Editing Mass killing

{{short description|Proposed concept for incidents of non-combat killing by a government or state}}
{{about|the concept by scholars of incidents of killing by government or state|multiple killings committed by an individual or group|Mass murder|other multiple killings by government or state|Homicide by state actors}}
{{homicide}}
'''Mass killing''' is a concept which has been proposed by [[genocide scholars]] who wish to define incidents of non-combat killing which are perpetrated by a [[government]] or a [[State (polity)|state]]. A mass killing is commonly defined as the killing of group members without the intention to eliminate the whole group,{{sfn|Staub|1989|p=8|ps=: "Mass killing means killing members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group or killing large numbers of people without a precise definition of group membership."}} or otherwise the killing of large numbers of people without a clear group membership.{{sfn|Staub|2011|p=100|ps=: "In contrast to genocide, I see mass killing as 'killing (or in other ways destroying) members of a group without the intention to eliminate the whole group, or killing large numbers of people' without a focus on group membership."}}

''Mass killing'' is used by a number of genocide scholars because ''[[genocide]]'' (its strict definition) does not cover mass killing events in which no specific ethnic or religious groups are targeted, or events in which perpetrators do not intend to eliminate whole groups or significant parts of them. Genocide scholars use different models in order to explain and predict the onset of mass killing events. There has been little consensus{{sfn|Krain|1997<!-- |pp=331–332 -->}} and no generally-accepted terminology,{{sfn|Valentino|2004<!-- |p=6|ps=: "No generally accepted terminology exists to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants." -->}} prompting scholars, such as [[Anton Weiss-Wendt]],{{sfn|Stone|2008|p=2}} to describe comparative attempts a failure.{{sfn|Weiss-Wendt|2008<!-- |p=42 -->}} Genocide scholarship rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals.{{sfn|Verdeja|2012|<!-- |p=307 -->}}

== Terminology ==
Several different terms are used to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants,{{sfn|Stone|2008|p=2}} but there is no consensus or generally-accepted terminology.{{sfn|Krain|1997|pp=331–332|ps=: "The literatures on state-sponsored mass murder and state terrorism have been plagued by definitional problems."}}{{sfn|Valentino|2004|p=6|ps=: "No generally accepted terminology exists to describe the intentional killing of large numbers of noncombatants."}}{{sfn|Weiss-Wendt|2008|p=42|ps=: "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe.<!-- Considering that scholars have always put stress on prevention of genocide, comparative genocide studies have been a failure. Paradoxically, nobody has attempted so far to assess the field of comparative genocide studies as a whole. This is one of the reasons why those who define themselves as genocide scholars have not been able to detect the situation of crisis. -->"}}{{sfn|Verdeja|2012|p=307|ps=:<!-- "This new generation of scholarship has crystallized into the interdisciplinary field of 'genocide studies,' a community of scholars and practitioners dedicated to researching and preventing genocide. However, genocide studies has emerged as its own research field, developing in parallel rather than in conversation with work on other areas of political violence. Aside from a few important exceptions, mainstream political scientists rarely engage with the most recent work on comparative genocide. Some of the newest genocide research appears in topic-specific conferences and journals like 'Genocide Studies and Prevention' and the 'Journal of Genocide Research', but not in political science venues. The reasons for this separation are complex, but partly stem from the field's roots in the humanities (especially history) and reliance on methodological approaches that have had little resonance in mainstream political science, as well as the field's explicit commitment to humanitarian activism and praxis. Earlier generations of political scientists and sociologists who studied genocide often found little interest for their work among dominant political science journals and book publishers; they instead opted to establish their own journals and professional organizations. --> "Although the field has grown enormously over the past decade and a half, genocide scholarship still rarely appears in mainstream disciplinary journals."}} ''Mass killing'' has emerged as a "more straightforward" term than ''genocide'' or ''politicide''.{{sfn|Ott|2011|p=53|ps=: "As is customary in the literature on mass killing of civilians there is a need to restate here what mass killing is about. Although many definitions have been used — 'genocide', 'politicide' and 'democide' — there has emerged a sort of consensus that the term 'mass killing' is much more straightforward than either genocide or politicide.<!