Editing Min Chinese

{{short description|Primary branch of Sinitic spoken in southern China and Taiwan}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Min
| altname       = {{lang|zh-Hant|閩}} / {{lang|zh-Hans|闽}}
| region        = [[China]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Southeast Asia]]
| ethnicity     = [[Min Chinese speakers|Min Chinese]]
| familycolor   = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2          = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3          = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]{{efn|name=minClassification|Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.{{sfnp|Mei|1970|p=90}}{{sfnp|Pulleyblank|1984|p=3}}}}
| speakers         = 75 million
| ref              = {{sfnp|Xiong|Zhang|2012|p=110}}
| date             = 2012
| protoname     = [[Proto-Min]]
| child1        = '''[[#Coastal Min|Coastal Min]]''': [[Eastern Min]], [[Hainanese]], [[Leizhou Min]], [[Pu-Xian Min]], [[Southern Min]]
| child2        = '''[[#Inland Min|Inland Min]]''': [[Central Min]], [[Northern Min]], [[Shao-Jiang Min]]
| iso6          = mclr
| lingua        = 79-AAA-h to 79-AAA-l
| glotto        = minn1248
| glottorefname = Min
| map           = Idioma min.png
| mapcaption    = Distribution of Min languages in mainland China and Taiwan{{image reference needed|date=November 2022}}
| module        = 
{{Infobox Chinese|child=yes|headercolor=
 {{Infobox language/family-color|Sino-Tibetan}}
 |order=st|t=閩語|s=闽语|poj=Bân-gú / Bân-gír / Bân-gí|teo=Mang7 ghe2|buc=Mìng ngṳ̄|hhbuc=Máng-gṳ̂|mblmc=Mâing-ngṳ̌|p=Mǐn Yǔ|w={{tone superscript|Min3 Yü3|bpmf=ㄇㄧㄣˇ ㄩˇ|mi={{IPAc-cmn|m|in|3|-|yu|3}}|showflag=poj
 }}
}}
| glottoname    = 
| notes         = 
}}

'''Min''' ({{lang-zh|t={{linktext|閩|語}}|s=闽语|p=Mǐnyǔ|poj=Bân-gú / Bân-gír / Bân-gí}}; [[Bàng-uâ-cê|BUC]]: ''Mìng-ngṳ̄'') is a broad group of [[Sinitic languages]] with about 75 million native speakers. These languages are spoken in [[Fujian province]] and [[Chaoshan]], as well as by the descendants of Min-speaking colonists on the [[Leizhou Peninsula]], [[Hainan]], parts of [[Zhongshan]], three counties in southern [[Wenzhou]], the [[Zhoushan archipelago]], [[Taiwan]]{{sfnp|Xiong|Zhang|2012|p=110}} and scattered in pockets or sporadically across [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and several countries in [[Southeast Asia]], particularly [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Brunei]]. The name is derived from the [[Min River (Fujian)|Min River]] in Fujian, which is also the abbreviated name of Fujian Province. Min varieties are not [[mutually intelligible]] with one another nor with any other variety of Chinese (such as [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Cantonese]], [[Wu Chinese|Wu]], [[Gan Chinese|Gan]], [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]], or [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]).

There are many Min speakers among [[overseas Chinese]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. The most widely spoken variety of Min outside of mainland China is [[Hokkien]], a variety of [[Southern Min]] which has its origin in southern Fujian. [[Amoy dialect|Amoy Hokkien]] is the [[prestige dialect]] of Hokkien in Fujian, while a majority of Taiwanese speak a dialect called [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] or simply Taiwanese. The majority of [[Chinese Singaporeans]], [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese Malaysians]], [[Chinese Filipino]]s, [[Chinese Indonesians]], [[Thai Chinese|Chinese Thais]], and [[Chinese Cambodians]] are of Southern Min-speaking background (particularly [[Hokkien]] and/or [[Teochew language|Teochew]]), although the rise of Mandarin has led to a decline in the use of Min Chinese. Communities speaking [[Eastern Min]], [[Pu-Xian Min]], [[Haklau Min]], [[Leizhou Min]], and [[Hainanese]] can also be found in parts of the Chinese diaspora, such as in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.

