Editing Manta ray

{{Short description|Subgenus of fishes}}
{{About|fish|other uses|Manta Ray (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Manta ray
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|28.1|0|ref=<ref name=paleobiology/>}} <small>Early [[Miocene]] to present</small>
| image = Dharavandhoo Thila - Manata Black Pearl.JPG
| image_caption = ''Mobula alfredi'' at [[Dharavandhoo]], [[Maldives]]
| taxon = Mobula
| authority = [[Edward Nathaniel Bancroft|Bancroft]], 1829<ref name="Bancroft, 1829">{{cite journal|last1=Bancroft|first1=Edw. Nath.|title=On the Fish known in Jamaica as Sea-Devil|journal=The Zoological Journal|date=1829|volume=4|pages=444–457|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/27485360}}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = ''[[Mobula alfredi]]''<br/>
''[[Mobula birostris]]''<br/>
†''[[Mobula hynei]]''
| type_species = ''[[Manta birostris|Cephalopterus manta]]''
| type_species_authority = [[Edward Nathaniel Bancroft|Bancroft]], 1829
| range_map = Cypron-Range Manta birostris.svg
| range_map_caption = Range of manta rays
}}

'''Manta rays''' are large [[Batoidea|ray]]s belonging to the [[genus]] ''[[Mobula]]'' (formerly its own [[genus]] ''Manta''). The larger species, ''[[Giant oceanic manta ray|M. birostris]]'', reaches {{convert|7|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in width, while the smaller, ''[[Reef manta ray|M. alfredi]]'', reaches {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Both have triangular [[Pectoral fin#AnchPectoral|pectoral fins]], horn-shaped [[cephalic]] fins and large, forward-facing mouths. They are classified among the [[Myliobatiformes]] ([[stingray]]s and relatives) and are placed in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Eagle ray|Myliobatidae]] (eagle rays). They have the largest brain-to-body ratio of all fish, and can pass the [[mirror test]].

Mantas are found in warm [[temperate]], [[subtropical]] and [[tropical]] waters. Both species are [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]]; ''M. birostris'' [[Animal migration|migrates]] across open oceans, singly or in groups, while ''M. alfredi'' tends to be resident and coastal. They are [[filter feeder]]s and eat large quantities of [[zooplankton]], which they gather with their open mouths as they swim. However, research suggests that the majority of their diet comes from [[mesopelagic]] sources. [[Gestation]] lasts over a year and mantas [[Ovoviviparity|give birth]] to live pups. Mantas may visit [[cleaning station]]s for the removal of [[parasite]]s. Like whales, they [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour#Breaching and lunging|breach]] for unknown reasons.

Both species are listed as [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]. [[Human impact on the environment|Anthropogenic]] threats include [[pollution]], entanglement in [[fishing net]]s, and direct harvesting of their [[gill raker]]s for use in [[Chinese medicine]]. Manta rays are particularly valued for their [[Gill plate trade|gill plates]], which are traded internationally. Their slow reproductive rate exacerbates these threats. They are protected in [[international waters]] by the [[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals|Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals]], but are more vulnerable closer to shore. Areas where mantas congregate are popular with tourists. Only a few [[public aquarium]]s are large enough to house them.