-- Harff (2003) makes a clear distinction from genocide, often used interchangeably with mass killing, by emphasizing the intention of the perpetrator. He posits: 'genocide as an authority group's sustained purposeful implementation or facilitation of policies designed to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group' (Harff, 2003, p. 58). Although this definition encompasses the ethnic population, the emphasis here is on the objective function of the authority, which is the destruction in whole or part of the intended group. The second definition, politicide, limits the annihilation to a specific group. Politicide pertains when the victimized group is identified by its political opposition to the dominant party, rather than other communal characteristics (Harff, 2003, p. 58). Rummel (1995) advanced the democide label. It is defined as the 'murder of any person or people by a government including genocide, politicide and mass murder' (p. 3). -->"}} Mass killing was proposed by [[genocide scholars]] in attempts to collect a uniform global database of genocidal events and identify statistical models for prediction of onset of mass killings. Atsushi Tago and Frank Wayman reference mass killing as defined by Valentino and state that even with a lower threshold (10,000 killed per year, 1,000 killed per year, or even 1), "autocratic regimes, especially communist, are prone to mass killing generically, but not so strongly inclined (i.e. not statistically significantly inclined) toward geno-politicide."{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}} Other terms used by several authors to describe mass killings of non-combattents include:
* [[Classicide]] – "intended mass killing of entire social classes",{{sfn|Mann|2005|p=17}} which sociologist [[Michael Mann (sociologist)|Michael Mann]] considers more apt than ''genocide'' for describing killings with the intent of suppression of the [[bourgeoisie]] in [[communist state]]s.{{sfn|Sémelin 2007|p=37}}
* [[Gendercide]] – the systematic killing of members of a specific [[gender]]. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=La Puma |first=John |date=1987-05-01 |title=Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1987.03390170118043 |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=257 |issue=17 |pages=2362 |doi=10.1001/jama.1987.03390170118043 |issn=0098-7484}}</ref>
* [[Democide]] – political scientist [[Rudolph Rummel]] defined democide as "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command";{{sfn|Harff|2017}} according to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, killings by unofficial private groups, extrajudicial summary killings and mass deaths in deliberate famines as well as killings by ''de facto'' governments, e.g. civil war killings.{{sfn|Harff|1996}} Rummel's democide concept is similar to geno-politicide, but there are two important differences. First, an important prerequisite for geno-politicide is government's intent to destroy a specific group.{{sfn|Harff|2003}} In contrast, democide deals with wider range of cases, including the cases when governments are engaged in random killing either directly or due to the acts of criminal omission and neglect.{{sfn|Harff|2017}} Second, whereas some lower threshold exists for a killing event to be considered geno-politicide, there is no low threshold for democide which covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.{{sfn|Harff|2017}}
* [[Genocide]] – under the [[Genocide Convention]], the [[crime of genocide]] generally applies to mass murder of [[ethnic]] rather than [[Political group|political]] or [[social group]]s.{{sfn|Curthoys|Docker|2008|p=7}} Protection of political groups was eliminated from the [[United Nations]] resolution after a second vote because many states anticipated that clause to apply unneeded limitations to their right to suppress internal disturbances.{{sfnm|1a1=Schaak|1y=1997|2a1=Schabas|2y=2009|2p=160|3a1=Jones|3y=2010|3p=137}} ''Genocide'' is also a popular term for political killings which are studied academically as democide and politicide.{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}}
* Mass killing – referencing earlier definitions,{{refn|{{harvnb|Charny|2000}} defines generic genocide as "the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims." In the 2006 article "Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings", William Easterly, Roberta Gatti, and Sergio Kurlat adopted Charny's definition of generic genocide for their use of ''mass killing'' and ''massacre'' to avoid the politics of ''genocide'' altogether.{{sfn|Easterly|Gatti|Kurlat|2006}}|group=nb}} Joan Esteban, Massimo Morelli, and Dominic Rohner define mass killings as "the killings of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military action against the military forces of an avowed enemy, under the conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims."{{sfn|Esteban|Morelli|Rohner|2010}} Valentino defines the term as "the intentional killing of a massive number of noncombatants",{{sfn|Valentino|2004|p=91}} where a "massive number" is at least 50,000 intentional deaths over the course of five years or less;{{sfn|Bach-Lindsday|Huth|Valentino|2004|p=387}} this is the most accepted quantitative minimum threshold for the term.{{sfn|Esteban|Morelli|Rohner|2010}}{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010|pp=4, 11–12}}<!-- "Our term, 'mass killing,' is used by Valentino (2004: 10), who aptly defines it as 'the intentional killing of a massive number of noncombatants.' The word 'noncombatants' distinguishes mass killing from battle-deaths in war, which occur as combatants fight against each other. The 'massive number' he selects as the threshold to mass killing is 'at least fifty thousand intentional deaths over the course of five or fewer years' (Valentino, 2004: 11-12), which of course averages to at least 10,000 killed per year. [p. 4] ... [p. 11] One reason for selecting these thresholds of 10,000 and 1,000 deaths per year is that we find that in the Harff data on geno-politicide, which are one of our key datasets, there are many cases of over 10,000 killed per year, but also some in which between 1,000 and 10,000 are killed per year. Therefore, analyzing at a 1,000-death