Many Min languages have retained notable features of [[Old Chinese|the Old Chinese language]], and there is linguistic evidence that not all Min varieties are directly descended from [[Middle Chinese]] of the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties. The Min languages are believed to have a significant [[linguistic substrate]] from the [[Old Yue language|languages of the inhabitants of the region]] before its [[sinicization]].

==History==
The Min homeland of Fujian was opened to Han Chinese settlement by the defeat of the [[Minyue]] state by the armies of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] in 110&nbsp;BC.{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=328}}
The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the [[South China Sea]].
Most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the [[Xiang River|Xiang]] and [[Gan River|Gan]] rivers to the west, so that Min varieties have experienced less northern influence than other southern groups.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=210, 228}}
As a result, whereas most [[varieties of Chinese]] can be treated as derived from [[Middle Chinese]]—the language described by [[Rhyme dictionary|rhyme dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Qieyun]]'' (601 AD)—Min varieties contain traces of older distinctions.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=228–229}}
Linguists estimate that the oldest layers of Min dialects diverged from the rest of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].{{sfnp|Ting|1983|pp=9–10}}{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=33, 79}}
However, significant waves of migration from the [[North China Plain]] occurred:{{sfnp|Yan|2006|p=120}}
* The [[Upheaval of the Five Barbarians]] during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]], particularly the [[Disaster of Yongjia]] in 311&nbsp;AD, caused a tide of immigration to the south.
* In 669, [[Chen Zheng (Tang dynasty)|Chen Zheng]] and his son [[Tan Goan-kong|Chen Yuanguang]] from [[Gushi County]] in [[Henan]] set up a regional administration in [[Fujian]] to suppress an insurrection by the [[She people]].
* [[Wang Chao (Tang dynasty)|Wang Chao]] was appointed governor of Fujian in 893, near the end of the [[Tang dynasty]], and brought tens of thousands of troops from [[Henan]]. In 909, following the fall of the Tang dynasty, his son [[Wang Shenzhi]] founded the [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]], one of the [[Ten Kingdoms]] in the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]].
[[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties:
# A non-Chinese substratum from the [[Old Yue language|original languages of Minyue]], which Norman and [[Mei Tsu-lin]] believe were [[Austroasiatic]].{{sfnp|Norman|Mei|1976}}{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=331–332}}
# The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from [[Zhejiang]] to the north during the Han dynasty{{sfnp|Norman|1991|pp=334–336}} (compare [[Eastern Han Chinese]]).
# A layer from the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] period, which is largely consistent with the phonology of the ''Qieyun'' dictionary{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=336}} ([[Middle Chinese|Early Middle Chinese]]).
# A [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary layer]] based on the [[koiné language|koiné]] of [[Chang'an]], the capital of the [[Tang dynasty]]{{sfnp|Norman|1991|p=337}} (Late Middle Chinese).
Laurent Sagart (2008) disagrees with Norman and Mei Tsu-lin's analysis of an Austroasiatic substratum in Min.<ref name="Sagart">{{cite book
| title = Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics
| editor1-first = Alicia | editor1-last = Sanchez-Mazas
| editor2-first = Roger | editor2-last = Blench
| editor3-first = Malcolm D. | editor3-last = Ross
| editor4-first = Ilia | editor4-last = Peiros
| editor5-first = Marie | editor5-last = Lin
| publisher = Routledge | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-415-39923-4
| chapter = The expansion of ''Setaria'' farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archeological model
| first = Larent | last = Sagart
| pages = 141–143
| chapter-url = https://www.academia.edu/3077307
| quote = In conclusion, there is no convincing evidence, linguistic or other, of an early Austroasiatic presence on the south‑east China coast.
}}</ref> The hypothesis proposed by Jerry Norman and Mei Tsu-lin arguing for an Austroasiatic homeland along the middle Yangtze has been largely abandoned in most circles and left unsupported by the majority of Austroasiatic specialists.<ref>Chamberlain, James R. (2016). "[https://www.academia.edu/26296118/Kra-Dai_and_the_Proto-History_of_South_China_and_Vietnam Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam]", p. 30. In ''Journal of the Siam Society'', Vol. 104, 2016.</ref> Rather, recent movements of analyzing archeological evidence, posit an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] layer, rather than an [[Austroasiatic]] one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Jonas Chung-yu |title=[ARCHAEOLOGY IN CHINA AND TAIWAN] Sea nomads in prehistory on the southeast coast of China |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=24 January 2008 |volume=22 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v22i0.11805 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |url=http://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/view/11805/10433}}</ref>