==Etymology==
The name "manta" is [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[spanish language|Spanish]] for mantle (cloak or blanket), a type of blanket-shaped trap traditionally used to catch rays.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Manta | journal=Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged | edition=11th | publisher=HarperCollins Publishers | url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/manta}}</ref> Mantas are known as "devilfish" because of their horn-shaped [[cephalic]] fins, which are imagined to give them an "evil" appearance.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sharks, Skates, and Rays of the Gulf of Mexico: A Field Guide|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=hlTvq3bSvzcC}} |date=2006|first=Ray |last=Parsons|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-766-0}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
Manta rays are members of the order [[Myliobatiformes]] which consists of [[stingray]]s and their relatives.<ref name="Dean"/> The genus ''Manta'' is part of the eagle ray [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Myliobatidae]], where it is grouped in the subfamily [[Mobulidae|Mobulinae]] along with the smaller ''[[Mobula]]'' devil rays.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fishbase.org/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=22 |title=Family Myliobatidae – Eagle and manta rays | editor=Froese, R. | editor2=Pauly, D.l | year=2011  |work=FishBase |access-date=February 9, 2013}}</ref> In 2018, an analysis of DNA, and to a lesser degree, [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], found that ''Mobula'' was [[paraphyletic]] with respect to the manta rays; that is, some members of genus ''Mobula''  are closer related to the members of the genus ''Manta'' than they are to fellow ''Mobula'', and the researchers recommended treating ''Manta'' as a [[junior synonym]] of ''Mobula''.<ref name="White et al 2018">{{cite journal|author=White, W. T.|author2=Corrigan, S.|author3=Yang, L.|author4=Henderson, A. C.|author5=Bazinet, A. L.|author6=Swofford, D. L.|author7= Naylor, G. J. P.|year=2018|title=Phylogeny of the manta and devilrays (Chondrichthyes: mobulidae), with an updated taxonomic arrangement for the family|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=182|page=zlx018|doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlx018|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Mantas evolved from bottom-dwelling stingrays, eventually developing more wing-like pectoral fins.<ref>{{cite web|author=Martin, R. A.|title=Manta Ray (''Manta birostris'') FAQ|publisher=ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research|access-date=April 23, 2013|url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/lh_manta_faq.htm}}</ref> ''M. birostris'' still has a [[Vestigiality|vestigial]] remnant of a sting barb in the form of a [[Caudal (anatomical term)|caudal]] spine.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett/> The mouths of most rays lie on the underside of the head, while in mantas, they are right at the front.<ref name=flmnh/> The edges of the jaws line up while in devil rays, the lower jaw shifts back when the mouth closes.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|14}} Manta rays and devil rays are the only ray species that have evolved into filter feeders.<ref name="Dean">{{cite journal|author1=Dean, M. N. |author2=Bizzarro, J. J. |author3=Summers, A. P. |title=The evolution of cranial design, diet, and feeding mechanisms in batoid fishes|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|year=2007|volume=47|issue=1|pages=70–81|doi=10.1093/icb/icm034|pmid=21672821|doi-access=free}}</ref> Manta rays have dorsal slit-like spiracles, traits which they share with the [[devil fish]] and [[Chilean devil ray]].<ref name="White et al 2018"/>
{{cladogram|align=right|
{{clade
|label1='''''Mobula'''''
|1={{clade
   |1=[[Chilean devil ray]] (''M. tarapacana'')
   |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
         |1=[[Lesser devil ray]] (''M. hypostoma'')
         |2=[[Mobula munkiana|Munk's devil ray]] (''M. munkiana'')
         }}
      |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
            |1={{clade
               |1=[[Reef manta ray]] (''M. alfredi'')
               |2=[[Giant oceanic manta ray]] (''M. birostris'')
               }}
            |2={{clade
               |1=[[Devil fish]] (''M. mobular'')
               }}
            }}
         |2={{clade
            |1=[[Bentfin devil ray]] (''M. thurstoni'')
            |2=[[Mobula kuhlii|Shortfin devil ray]] (''M. kuhlii'')
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}
|caption=Phylogeny of manta rays within ''Mobula''<ref name="White et al 2018"/>
}}