threshold (as well as the 10,000 threshold) insures the inclusion of all the Harff cases. Valentino chooses 50,000 over five years as 'to some extent arbitrary', but a 'relatively high threshold' to create high confidence that mass killing did occur and was deliberate, 'given the generally poor quality of the data available on civilian fatalities' (Valentino, 2004: 12). We believe that our similar results, when we lower the threshold to 1,000 killed per year, are an indication that the data in Harff and in Rummel remain reliable down even one power of ten below Valentino's 'relatively high' selected threshold, and we hope that, in that sense, our results can be seen as a friendly amendment to his work, and that they basically lend confidence, based on empirical statistical backing, for the conceptual direction which he elected to take. [p. 12] Within that constant research design, we then showed that the differences were not due to threshold either (over 10,000 killed per year; over 1,000; or over 1). The only remaining difference is the measure of mass killing itself — democide vs. geno-politicide." -->
* [[Politicide]] – some genocide scholars propose the concept of politicide to describe the killing of groups that would not otherwise be covered by the Genocide Convention.{{sfn|Gurr|Harff|1988}} [[Barbara Harff]] studies genocide and politicide, sometimes shortened as geno-politicide, to include the mass killing of political, economic, ethnic, and cultural groups.{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}}

In the United States, the [[Investigative Assistance for Violent Crimes Act]] of 2012, passed in the aftermath of the [[Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting]] in [[Newtown, Connecticut]], clarified the statutory authority for federal law enforcement agencies to provide investigatory assistance to the States, and mandated across federal agencies, including the Departments of [[United States Department of Justice|Justice]] and [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Homeland Security]], a definition of "mass killing" as three or more killings during an incident, while making no reference to the choice of weapon.<ref name=crs>{{cite report |last1=Krouse |first1=William J. |last2=Richardson |first2=Daniel J. |title=Mass Murder with Firearms: Incidents and Victims, 1999–2013| url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44126.pdf |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |date=July 30, 2015 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806001033/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44126.pdf |archive-date=August 6, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=injuryepidemiology>{{cite journal  |last1=Booty |first1=Marisa |last2=O'Dwyer |first2=Jayne |last3=Webster |first3=Daniel |first4=Alex |last4=McCourt |first5=Cassandra |last5=Crifasi |title=Describing a "mass shooting": the role of databases in understanding burden |journal=Injury Epidemiology |volume=6 |issue=47 |year=2019 |page=47 |doi=10.1186/s40621-019-0226-7 |pmid=31828004 |pmc=6889601 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=wapo>{{cite news |first=Michelle |last=Ye Hee Lee |authorlink=Michelle Ye Hee Lee |date=December 3, 2015 |title=Obama's inconsistent claim on the 'frequency' of mass shootings in the U.S. compared to other countries |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/12/03/obamas-inconsistent-claim-on-the-frequency-of-mass-shootings-in-the-u-s-compared-to-other-countries/ |access-date=April 9, 2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305235633/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/12/03/obamas-inconsistent-claim-on-the-frequency-of-mass-shootings-in-the-u-s-compared-to-other-countries/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=ajc>{{cite news |title=Spa killings another grisly chapter in Georgia history |newspaper=[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]] |url=https://www.ajc.com/news/atlanta-news/spa-killings-another-grisly-chapter-in-georgia-history/JRDTBRUE4JDZ5GLU77I2LDSZNE/ |first=Mandi |last=Albright |date=March 17, 2021}}</ref>

== Topology ==
[[Benjamin Valentino]] outlines two major categories of mass killings: dispossessive mass killing and coercive mass killing. The first category defines three types: communist, ethnic, and territorial, containing the following scenarios of [[ethnic cleansing]], killings that accompany agrarian reforms in some [[Communist state]]s, and killings during [[colonial expansion]], among others. The second category includes the types: counterguerrilla, terrorist, and imperialist, containing the following scenarios of killing during [[counterinsurgent]] [[warfare]], and killings as part of the [[imperialist]] conquests by the [[Axis powers]] during the [[World War II]], among others.{{sfn|Straus|2007|p=116|ps=: "Among them, Valentino identifies two major types, each with three subtypes. The first major type is 'dispossessive mass killing,' which includes (1) 'communist mass killings' in which leaders seek to transform societies according to communist principles; (2) 'ethnic mass killings,' in which leaders forcibly remove an ethnic population; and (3) mass killing as leaders acquire and repopulate land. The second major type of mass killing is 'coercive mass killing,' which includes (1) killing in wars when leaders cannot defeat opponents using conventional means; (2) 'terrorist' mass killing when leaders use violence to force an opposing side to surrender; and (3) killing during the creation of empires when conquering leaders try to defeat resistance and intimidate future resistance."}}