==Geographic location and subgrouping==
[[File:Min dialect map.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.75|Min dialect groups according to the ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'':{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#af8f4f|[[Shao-Jiang Min|Shao-Jiang]]}}
{{legend|#df5f5f|[[Northern Min|Northern]]}}
{{legend|#ffb200|[[Central Min|Central]]}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#96c83c|[[Eastern Min|Eastern]]}}
{{legend|#3fdebf|[[Pu-Xian Min|Pu-Xian]]}}
{{legend|#7fbfff|[[Southern Min|Southern]]}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#6060e0|[[Leizhou Min|Leizhou]]}}
{{legend|#9f60e0|[[Hainanese|Hainan]]}}
{{col-end}}]]
{{Pie chart
|caption=Min languages by number of native speakers (as of 2004)<ref name="langatlas2">{{citation
  | title = Language atlas of China (2nd edition)
  | publisher = [[City University of Hong Kong]] | year = 2012
  | isbn = 978-7-10-007054-6
  | postscript = .
  }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2024}}
|thumb = right
|value1 = 41.6
|label1 = [[Hokkien]]
|color1 = #7fbfff
|value2 = 19.5
|label2 = [[Chaoshan Min|Teochew]] (incl. [[Haklau Min|Haklau]])
|color2 = RoyalBlue
|value3 = 13.9
|label3 = [[Eastern Min]]
|color3 = #96c83c
|value4 = 9.4
|label4 = [[Hainanese]]
|color4 = #9f60e0
|value5 = 6.2
|label5 = [[Leizhou Min]]
|color5 = #6060e0
|value6 = 3.5
|label6 = [[Pu-Xian Min]]
|color6 = #3fdebf
|value7 = 3.5
|label7 = [[Northern Min]]
|color7 = #df5f5f
|value8 = 1.2
|label8 = [[Shao-Jiang Min]]
|color8 = #af8f4f
|value9 = 0.9
|label9 = [[Central Min]]
|color9 = #ffb200
|value10 = 0.3
|label10 = [[Datian Min]]
|color10 = DeepSkyBlue
}}
Min is usually described as one of seven or ten groups of [[varieties of Chinese]] but has greater dialectal diversity than any of the other groups. The varieties used in neighbouring counties, and in the mountains of western Fujian even in adjacent villages, are often mutually unintelligible.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=188}}

Early classifications, such as those of [[Li Fang-Kuei]] in 1937 and [[Yuan Jiahua]] in 1960, divided Min into Northern and Southern subgroups.{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=49}}{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=233}}
However, in a 1963 report on a survey of Fujian, Pan Maoding and colleagues argued that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. A key discriminator between the two groups is a group of words that have a [[lateral consonant|lateral]] initial {{IPA|/l/}} in coastal varieties, and a voiceless fricative {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in inland varieties, contrasting with another group having {{IPA|/l/}} in both areas. Norman reconstructs these initials in [[Proto-Min]] as voiceless and voiced laterals that merged in coastal varieties.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=233}}{{sfnp|Branner|2000|pp=98–100}}