===Species===
The scientific naming of mantas has had a convoluted history, during which several names were used for both the [[genus]] (''Ceratoptera'', ''Brachioptilon'', ''Daemomanta'', and ''Diabolicthys'') and [[species]] (such as ''vampyrus'', ''americana'', ''johnii'', and ''hamiltoni''). All were eventually treated as [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]]s of the single species ''Manta birostris''.<ref name=Fishbase/><ref name=flmnh/><ref name=calacad>{{cite web|title=Database of Fishes |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=April 23, 2013 |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503081145/http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp |archive-date=May 3, 2015 }} Check genus and type "Manta" in search box.</ref> The genus name ''Manta'' was first published in 1829 by Dr [[Edward Nathaniel Bancroft]] of Jamaica.<ref name=Fishbase>{{cite web|author=Bailly, N.|year=2013|title=''Manta'' Bancroft, 1829|publisher=World Register of Marine Species FishBase|url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=105755&allchildren=1|access-date=April 16, 2013}}; see E.N. Bancroft ''On the fish known in Jamaica as the sea-devil'', 1829</ref> The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]] '' birostris'' is ascribed to [[Johann Julius Walbaum]] (1792) by some authorities and to Johann August Donndorff (1798) by others.<ref name=calacad/> The specific name ''alfredi'' was first used by Australian zoologist [[Gerard Krefft]], who named the manta after [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Alfred]].<ref name=flmnh>{{cite web |url=https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/manta-birostris/ |title=Manta |publisher=Florida Museum of Natural History |access-date=November 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Whitley, G. P. |year=1936 |title=The Australian devil ray, ''Daemomanta alfredi'' (Krefft), with remarks on the superfamily Mobuloidea (order Batoidei) |journal=Australian Zoologist |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=164–188}}</ref>

A 2009 study analyzed the differences in morphology, including color, [[Meristics|meristic variation]], spine, [[dermal denticle]]s (tooth-like scales), and teeth of different populations. Two distinct species emerged: the smaller ''[[Manta alfredi|M. alfredi]]'' found in the [[Indo-Pacific]] and [[Tropics|tropical]] East Atlantic, and the larger ''[[Manta birostris|M. birostris]]'' found throughout tropical, [[Subtropics|subtropical]] and warm [[Temperate climate|temperate]] oceans.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, A. D. |author2=Compagno, L. J. V. |author3=Bennett, M. B. |title=Redescription of the genus ''Manta'' with resurrection of ''Manta alfredi'' (Krefft, 1868) (Chondrichthyes; Myliobatoidei; Mobulidae)  |year=2009 |journal=Zootaxa |volume=2301 |pages=1–28 |issn=1175-5326 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.2301.1.1 |s2cid=81789023 }}</ref> The former is more coastal,<ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn | author = Marshall, A. | author2 = Kashiwagi, T. | author3 = Bennett, M.B. | author4 = Deakos, M. | author5 = Stevens, G. | author6 = McGregor, F. | author7 = Clark, T. | author8 = Ishihara, H. | author9 = Sato, K. | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Manta alfredi'' | volume = 2011 | page = e.T195459A8969079 | date = 2011 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T195459A8969079.en }}</ref> while the latter is more ocean-going and [[Fish migration|migratory]].<ref name="IUCN"/> A 2010 study on mantas around [[Japan]] confirmed the morphological and genetic differences between ''M. birostris'' and ''M. alfredi''.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ito, T. |author2=Kashiwagi, T. |title=Morphological and genetic identification of two species of manta ray occurring in Japanese waters: ''Manta birostris'' and ''M. alfredi'' |year=2010 |journal=Report of Japanese Society for Elasmobranch Studies |volume=46 |pages=8–10}}</ref>

A third possible species, preliminarily called ''Manta ''sp. cf. ''birostris'', reaches at least {{convert|6|m|abbr=on}} in width, and inhabits the tropical West Atlantic, including the Caribbean.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett/>