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Topology of mass killings as defined by Valentino, 2003{{sfn|Valentino|2004|p=70}}
|-style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"
!Type
!Scenario
!Examples{{refn|It is not a complete list of all examples.|group=nb}}
|-
|
|colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"|Dispossessive mass killing
|-
|style="font-weight:bold;"|Communist
|Agricultural collectivization and political terror
|The Holodomor (1931–1933)<br>Great Leap Forward (1958–1962)<br>Cambodian genocide (1975–1979)
|-
|style="font-weight:bold;"|Fascist
|Political terror and ethnic cleansing
|Spanish White Terror (1936–1975)<br>The Holocaust (1939–1945)<br>Argentine Dirty War (1974–1983)
|-
|style="font-weight:bold;"|Ethnic
|Ethnic cleansing
|Turkish Armenia (1915–1918)<br>The Holocaust (1939–1945)<br>Rwandan genocide (1994)
|-
|rowspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"|Territorial
|Colonial enlargement
|American Indian Wars (15th–20th centuries)<br>Genocide of the Herero in German South-West Africa (1904–1907)
|-
|Expansionist wars
|German annexation of western Poland (1939–1945)<br>Genocide of the Herero in German South-West Africa (1904–1907)
|-
|
|colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"|Coercive mass killing
|-
|style="font-weight:bold;"|Counterguerrilla
|Guerrilla wars
|Algerian war of independence from France (1954–1962)<br>Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989)<br>Ethiopian civil war (1970s–1980s)
|-
|rowspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"|Terrorist
|Terror bombing
|Allied bombings of Germany and Japan (1940–1945)<br>The Blitz (1940–1941)
|-
|Starvation blockades/siege warfare
|Allied naval blockade of Germany (1914–1919)<br>Nigerian land blockade Biafra (1967–1970)
|-
|Sub-state/insurgent terrorism
|FLN terrorism in Algerian war of independence against France (1954–1962)<br>RENAMO terrorism in Mozambique (1976–1992)<br>AUC terrorism in Colombia (1997–2008)
|-
|style="font-weight:bold;"|Imperialist
|Imperial conquests and rebellions
|German occupation of Western Europe (1940–1945)<br>Japan's empire in East Asia (1910–1945)
|}

== Analysis ==
[[Benjamin Valentino]] does not consider ideology or regime-type as an important factor that explains mass killings, and outlines [[Communist mass killing]] as a subtype of dispossessive mass killing, which is considered as a complication of original theory his book is based on.{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}} About why it occurs,{{sfn|Valentino|2004|p=60|ps=: "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem." See also p. 70 to read Valentino outlining his proposed two major categories of mass killing.}} Valentino states that ideology, paranoia, and racism can shape leaders' beliefs for why genocide and mass killing may be justified.{{sfn|Straus|2007|pp=484–485|ps=: "Valentino makes a quite different argument. The pivot of his cogent and parsimonious analysis is that genocide and mass killing emerge from the strategic calculations of leaders—that genocide and mass killing are calculated, instrumental, and deliberate policies that leaders choose to accomplish certain goals. ... A key question for Valentino is why leaders would choose the strategy of genocide and mass killing. Valentino argues that ideology, racism, and paranoia can shape why leaders believe that genocide and mass killing is the right course of action."<!-- He also points to the size of targeted populations (small populations are less susceptible to mass killing because they can be relocated), the policies of neighboring countries (if other states absorb targeted populations, then mass killing is less likely), the level of threat posed (the greater the threat to vital interests, the more likely is mass killing), the physical capacities of perpetrators (mass killing is more likely when perpetrators have the capacity to inflict it), and other factors. -->}} Unlike [[Rudolph Rummel]] and first-generation studies, Valentino does not see [[authoritarianism]] or [[totalitarianism]] as explaining mass killing;{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010|p=5|ps=: "Disagreeing with Rummel's finding that authoritarian and totalitarian government explains mass murder, Valentino (2004) argues that regime type does not matter; to Valentino the crucial thing is the motive for mass killing (Valentino, 2004: 70). He divides motive into the two categories of dispossessive mass killing (as in ethnic cleansing, colonial enlargement, or collectivization of agriculture) and coercive mass killing (as in counter-guerrilla, terrorist, and Axis imperialist conquests)."}} it is not ideology or regime-type but the leader's motive that matters and can explain it,{{sfn|Straus|2007}} which is in line with second-generation scholarship.{{sfn|Straus|2007}}

Manus Midlarsky also focuses on leaders' decision making but his case selection and general conclusions are different from Valentino's. Midlarsky has a narrower definition of the dependent variable and only analyzes three case studies (the [[Armenian genocide]], [[the Holocaust]], and the [[Rwanda genocide]]). Midlarsky tries to explain why individuals may comply with the culprits, why [[politicide]] rather than [[genocide]] happened in Cambodia ([[Cambodian genocide]]), and why ethnic minorities, such as Greeks in the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Jews in the [[Second Polish Republic]], were not targeted for genocide. Like [[Michael Mann (sociologist)|Michael Mann]] and Valentino to a lesser extent, Midlarsky mainly addresses genocides that did not take place. Both Midlarsky and Valentino mainly focus on proximate conditions, while Mann considers genocide within the broad context of ideologies and nation-states development.{{sfn|Straus|2007|pp=485–486}}