===Coastal Min===
The coastal varieties have the vast majority of speakers, and have spread from their homeland in Fujian and eastern Guangdong to the islands of [[Taiwan]] and [[Hainan]], to other coastal areas of southern China, and to Southeast Asia.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=232–233}}
Pan and colleagues divided them into three groups:{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=52}}
* [[Eastern Min]] (Min Dong), centered around the city of [[Fuzhou]], the capital of Fujian province, with [[Fuzhou dialect]] as the prestige form, also including the [[Fuqing dialect]], etc.
** The [[Longdu dialect|Longdu]] and [[Nanlang dialect]] of [[Zhongshan Min]] in Guangdong province<ref name="Minnan" />
* [[Pu-Xian Min]] is spoken in the city of [[Putian]] and the county of [[Xianyou County]]. Li Rulong and Chen Zhangtai examined 214 words, finding 62% shared with [[Quanzhou dialect]] (Southern Min) and 39% shared with Fuzhou dialect (Eastern Min), and concluded that Pu-Xian was more closely related to Southern Min.{{sfnp|Li|Chen|1991}}
* [[Southern Min]] (Min Nan) originates from the south of Fujian and the eastern corner of Guangdong. 
** In popular usage, Southern Min usually refers to dialects of the [[Hokkien|Quanzhang]] type, which originated in southern Fujian (around [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]] and [[Xiamen]]) and spread to [[Southeast Asia]], particularly [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], [[Brunei]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], and [[Southern Vietnam]], where they are known as Hokkien, and [[Taiwan]], where they are known as [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=232–233}} 
** The dialects of the [[Chaoshan|Teoswa / Chaoshan]] region of eastern Guangdong, including [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and [[Swatow dialect]]s, have difficult mutual intelligibility with the [[Amoy dialect]] of [[Hokkien]].{{sfnp|Simons|Fennig|2017|loc=Chinese, Min Nan}} Teochew varieties are the most commonly spoken by [[Thai Chinese]]{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=233}} and [[Chinese Cambodians]], and second-most common among [[Hoa people|Hoa]] [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]].
** [[Zhenan Min]] of [[Cangnan County]] in southern [[Zhejiang]] is also of this type.{{sfnp|Zhang|1987}} 
** [[Haklau Min|Haklau Min (Hai Lok Hong / Hailufeng)]] spoken in eastern Guangdong to the west of Teoswa ([[Chaoshan Min]]). 
** [[Datian Min]] of [[Datian County]] in [[Sanming]], [[Fujian]] 
** Potentially, also the [[Sanxiang dialect]] of [[Zhongshan Min]] in Guangdong province<ref name="Minnan">{{Cite web |title=Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf |archive-date=2021-09-19}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=December 2023}} 
The ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'' (1987) distinguished two further groups, which had previously been included in Southern Min:{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=71}}
* [[Leizhou Min]], spoken on the [[Leizhou Peninsula]] in southwestern Guangdong.
* [[Hainanese]], spoken on the island of Hainan. These dialects feature drastic changes to initial consonants, including a series of [[implosive consonant]]s, that have been attributed to contact with the [[Tai–Kadai languages]] spoken on the island.{{sfnp|Lien|2015|p=169}}
Coastal varieties feature some uniquely Min vocabulary, including pronouns and negatives.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=233–234}}
All but the Hainan dialects have complex [[tone sandhi]] systems.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=239}}

===Inland Min===
Although they have far fewer speakers, the inland varieties show much greater variation than the coastal ones.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=234–235}}
Pan and colleagues divided the inland varieties into two groups:{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=52}}
* [[Northern Min]] (Min Bei) is spoken in [[Nanping]] prefecture in Fujian, with [[Jian'ou dialect]] taken as typical.
* [[Central Min]] (Min Zhong), spoken in [[Sanming]] prefecture.
The ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'' (1987) included a further group:{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|p=71}}
* [[Shao-Jiang Min]], spoken in the northwestern Fujian counties of [[Shaowu]] and [[Jiangle County|Jiangle]], were classified as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] by Pan and his associates.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=233}} However, [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] suggested that they were inland varieties of Min that had been subject to heavy [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] or Hakka influence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=235, 241}}

Although coastal varieties can be derived from a [[proto-language]] with four series of stops or affricates at each point of articulation (e.g. {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/dʱ/}}), inland varieties contain traces of two further series, which Norman termed "softened stops" due to their reflexes in some varieties.{{sfnp|Norman|1973}}{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=228–230}}{{sfnp|Branner|2000|pp=100–104}} Inland varieties use pronouns and negatives cognate with those in Hakka and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=233–234}} Inland varieties have little or no tone sandhi.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=239}}

==Vocabulary==
Most Min vocabulary corresponds directly to cognates in other Chinese varieties, but there are also a significant number of distinctively Min words that may be traced back to proto-Min.
In some cases a semantic shift has occurred in Min or the rest of Chinese:

* *tiaŋ<sup>B</sup> 鼎 "wok". The Min form preserves the original meaning "cooking pot", but in other Chinese varieties this word (MC {{tlit|zh|tengX}} > ''dǐng'') has become specialized to refer to [[Ding (vessel)|ancient ceremonial tripods]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=231}}
* *dzhən<sup>A</sup> "rice field". In Min, this form has displaced the common Chinese term ''tián'' 田.{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=58}}{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=231–232}} Many scholars identify the Min word with ''chéng'' 塍 (MC {{tlit|zh|zying}}) "raised path between fields", but Norman argues that it is cognate with ''céng'' 層 (MC ''dzong'') "additional layer or floor", reflecting the [[terrace (agriculture)|terrace]]d fields commonly found in Fujian.{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|pp=59–60}}
* *tšhio<sup>C</sup> 厝 "house".{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=47}} Norman argues that the Min word is cognate with ''shù'' 戍 (MC syuH) "to guard".{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=232}}{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|p=33}}
* *tshyi<sup>C</sup> 喙 "mouth". In Min this form has displaced the common Chinese term ''kǒu'' 口.{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=41}} It is believed to be cognate with ''huì'' 喙 (MC ''xjwojH'') "beak, bill, snout; to pant".{{sfnp|Baxter|Sagart|2014|p=33}}

Norman and Mei Tsu-lin have suggested an Austroasiatic origin for some Min words:

* *-dəŋ<sup>A</sup> "shaman" may be compared with [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ''đồng'' (/ɗoŋ<sup>2</sup>/) "to shamanize, to communicate with spirits" and [[Mon language|Mon]] doŋ "to dance (as if) under demonic possession".{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=18–19}}{{sfnp|Norman|Mei|1976|pp=296–297}}
* *kiɑn<sup>B</sup> 囝 "son" appears to be related to Vietnamese ''con'' (/kɔn/) and Mon kon "child".{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=63}}{{sfnp|Norman|Mei|1976|pp=297–298}}

However, Norman and Mei Tsu-lin's suggestion is rejected by Laurent Sagart (2008),<ref name="Sagart" /> with some linguists arguing that the Austroasiatic predecessor of the modern Vietnamese language originated in the mountainous region in Central Laos and Vietnam, rather than in the region north of the [[Red River delta]].<ref name="Chamberlain">Chamberlain, J.R. 1998, "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/chamberlain1998origin.pdf The origin of Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history]", in The International Conference on Tai Studies, ed. S. Burusphat, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 97-128. Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University.</ref>

In other cases, the origin of the Min word is obscure. Such words include:
* *khau<sup>A</sup> 骹 "foot"{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=44}}
* *-tsiɑm<sup>B</sup> 䭕 "insipid"{{sfnp|Norman|1981|p=56}}
* *dzyŋ<sup>C</sup> 𧚔 "to wear"{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=232}}

==Writing system==
{{see also|Bàng-uâ-cê|Written Hokkien|Peng'im}}
When using [[Chinese characters]] to write a non-Mandarin form, a common practice is to use characters that correspond etymologically to the words being represented, and for words with no evident etymology, to either invent new characters or borrow characters for their sound or meaning.<ref name="kloeter">{{cite book|last=Klöter|first=Henning|title=Written Taiwanese|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2005|isbn=978-3-447-05093-7 }}</ref> [[Written Cantonese]] has carried this process out to the farthest extent of any non-Mandarin variety, to the extent that pure Cantonese vernacular can be unambiguously written using Chinese characters. Contrary to popular belief, a vernacular written in this fashion is not in general comprehensible to a Mandarin speaker, due to significant changes in grammar and vocabulary and the necessary use of a large number of non-Mandarin characters.

For most Min varieties, a similar process has not taken place. For Hokkien, competing systems exist.<ref name="kloeter"/> Given that Min combines the Chinese of several different periods and contains some non-Chinese substrate vocabulary, an author literate in Mandarin (or even Classical Chinese) may have trouble finding the appropriate Chinese characters for some Min vocabulary. In the case of [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]], there are also indigenous words borrowed from [[Formosan languages]] (particularly for place names), as well as a substantial number of loan words from [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. The Min ([[Hokkien]], [[Chaoshan Min|Teochew]], [[Hainanese]], [[Luichow Chinese|Luichow]], [[Pu–Xian Min|Hinghwa]], [[Fuzhou dialect|Hokchew]], [[Fuqing dialect|Hokchia]], [[Haklau Min|Haklau / Hai Lok Hong]]) spoken in Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia has borrowed heavily from [[Malay language|Malay]] (or [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] for Indonesia) and, to a lesser extent, from [[Singapore English|Singaporean]] or [[Malaysian English|Malaysian]] [[English language|English]] and other languages. Meanwhile, the [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] spoken in the Philippines has also borrowed a few terms from [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]), and [[Philippine English|English]] over the recent centuries. In [[Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien]], spoken in [[Kelantan]] state of Malaysia to [[Pattani province]] of [[Thailand]], a mix of [[Southern Thai language|Southern Thai]] and [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay|Kelantan Malay]] is also used with the local Kelantan Hokkien of [[Peranakans]] and [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese Malaysians]] in Northern [[Peninsular Malaysia|Malaya]]. The result is that adapting Chinese characters to write Min requires a substantial effort to choose characters for a significant portion of the vocabulary.