===Fossil record===
While some small teeth have been found, few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been discovered. Their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well, as they lack the [[calcification]] of the [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]]. Only three sedimentary beds bearing manta ray fossils are known, one from the [[Oligocene]] in [[South Carolina]] and two from the [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] in [[North Carolina]].<ref name=paleobiology>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=34738&is_real_user=1|title=''Manta'' Bancroft 1829 (manta)|work=Paleobiology Database|access-date=12 November 2024}}Click on "Age range and collections".</ref> ''[[Manta hynei|M. hynei]]'' is a fossil species dating to [[Early Pliocene]] North America.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bourdon |first= Jim |date=1999 |title=A fossil ''Manta'' from the Early Pliocene (Zanclean) of North America |journal=Tertiary Research |volume=19 |issue=3–4 |pages=79–84}}</ref> Remains of an extinct species have been found in the [[Chandler Bridge Formation]] of South Carolina. These were originally described as ''Manta fragilis'', but were later reclassified as ''[[Paramobula fragilis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Cicimurri, D. J. |author2=Knight, J. L. |year=2009 |title=Late Oligocene sharks and rays from the Chandler Bridge Formation, Dorchester County, South Carolina, USA |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=627–647 |doi=10.4202/app.2008.0077 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=paleobiology/>

==Characteristics==
[[File:Manta birostris-Thailand4.jpg|thumb|left|Dorsal view of ''M. birostris'' showing shoulder markings]]
Manta rays have broad heads, triangular [[pectoral fin]]s, and horn-shaped cephalic fins located on both sides of their mouths.<ref name=flmnh/> They have horizontally flattened bodies with eyes on the sides of their heads behind the cephalic fins, and gill slits on their [[Ventral#Dorsal and ventral|ventral]] surfaces.<ref name=flmnh/><ref name="Ebert"/> Their tails lack skeletal support and are shorter than their disc-like bodies.<ref name="Ebert"/> The [[dorsal fin]]s are small and at the base of the tail. Mantas can reach {{convert|1350|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=flmnh/> In both species, the width is about 2.2 times the length of the body; ''M. birostris'' reaches at least {{convert|7|m|ft|abbr=on}} in width, while ''M. alfredi'' reaches about {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=glance/> Their skin is covered in [[mucus]].<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|31–32}} Mantas normally have a "chevron" coloration. They are typically black or dark on top with pale markings on their "shoulders". Underneath, they are usually white or pale with distinctive dark markings by which individual mantas can be recognized, as well as some shading.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett/><ref name=Guide/>{{rp|52, 54}} Individuals can also vary from mostly black ([[melanism]]) to mostly white ([[leucism]]).<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|52–54}} These [[Polymorphism (biology)|color morphs]] appear to be products of [[neutral mutation]]s and have no effects on [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Venables, S. K. |author2=Marshall, A. D. |author3=Germanov, E. S. |author4=Perryman, R. J. Y. |author5=Tapilatu, R. F. |author6=Hendrawan, I. G. |author7=Flam, A. L. |author8=van Keulen, M. |author9=Tomkins, J. L. |author10=Kennington, W. J. |year=2019|title=It's not all black and white: investigating colour polymorphism in manta rays across Indo-Pacific populations|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=286|issue=1912|doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.1879|pmid=31594509|pmc=6790782}}</ref> A pink manta ray has been observed in Australia's [[Great Barrier Reef]] and scientists believe this could be due to a [[genetic mutation]] causing [[erythrism]].<ref>{{cite web |title=How did this rare pink manta get its colour? |language=en |date=Feb 19, 2020 |author=Bethany Augliere |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.microsoftnewskids.com/en-us/kids/animals/how-did-this-rare-pink-manta-get-its-colour/ar-BB10dvoU?ocid=spartanntp |access-date=29 February 2020 |archive-date=29 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229143338/https://www.microsoftnewskids.com/en-us/kids/animals/how-did-this-rare-pink-manta-get-its-colour/ar-BB10dvoU%3Focid%3Dspartanntp |url-status=dead }}</ref> The fish, spotted near [[Lady Elliot Island]], is the world's only known pink manta ray.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rare Pink Manta Ray Spotted Near Australia's Lady Elliot Island |language=en |date= Feb 13, 2020 |author=Katherine J. Wu |website=Smithsonian Magazine |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/rare-pink-manta-ray-spotted-near-australias-lady-elliot-island-180974196/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Startling New Photos Reveal The World's Only Known Pink Manta Ray |language=en |date=Feb 18, 2020 |author=Jacinta Bowler |website=Science Alert |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/photographer-takes-incredible-new-images-of-the-only-known-pink-manta-ray}}</ref>

