=Refulio-Rodriguez|first7=N. F.|last8=Walker|first8=J. B.|last9=Moore|first9=M. J.|last10=Carlsward|first10=B. S.|last11=Bell|first11=C. D.|last12=Latvis|first12=M.|last13=Crawley|first13=S.|last14=Black|first14=C.|last15=Diouf|first15=D.|last16=Xi|first16=Z.|last17=Rushworth|first17=C. A.|last18=Gitzendanner|first18=M. A.|last19=Sytsma|first19=K. J.|last20=Qiu|first20=Y.-L.|last21=Hilu|first21=K. W.|last22=Davis|first22=C. C.|last23=Sanderson|first23=M. J.|last24=Beaman|first24=R. S.|last25=Olmstead|first25=R. G.|last26=Judd|first26=W. S.|last27=Donoghue|first27=M. J.|last28=Soltis|first28=P. S.|author-link28=Pamela S. Soltis|title=Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa|journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|date=8 April 2011|volume=98|issue=4|pages=704–730|doi=10.3732/ajb.1000404|pmid=21613169|hdl=2027.42/142064|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Soltis|first1=Pamela S|last2=Soltis|first2=Douglas E|author-link1=Pamela Soltis|author-link2=Douglas Soltis|title=Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms|journal=[[Current Opinion in Plant Biology]]|date=April 2016|volume=30|pages=159–165|doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015|pmid=27064530|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016COPB...30..159S }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Trias-Blasi|first1=Anna|last2=Baker|first2=William J.|last3=Haigh|first3=Anna L.|last4=Simpson|first4=David A.|last5=Weber|first5=Odile|last6=Wilkin|first6=Paul|title=A genus-level phylogenetic linear sequence of monocots|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|date=25 June 2015|volume=64|issue=3|pages=552–581|doi=10.12705/643.9|s2cid=91678240}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Zeng|first1=Liping|last2=Zhang|first2=Qiang|last3=Sun|first3=Renran|last4=Kong|first4=Hongzhi|last5=Zhang|first5=Ning|last6=Ma|first6=Hong|title=Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times|journal=[[Nature Communications]]|date=24 September 2014|volume=5|issue=4956|pages=4956|doi=10.1038/ncomms5956|pmid=25249442|ref={{harvid|Zeng et al|2014}}|pmc=4200517|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4956Z}}

==== APG ====
* {{cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|title=An ordinal classification for the families of flowering plants |journal=[[Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden]] |year=1998 |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=531–553 |jstor=2992015 |doi=10.2307/2992015|s2cid=82134384|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/2234 }}
* {{cite journal |last=APG II |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|title=An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group Classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |year=2003 |volume=141 |issue=4 |pages=399–436 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x |doi-access= }}
* {{cite journal |last = APG III |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|title=An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |year = 2009 |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x|doi-access=free |hdl=10654/18083 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last = APG IV |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV |year=2016 |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1111/boj.12385 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Chase|first1=Mark W|last2=Reveal|first2=James L|author-link1=Mark W Chase|author-link2=James L Reveal|title=A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III|journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]|date=2009|volume=161|issue=2|pages=122–127|url=http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/downloads/APG2.pdf|access-date=21 April 2015|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Haston|first1=Elspeth |last2=Richardson |first2=James E. |last3=Stevens |first3=Peter F. |last4=Chase |first4=Mark W. |last5=Harris |first5=David J. |author-link3=Peter F Stevens|author-link4=Mark W Chase|title=The Linear Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (LAPG) III: a linear sequence of the families in APG III |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |year=2009 |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=128–131 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01000.x |ref={{harvid|LAPGIII|2009}}|doi-access=free }}

=== Websites and databases ===

* {{cite web|last1=Hahn|first1=William J.|title=Monocotyledons|url=http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Monocotyledons&contgroup=Euangiosperms|publisher=Tree of Life web project|access-date=6 February 2017|date=1997}}
* {{citation|last=Stevens|first=P.F.|author-link=Peter F. Stevens|date=2015|orig-year=2001|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|publisher=[[Missouri Botanical Garden]]|url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/APWeb/orders/acoralesweb.htm#Monocots|access-date=31 January 2017}} (''see also'' [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]])
* {{cite web|last1=Givnish|first1=Thomas|author-link=Thomas J. Givnish|title=Assembling the phylogeny of the monocots|url=http://www.botany.wisc.edu/monatol/welcome.htm|website=Monocot AToL Project|publisher=Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin|access-date=1 March 2017|location=Madison|archive-date=14 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060914144837/http://www.botany.wisc.edu/monatol/welcome.htm|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|last=CoL|author-link=Catalogue of Life|title=Catalogue of Life|url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org|publisher=[[ITIS]]|access-date=6 February 2017|date=2015}}
* {{cite web|last=IUCN|author-link=IUCN|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/|publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]|access-date=6 February 2017|date=2016}}
* {{cite web|title=National Botanic Gardens of Ireland|url=http://www.botanicgardens.ie/|access-date=19 January 2016|date=2016|ref={{harvid|NBGI|2016}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Tropicos|url=http://www.tropicos.org/Home.aspx|publisher=[[Missouri Botanical Garden]]|access-date=30 December 2015|date=2015|ref={{harvid|Tropicos|2015}}}}
* {{cite web|title=Class: Monocotyledoneae - Monocot|url=http://www.plantlifeforms.com/Classes128/MONOCOT_MONOCOTYLEDONEAE_503902_128.aspx|website=Plant Life Forms|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=13 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113173134/http://www.plantlifeforms.com/Classes128/MONOCOT_MONOCOTYLEDONEAE_503902_128.aspx|url-status=usurped}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Monocots}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Monocots}}

{{Monocotyledons}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q78961}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Monocots| ]]
[[Category:Plant unranked clades]]
[[Category:Early Cretaceous plants]]
[[Category:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances]]