Other approaches to writing Min rely on [[romanization]] or phonetic systems such as [[Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols]] or historically during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule over Taiwan]], [[Taiwanese kana]] was also used for Taiwanese Hokkien in some Taiwanese-Japanese dictionaries made during that time. Since 1987, [[Taiwanese Hangul]] also exists for Taiwanese Hokkien. Some Min speakers use the Church Romanization ({{lang-zh|t=教會羅馬字|s=教会罗马字|p=Jiàohuì Luómǎzì|poj=Kàu-hoē Lô-má-jī}}). For [[Hokkien]] the romanization is called [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]] (POJ). For [[Fuzhou dialect|Fuzhounese]] it is called [[Foochow Romanized]] (''Bàng-uâ-cê'', BUC). For the [[Putian dialect]] it is called [[Hinghwa Romanized]] (''Hing-hua̍ Báⁿ-uā-ci̍''). For the [[Jian'ou dialect]] it is called [[Kienning Colloquial Romanized]] ''(Gṳ̿ing-nǎing Lô̤-mǎ-cī''). For [[Hainanese]] it is called [[Bǽh-oe-tu]] (BOT). These systems were developed by [[British Empire|British]], [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Irish]], [[Danish Realm|Danish]], and [[United States|American]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christians|Christian]] [[Missionary|missionaries]] over the course of the 19th century. In 2006, [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|Tâi-lô]] (''Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn'') which was derived from [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]] (POJ) was officially promoted by [[Taiwan]]'s [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]] (MOE). Some publications use mixed writing, with mostly Chinese characters but using the [[Latin alphabet]] to represent words that cannot easily be represented by Chinese characters. In Taiwan, a mix of [[Chinese characters]] and [[Latin script|Latin letters]] written in [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]] (POJ) or [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|Tâi-lô]] has recently been practiced. In Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, some also occasionally write Hokkien and/or Teochew using [[Latin script|Latin letters]] via [[Ad hoc|ad-hoc]] means using the writer's knowledge of the local mainstream [[orthography]] they grew up being literate in, such as [[Singapore English|Singaporean]] or [[Malaysian English|Malaysian]] [[English orthography]] (descended from [[British English]]), [[Malay orthography]] / [[Indonesian orthography]], [[Pinyin|Mandarin Pinyin]] for those in Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia, then [[Philippine English|Philippine]] [[English orthography]] (descended from [[American English]]), [[Filipino orthography]], [[Pinyin|Mandarin Pinyin]], and sometimes [[Spanish orthography]] (for older writings), for those in the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