[[Image:Manta alfredi cruising - journal.pone.0046170.g002A.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Ventral view|'' M. alfredi'' with mouth closed, cephalic fins rolled and ventral surface showing distinctive markings]]
The two species of manta differ in color patterns, dermal denticles, and dentition. ''M. birostris'' has more angular shoulder markings, ventral dark spots on the abdominal region, [[charcoal]]-coloured ventral outlines on the pectoral fins, and a dark colored mouth. The shoulder markings of ''M. alfredi'' are more rounded, while its ventral spots are located near the posterior end and between the gill slits, and the mouth is white or pale colored. The denticles have multiple [[Cusp (dentistry)|cusp]]s and overlap in ''M. birostris'', while those of ''M. alfredi'' are evenly spaced and lack cusps. Both species have small, square-shaped teeth on the lower jaw, but ''M. birostris'' also has enlarged teeth on the upper jaw. Unlike ''M. alfredi'', ''M. birostris'' has a caudal spine near its dorsal fin.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett/>

Mantas move through the water by the wing-like movements of their pectoral fins.<ref name=flmnh/> Their large mouths are rectangular, and face forward. The [[Spiracle (vertebrates)|spiracle]]s typical of rays are vestigial and concealed by small flaps of skin, and mantas must keep swimming with their mouths open to keep oxygenated water passing over their gills.<ref name=Guide>{{cite book|author1=Stevens, G.|author2=Stevens, D.|author3=Dando, M.|author4=Di Sciara, G. N.|year=2018|title=Guide to the Manta and Devil Rays of the World|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-18332-9}}</ref>{{rp|13}} The cephalic fins are usually spiraled but flatten during foraging. The fish's [[Branchial arch|gill arches]] have pallets of pinkish-brown [[Gill raker|gill rakers]], which are made of spongy tissue that collects food particles.<ref name="flmnh" /> Mantas track down prey using visual and [[olfactory]] senses.<ref name="sense">{{cite journal|author1=Ari, C. |author2=Correia, J. |year=2008|title=Role of sensory cues on food searching behavior of a captive ''Manta birostris'' (Chondrichtyes, Mobulidae)|journal=Zoo Biology|volume=27|issue=4|pages=294–304|doi=10.1002/zoo.20189|pmid=19360625}}</ref> They have one of the highest [[brain-to-body mass ratio]]s<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ari, C.|year=2011|title=Encephalization and brain organization of mobulid rays (Myliobatiformes, Elasmobranchii) with ecological perspectives|journal=Open Anatomy Journal | volume=3|pages=1–13|doi=10.2174/1877609401103010001|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the largest brain size of all fish.<ref name="Ari2016">{{Cite journal | last1=Ari | first1=C. | last2=D'Agostino | first2=D. P. | year=2016 | title=Contingency checking and self-directed behaviors in giant manta rays: do elasmobranchs have self-awareness? | journal=Journal of Ethology | volume=34 | issue=2 | pages=167–174 | publisher=Springer | doi=10.1007/s10164-016-0462-z | s2cid=18628472 }}</ref> Their brains have [[retia mirabilia]] which may serve to keep them warm.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alexander, R. L.|year=1996|title=Evidence of brain-warming in the mobulid rays, ''Mobula tarapacana'' and ''Manta birostris'' (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii: Batoidea: Myliobatiformes)|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=118|issue=2|pages=151–164|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1996.tb00224.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''M. alfredi'' has been shown to dive to depths over {{convert|400|m|||}},<ref name="Braun2014">{{Cite journal | last1 = Braun | first1 = C. D. | last2 = Skomal | first2 = G. B. | last3 = Thorrold | first3 = S. R. | last4 = Berumen | first4 = M. L. | year=2014 | title = Diving behavior of the reef manta ray links coral reefs with adjacent deep pelagic habitats  | journal = [[PLOS ONE]] | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = e88170 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0088170 | pmid = 24516605 | pmc = 3916408 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...988170B| doi-access = free }}</ref> while the Chilean devil ray, which has a similar structure, dives to nearly {{convert|2000|m|||}}.<ref name = "Thorrold2014">{{Cite journal | last1 = Thorrold | first1 = S. R.  | last2 = Afonso | first2 = P. | last3 = Fontes | first3 = J. | last4 = Braun | first4 = C. D. | last5 = Santos | first5 = R. S. | last6 = Skomal | first6 = G. B. | last7 = Berumen | first7 = M. L. | year=2014 | title = Extreme diving behaviour in devil rays links surface waters and the deep ocean | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 5 | issue = 4274 | page = 4274| doi = 10.1038/ncomms5274 | bibcode = 2014NatCo...5.4274T | pmid=24983949 | pmc=4102113}}</ref>