== Global databases of mass killings ==
At least two global databases of mass killings are available. The first compilation by [[Rudolph Rummel]] covers a time period from the beginning of the 20th century until 1987 covering [[democide]], while the second compilation by [[Barbara Harff]] combines [[politicide]] and [[genocide]] since 1955. The Harff database is the most frequently used by genocide scholars, while the Rummel database is a good framework for studying mass killings during the 1900–1987 period.{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}}

These data are intended mostly for statistical analysis of mass killings in attempt to identify the best predictors for their onset. According to Harff, these data are not necessarily the most accurate for a given country, since some sources are general genocide scholars and not experts on local history.{{sfn|Harff|2017}} A comparative analysis of the Yugoslav data in two databases revealed a significant difference between the figures of killed per years and low correlation between Rummel's and Harff's data sets. Tomislav Dulić criticized{{sfn|Dulić|2004}} Rummel's generally higher numbers as arising from flaws in Rummel's statistical methodology, and Rummel's response{{sfn|Rummel|2004}} was not convincing.{{sfn|Gleditish|2017|p=10}}

Another comparative analysis of the two complete databases by Atsushi Tago and Frank W. Wayman revealed that the significant difference between the figures is explained by Harff's dataset of politicide-geoncide being essentially a subset of Rummel's dataset, where he includes other types of killings in addition to politicide-genocide.{{sfn|Tago|Wayman|2010}}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
|+ Genocides and politicides from 1955 to 2001 as listed by Harff, 2003{{sfn|Harff|2003}}{{refn|The list does not include deaths from the [[Great Chinese Famine]] and the [[Great Leap Forward]].|group=nb}}
|-
!Country || data-sort-type="date"|Start || data-sort-type="date"|End || Nature of episode || {{abbr|Est.|Estimated}} number of victims || Related articles
|-
|Sudan || October 1956 || March 1972 || Politicide with communal victims || 400,000–600,000 || [[First Sudanese Civil War]]
|-
|South Vietnam || January 1965 || April 1975 || Politicide ||400,000–500,000 || [[South Vietnam]]
|-
|China || March 1959 || {{nowrap|December 1959}} || Genocide and politicide || 65,000 || [[1959 Tibetan uprising]]
|-
|Iraq || June 1963 || March 1975 || Politicide with communal victims || 30,000–60,000 || [[Ba'athist Iraq]]
|-
|Algeria || July 1962 || December 1962 || Politicide ||9,000–30,000 || 
|-
|Rwanda || December 1963 || June 1964 || Politicide with communal victims || 12,000–20,000 || [[Rwandan Revolution]]
|-
|Congo-Kinshasa || February 1964 || January 1965 || Politicide || 1,000–10,000 || [[Simba rebellion]]
|-
|Burundi || October 1965 || December 1973 || Politicide with communal victims ||  140,000 || [[Ikiza]]
|-
|Indonesia || November 1965 || July 1966 || Genocide and politicide ||  500,000–1,000,000 || [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966]]
|-
|China || May 1966 || March 1975 || Politicide || 400,000–850,000 || [[Cultural Revolution]]
|-
|Guatemala || July 1978 || December 1996 || Politicide and genocide || 60,000–200,000 || [[Guatemalan genocide]]
|-
|Pakistan || March 1971 || December 1971 || Genocide and politicide || 2,000,000–3,000,000 || [[1971 Bangladesh genocide]]
|-
|Uganda || December 1972 || April 1979 || Politicide and genocide ||  50,000–400,000 || [[Idi Amin]]
|-
|South West South Africa || 1948 || 1994 || Politicide and Terroism || 21,000-50,000 || [[Apartheid]]
|-
|Abkhazia || 1992 || 1998 || Politicide and Ethnic cleasing || 20,000-30,000 || [[War in Abkhazia (disambiguation)|War in Abkhazia]]
|-
|Philippines || September 1972 || June 1976 || Politicide with communal victims ||   60,000 || [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos]]
|-
|Pakistan || February 1973 || July 1977 || Politicide with communal victims || 5,000–10,000 || [[1970s operation in Balochistan]]
|-
|Cyprus || 1955 || 1974 || Ethnic violence and communal victims || 6,000-10,000 || [[Cyprus problem]]
|-
|Chile || {{nowrap|September 1973}} || December 1976 || Politicide ||  5,000–10,000 || [[Human rights abuses in Chile under Augusto Pinochet]]
|-
|Angola || November 1975 || 2001 || {{nowrap|Politicide by UNITA and government forces}} || 500,000 || [[Angolan Civil War]]
|-
|Cambodia || April 1975 || January 1979 || Politicide and genocide || 1,900,000–3,500,000 || [[Cambodian genocide]]
|-
|Indonesia || December 1975 || July 1992 || Politicide with communal victims || 100,000–200,000 || [[East Timor genocide]]
|-
|Romania || 1965 || 1989  || Politicide || 60,000-200,000 || [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]]
|-
|Argentina || March 1976 || December 1980  || Politicide || 9,000–20,000 || [[Dirty War]]
|-
|Ethiopia || July 1976 || December 1979 || Politicide || 10,000 || [[Qey Shibir]]
|-
|Congo-Kinshasa || March 1977 || December 1979 || Politicide with communal victims || 3,000–4,000 || 
|-
|Afghanistan || April 1978 || April 1992 || Politicide || 1,800,000 || [[Soviet–Afghan War]]
|-
|Burma || January 1978 || December 1978 || Genocide ||  5,000 || [[Operation Dragon King]]
|-
|El. Salvador || January 1980 || December 1989 || Politicide || 40,000–60,000 || [[Salvadoran Civil War]]
|-
|Uganda || December 1980 || January 1986 || Politicide and genocide || 200,000–500,000 ||  [[Ugandan Bush War]]