== See also ==
* [[Chinese in New York City]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{citation |last=Mei |first=Tsu-lin |title=Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |year=1970 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}
* {{citation |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |year=1984 |location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8}}
* {{citation
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  | year = 2014
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | given = Nicholas C. | surname = Bodman | author-link = Nicholas Bodman
  | pages = 2–20 | jstor = 20006706
  | title = For Gordon H. Fairbanks
  | editor-given1 = Veneeta | editor-surname1 = Acson
  | editor-given2 = Richard L. | editor-surname2 = Leed
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  | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1985 | isbn = 978-0-8248-0992-8
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | title = Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology—the Classification of Miin and Hakka
  | series = Trends in Linguistics series | volume = 123
  | publisher= Mouton de Gruyter | location = Berlin | year = 2000
  | isbn = 978-3-11-015831-1
  | url = https://brannerchinese.com/publications/Branner_Classification_book_1_TextOnly.pdf
  | postscript=. 
  }}
* {{citation
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  | publisher = University of California, Berkeley | type = Ph.D. | year = 1986
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | isbn = 978-3-11-021914-2
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
  | chapter = Lùn Mǐn fāngyán nèibù de zhǔyào chāyì
  | script-chapter=zh:论闽方言内部的主要差异
  | trans-chapter = On the main differences between Min dialects
  | surname1 = Li | given1 = Rulong 李如龙
  | surname2 = Chen | given2 = Zhangtai 陈章太
  | pages = 58–138
  | title = Mǐnyǔ yánjiū
  | script-title=zh:闽语硏究
  | trans-title = Studies on the Min dialects
  | editor-surname1 = Chen | editor-given1 = Zhangtai
  | editor-surname2 = Li | editor-given2 = Rulong
  | location = Beijing | publisher = Yuwen Chubanshe | year = 1991
  | isbn = 978-7-80006-309-1
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | given = Chinfa | surname = Lien
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  | editor-given1 = William S.-Y. | editor-surname1 = Wang
  | editor-given2 = Chaofen | editor-surname2 = Sun
  | pages = 160–172
  | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2015
  | isbn = 978-0-19-985633-6
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-link = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
  | journal = Journal of Chinese Linguistics | year = 1973
  | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 222–238 | jstor = 23749795
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | pages = 35–73
  | script-title = zh:第一屆國際漢學會議論文集：語言與文字組
  | title = Dì yī jiè guójì hànxué huìyì lùnwén jí: Yǔyán yǔ wénzì zǔ
  | trans-title = Proceedings of the First International Conference on Sinology (Section on Linguistics and Paleography)
  | location = Taipei | publisher = Academia Sinica | year = 1981
  | url = https://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/item/zh-tw?act=publish_book&code=view&bookID=131
  | oclc = 9522150
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* {{citation
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  | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988
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* {{citation
  | contribution = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
  | given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-mask = 3
  | title = Languages and Dialects of China
  | editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
  | pages = 325–360
  | series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
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  | issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
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* {{citation
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  | editor-given1 = Graham | editor-surname1 = Thurgood
  | editor-given2 = Randy J.| editor-surname2 = LaPolla
  | title = The Sino-Tibetan languages
  | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003
  | isbn = 978-0-7007-1129-1
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
  | title = The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence
  | given1 = Jerry | surname1 = Norman | author-link1 = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
  | given2 = Tsu-lin | surname2 = Mei
  | journal = Monumenta Serica | year = 1976 | volume = 32 | pages = 274–301
  | doi = 10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121 | url = http://tlmei.com/tm17web/1976a_austroasiatics.pdf
  | jstor = 40726203
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  }}
* {{citation
  | editor1-given = Gary F. | editor1-surname = Simons
  | editor2-given = Charles D. | editor2-surname = Fennig
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  | location = Dallas, Texas | publisher = SIL International | edition = 20th | year = 2017
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* {{citation
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  | title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
  | journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
  | year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
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* {{citation
  | title = Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí: Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn
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  | editor1-surname = Xiong | editor1-given = Zhenghui
  | editor2-surname = Zhang | editor2-given = Zhenxing
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* {{citation
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  | editor-given1 = Graham | editor-surname1 = Thurgood
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  | title = The Sino-Tibetan languages
  | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003
  | isbn = 978-0-7007-1129-1
  | postscript = .
  }}
* {{citation
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  | surname = Zhang | given = Zhenxing
  | translator-surname = Lee | translator-given = Mei W.
  | editor-surname1 = Wurm | editor-given1 = Stephen Adolphe | editor-link1 = Stephen Wurm
  | editor-surname2 = Li | editor-given2 = Rong | editor-link2 = Li Rong (linguist)
  | editor-surname3 = Baumann | editor-given3 = Theo
  | editor-surname4 = Lee | editor-given4 = Mei W.
  | title = [[Language Atlas of China]]
  | publisher = Longman | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-962-359-085-3
  | postscript = .
  }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{InterWiki|code=nan}}
{{interWiki|code=cdo}}
* [[Marc Miyake|Miyake, Marc]] (2012). [http://www.amritas.com/120721.htm Jerry Norman's "Three Min etymologies" (1984) revisited].

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Chinese language}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Languages of China}}
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[[Category:Min Chinese| ]]
[[Category:Chinese languages in Singapore]]
[[Category:Varieties of Chinese]]