==Behavior and ecology==
Swimming behavior in mantas differs across habitats: when travelling over deep water, they swim at a constant rate in a straight line, while further inshore, they usually bask or swim idly around. Mantas may travel alone or in groups up to 50. They may associate with other fish species, as well as [[sea bird]]s and [[marine mammal]]s.<ref name="Ebert"/> Mantas sometimes [[Whale surfacing behaviour#Porpoising|breach]] or leap out of the water. Individuals in a group may make aerial jumps in succession. Mantas may leap forward and re-enter head first, tail first or make [[somersault]]s.<ref name=flmnh/> The reason for breaching is not known; possible explanations include communication, or the removal of [[parasite]]s and [[remora]]s (suckerfish).<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|26}}

[[File:Manta alfredi at a ‘cleaning station’ - journal.pone.0046170.g002B.jpg|thumb|left|''M. alfredi'' at a coral reef cleaning station with fish picking off parasites]]

Mantas visit [[cleaning station]]s on [[coral reef]]s for the removal of external parasites. The ray adopts a near-stationary position close to the coral surface for several minutes while the [[cleaner fish]] feed. Such visits most frequently occur when the tide is high.<ref name="cleaningstation">{{cite journal |author= Jaine, Fabrice R. A. |author2= Couturier, Lydie I. E. |author3= Weeks, Scarla J. |author4= Townsend, Kathy A. |author5= Bennett, Michael B. |author6= Fiora, Kym |author7= Richardson, Anthony J. |year=2012 |title=When giants turn up: sighting trends, environmental influences and habitat use of the manta ray ''Manta alfredi'' at a coral reef |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=e46170 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0046170 |editor1-last= Sakamoto |editor1-first= Kentaro Q. |pmid= 23056255 |pmc= 3463571 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...746170J |doi-access= free }}</ref> Individual mantas may exhibit [[philopatry]] by revisiting the same cleaning station or feeding area repeatedly<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Dewar, H. |author2=Mous, P. |author3=Domeier, M. |author4=Muljadi, A. |author5=Pet, J. |author6=Whitty, J. |year=2008|title=Movements and site fidelity of the giant manta ray, ''Manta birostris'', in the Komodo Marine Park, Indonesia|journal=Marine Biology|volume=155|issue=2|pages=121–133|doi=10.1007/s00227-008-0988-x|bibcode=2008MarBi.155..121D |s2cid=56343341 }}</ref> and appear to have [[cognitive maps]] of their environment.<ref name=sense/> In addition, it has been confirmed that reef manta rays form a bond with a specific individual and act together.<ref name=brain>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/manta-rays-social-relationships-oceans |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210413012621/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/manta-rays-social-relationships-oceans |archive-date= 13 April 2021 |title= Manta rays form close friendships, shattering misconceptions |website=National geo graphic |date= August 27, 2019 |access-date=2021-06-16}}</ref>