|-
|Syria || March 1981 || February 1982 || Politicide || 5,000–30,000 || [[1982 Hama massacre]]
|-
|Iran || June 1981 || December 1992 || Politicide and genocide || 10,000–20,000 || [[Casualties of the Iranian Revolution]]<br>{{nowrap|[[1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners]]}}
|-
|Yugoslavia || 1945 || 1945 || Politicide and mass killing || 70.000-200.000 ||  [[Bleiburg repatriations]]
|-
|Sudan || September 1983 || ? || Politicide with communal victims || 2,000,000 || [[Second Sudanese Civil War]]
|-
|India || November 1984 || November 1984 || Pogrom || 3,000-30,000 || [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]]
|-
|Iraq || March 1988 || June 1991 || Politicide with communal victims || 180,000 || [[1991 Iraqi uprisings]]
|-
|Somalia || May 1988 || January 1991 || Politicide with communal victims || 15,000–50,000 || 
|-
|Burundi || 1988  || 1988 || Genocide || 5,000–20,000 || [[List of massacres in Burundi|Hutu massacres of 1988]]
|-
|Sri Lanka || September 1989 || January 1990 || Politicide || 13,000–30,000 || [[1987–1989 JVP insurrection]]
|-
|Bosnia || May 1992 || November 1995 || Genocide || 225,000 || [[Bosnian genocide]]
|-
|Burundi || October 1993 || May 1994 || Genocide || 50,000 || [[1993 ethnic violence in Burundi|Burundian genocides]]
|-
|Rwanda || April 1994 || July 1994 || Genocide || 500,000–1,000,000 || [[Rwandan genocide]]
|-
|China|| 1949 - 1976 || ? || Genocide - Politicide || 45,000,000 || [[History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)]]
|-
|Serbia || December 1998 || July 1999 || Politicide with communal victims || 10,000 || [[War crimes in the Kosovo War]]
|-
|}

== See also ==
{{Main|Outline of genocide studies}}
* [[Mass murder]]
* [[List of battles by casualties]]
* [[List of genocides by death toll]]
* [[Mass killings under communist regimes]]
* [[Genocide of indigenous peoples]]
* [[Anti-communist mass killings]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Main|Bibliography of genocide studies}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Tago |first1=Atsushi |last2=Wayman |first2=Frank |date=January 2010 |title=Explaining the Onset of Mass Killing, 1949–87 |journal=Journal of Peace Research |location=Thousand Oaks, California |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1177/0022343309342944 |issn=0022-3433 |jstor=25654524 |s2cid=145155872}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bach-Lindsday |first1=Dylan |last2=Huth |first2=Paul |last3=Valentino |first3=Benjamin |date=May 2004 |title=Draining the Sea: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare |journal=International Organization |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=375–407 |doi=10.1017/S0020818304582061 |jstor=3877862 |s2cid=154296897}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Charny |editor-first1=Israel W. |year=2000 |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide |edition=1st |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-874-36928-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Curthoys |first1=Ann |last2=Docker |first2=John |year=2008 |chapter=Defining Genocide |editor-last1=Stone |editor-first1=Dan |title=The Historiography of Genocide |edition=paperback |location=Basingstoke, England |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |pages=7–41 |isbn=978-0-230-27955-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dulić |first=Tomislav |date=January 2004 |title=Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide |journal=Journal of Peace Research |location=Thousands Oaks, California |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=85‒102 |doi=10.1177/0022343304040051 |jstor=4149657 |s2cid=145120734}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Easterly |first1=William |last2=Gatti |first2=Roberta |author-link2=Roberta Gatti |last3=Kurlat |first3=Sergio |date=June 2006 |title=Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |volume=11 |location=New York City, New York |publisher=Springer |issue=2 |pages=129–156 |doi=10.1007/s10887-006-9001-z |jstor=40216091 |s2cid=195313778 |url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/8953}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Esteban |first1=Joan Maria |last2=Morelli |first2=Massimo |last3=Rohner |first3=Dominic |date=May 2010 |title=Strategic Mass Killings |location=Zurich Switzerland |publisher=Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zurich |journal=Working Paper No. 486 |ssrn=1615375}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Gleditish |editor-first=N. P. |year=2017 |title=R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions |volume=37 |series=SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice |location=New York City, New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-54463-2}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gurr |first1=Ted Robert |last2=Harff |first2=Barbara |date=September 1988 |title=Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945 |journal=International Studies Quarterly |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=Wiley |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=359–371 |doi=10.2307/2600447 |issn=0020-8833 |jstor=2600447}}
* {{cite journal |last=Harff |first=Barbara |date=Summer 1996 |title=Review: Death by Government by R. J. Rummel |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=The MIT Press |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=117–119 |doi=10.2307/206491 |jstor=206491}}
* {{cite journal |last=Harff |first=Barbara |date=February 2003 |title=No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955 |journal=The American Political Science Review |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Political Science Association |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=57–73 |doi=10.1017/S0003055403000522 |jstor=3118221 |s2cid=54804182}}
* {{cite book |last=Harff |first=Barbara |year=2017 |chapter=The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide |editor-last=Gleditish |editor-first=N. P. |title=R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions |volume=37 |series=SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice |location=New York City, New York |publisher=Springer |pages=111–129 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-319-54463-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |year=2010 |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |edition=English paperback 2nd |location=London, England |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-48619-4}}
* {{cite journal |last=Krain |first=Matthew |date=June 1997 |title=State-Sponsored Mass Murder: The Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |location=Thousand Oaks, California |publisher=SAGE Publications |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=331–360 |doi=10.1177/0022002797041003001 |issn=0022-0027 |jstor=174282 |s2cid=143852782}}
* {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Michael |year=2005 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |edition=English paperback |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53854-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Ott |first=Attiat |year=2011 |chapter=Modeling Mass Killing: For Gain or Ethnic Cleansing? |editor-last=Hartley |editor-first=Keith |title=Handbook on the Economics of Conflict |location=Cheltenham, England |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |pages=52–79 |isbn=978-0-857-93034-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schaak |first=Beth |date=May 1997 |title=The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=106 |issue=7 |pages=2259‒2291 |doi=10.2307/797169 |jstor=797169 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1418&context=facpubs}}
* {{cite book |last=Sémelin |first=Jacques |collaboration=Hoffman, Stanley |year=2007 |title=Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide |series=The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies |translator-last=Schoch |translator-first=Cynthia |location=New York City, New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14282-3 |ref={{harvid|Sémelin 2007}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Staub |first=Ervin |year=1989 |title=The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence |edition=illustrated, reprinted, revised paperback |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42214-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Staub |first=Ervin |year=2011 |title=Overcoming Evil: Genocide, Violent Conflict, and Terrorism |edition=illustrated, reprinted hardback |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-195-38204-4}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |year=2008 |title=The Historiography of Genocide |edition=paperback |location=Basingstoke, England |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-27955-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Straus |first=Scott |date=April 2007 |title=Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide |journal=World Politics |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=476–501 |doi=10.1017/S004388710002089X |jstor=40060166 |s2cid=144879341}}
* {{cite book |last1=Valentino |first1=Benjamin |year=2004 |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century |edition=hardback |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-801-43965-0 |oclc=53013098}}
* {{cite journal |last=Verdeja |first=Ernesto |date=June 2012 |title=The Political Science of Genocide: Outlines of an Emerging Research Agenda |journal=Perspectives on Politics |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Political Science Association |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=307–321 |doi=10.1017/S1537592712000680 |jstor=41479553 |s2cid=145170749}}
* {{cite book |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |year=2008 |chapter=Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |title=The Historiography of Genocide |edition=paperback |location=Basingstoke, England |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages=42–70 |isbn=978-0-230-27955-1 |doi=10.1057/9780230297784}}
{{refend|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main|Bibliography of Genocide studies}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Esteban|first1=Joan Maria|last2=Morelli|first2=Massimo|last3=Rohner|first3=Dominic|date=October 2015|title=Strategic Mass Killings|location=Chicago, Illinois|publisher=University of Chicago Press|journal=Journal of Political Economy|volume=123|issue=5|pages=1087–1132|doi=10.1086/682584|s2cid=154859371}}
* {{cite book|last=Schaak|first=Beth|year=2007|chapter=The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot|editor-last1=Campbell|editor-first1=Tom|editor-last2=Lattimer|editor-first2=Mark|title=Genocide and Human Rights|edition=1st eBook|location=London, England|publisher=Routledge|pages=140–173|doi=10.4324/9781351157568|isbn=978-1-351-15756-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Schabas|first=William A.|year=2009|title=Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes|edition=2nd hardcover|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-71900-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Sémelin|first=Jacques|collaboration=Hoffman, Stanley|year=2007|chapter=The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide|title=Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide|series=The CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies|translator-last=Schoch|translator-first=Cynthia|location=New York City, New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|pages=310–361|isbn=978-0-231-14282-3}}

== External links ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Easterly |first1=William |last2=Gatti |first2=Roberta |author-link2=Roberta Gatti |last3=Kurlat |first3=Sergio |date=June 2006 |url=https://williameasterly.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/46_easterly_gatti_kurlat_developmentdemocracymasskillings_prp.pdf |url-status=live |title=Development, Democracy, and Mass Killings |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |volume=11 |location=New York City, New York |publisher=Springer |issue=2 |pages=129–156 |doi=10.1007/s10887-006-9001-z |jstor=40216091 |s2cid=195313778 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201013928/https://williameasterly.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/46_easterly_gatti_kurlat_developmentdemocracymasskillings_prp.pdf |archive-date=1 December 2021 |access-date=27 December 2021 |via=William Easterly |ref=no}}
* {{cite web|last=Harff|first=Barbara|year=2003|url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/genocide/|url-status=dead|title=Genocide Politicide|website=CIDCM|publisher=Center for International Development and Conflict Management|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030201259/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/genocide/|archive-date=30 October 2007|access-date=27 December 2021|ref=no}}
* {{cite journal|last=Harff|first=Barbara|date=February 2003|url=http://www.genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Genocide-politicide.pdf|url-status=live|title=No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955|journal=The American Political Science Review|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=American Political Science Association|volume=97|issue=1|pages=57–73|doi=10.1017/S0003055403000522|jstor=3118221|s2cid=54804182|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625140141/http://www.genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Genocide-politicide.pdf|archive-date=25 June 2021|access-date=27 December 2021|via=Genocide Watch|ref=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Harff|first=Barbara|year=2017|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-54463-2_12.pdf|url-status=live|chapter=The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide|editor-last=Gleditish|editor-first=N. P.|title=R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions|volume=37|series=SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice|location=New York City, New York|publisher=Springer|pages=111–129|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12|doi-access=free|isbn=978-3-319-54463-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126183601/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-54463-2_12.pdf|archive-date=26 November 2021|access-date=27 December 2021|ref=no}}
* {{cite book|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph|year=2003|orig-year=1997|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE5.HTM|url-status=live|title=Statistic of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900|edition=hardback|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|publisher=Center for National Security Law, School of Law, University of Virginia; Transaction Publishers, Rutgers University|isbn=978-3-825-84010-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222233242/http://hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE5.HTM|archive-date=22 December 2021|access-date=27 December 2021|via=Power Kills|ref=no}}
* {{cite journal|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph|date=January 2004|title=One-Thirteenth of a Data Point Does Not a Generalization Make: A Response to Dulić*|journal=Journal of Peace Research|location=Thousand Oaks, California|publisher=Sage Publications|volume=41|issue=1|pages=103–104|doi=10.1177/0022343304040500|citeseerx=10.1.1.989.5581|s2cid=109403016}}
* {{cite journal|last=Schaak|first=Beth|date=May 1997|url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7764&context=ylj|url-status=live|title=The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot|journal=The Yale Law Journal|volume=106|issue=7|pages=2259‒2291|doi=10.2307/797169|jstor=797169|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927004043/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7764&context=ylj|archive-date=27 September 2020|access-date=27 December 2021|via=Digital Commons|ref=no}}
* {{cite journal|last=Verdeja|first=Ernesto|date=June 2012|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1016173088|url-status=live|title=The Political Science of Genocide: Outlines of an Emerging Research Agenda|journal=Perspectives on Politics|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=American Political Science Association|volume=10|issue=2|pages=307–321|doi=10.1017/S1537592712000680|jstor=41479553|s2cid=145170749|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824130418/https://www.proquest.com/docview/1016173088|archive-date=24 August 2021|access-date=27 December 2021|id={{ProQuest|1016173088}}|via=ProQuest|ref=no}}
{{War crimes}}
[[Category:Genocide studies]]
[[Category:Killings by type]]
[[Category:Mass murder]]
[[Category:War crimes by type]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Totalitarianism]]