Mantas may be [[Predation|preyed]] upon by large [[shark]]s, [[orca]]s and [[false killer whale]]s. They may also harbor parasitic [[copepod]]s. Mantas can remove internal parasites by sticking their intestines up to {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} out of their cloaca and squeezing them out, often while defecating. [[Remora]]s adhere themselves onto mantas for transportation and use their mouths as shelter. Though they may clean them of parasites, remoras can also damage the manta's gills and skin, and increase its swimming load.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|33, 36–38}}

In 2016, scientists published a study in which manta rays were shown to exhibit behavior associated with [[self-awareness]]. In a modified [[mirror test]], the individuals engaged in contingency checking and unusual self-directed behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ari, Csilla |author2=D'Agostino, Dominic P. |year=2016 |title=Contingency checking and self-directed behaviors in giant manta rays: Do elasmobranchs have self-awareness? |journal=Journal of Ethology |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=167–174 |doi=10.1007/s10164-016-0462-z |s2cid=18628472 }}</ref>

===Feeding===
[[File:Manta birostris feeding.jpg|thumb|alt=Manta foraging|right|''M. birostris'' feeding on plankton]]
Manta rays are [[filter feeder]]s as well as macropredators. On the surface, they consume large quantities of [[zooplankton]] in the form of [[shrimp]], [[krill]], and [[planktonic]] [[crab]]s. In deeper depths, mantas consume small to medium-sized fish.<ref name="Burgess2016"/> Foraging mantas flatten their cephalic fins to channel food into their mouths. During filter feeding, small particles are collected by the tissue between the gill arches.<ref name=flmnh/> The standard method of feeding for a lone manta is simply swimming horizontally, turning 180 degrees to feed in the other direction. Up and down movements, sideways tilting and 360 degree somersaults are also observed.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|19, 21–22}}

Mantas engage in a number of group feeding behaviors. An individual may "piggy-back" on a larger, horizontally feeding individual, placing itself over its back. "Chain-feeding" involves them aligning back-to-front and swimming horizontally. Chain-feeding mantas may create a circle, with the lead individual meeting up with the stragglers. More individuals may join, creating a "cyclone" of mantas spiraling upwards. With a diameter of {{convert|15|m|abbr=on}}, these cyclones consist of up to 150 mantas and last up to an hour.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|20–22}} Studies have shown that around 27% of the diet of ''M. birostris'' is from the surface, while around 73% is at deeper depths.<ref name="Burgess2016">{{cite journal |author=Burgess, K. B. |author2=Couturier, L. I. E. |author3=Marshall, A. D. |author4=Richardson, A. J. |author5=Weeks, S. J. |author6=Bennett, M. B. |year=2016|title=''Manta birostris'', predator of the deep? Insight into the diet of the giant manta ray through stable isotope analysis|journal=Royal Society Open Science|volume=3|issue=11|page=160717|doi=10.1098/rsos.160717|pmid=28018660|pmc=5180158|bibcode=2016RSOS....360717B}}</ref> Mantas may forage on the ocean floor with the cephalic fins splayed apart.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|23}}

During filter feeding, the gills may get clogged up, forcing mantas to cough and create a cloud of gill waste. The rays commonly do this above cleaning stations, providing a feast for the cleaner fish. Mantas defecate dark red fecal matter which is often mistaken for blood.<ref name=Guide/>{{rp|36}}

===Lifecycle===
[[File:Manta alfredi maldives.jpg|thumb|left|''M. alfredi'' group in the [[Maldives]]]]

Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of the manta's range. Courtship is difficult to observe in this fast-swimming fish, although mating "trains" with multiple individuals swimming closely behind each other are sometimes seen in shallow water. These mating trains often consist of multiple male rays simultaneously pursuing an individual female. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deakos |first=MH |last2=Baker |first2=JD |last3=Bejder |first3=L |date=2011-05-16 |title=Characteristics of a manta ray Manta alfredi population off Maui, Hawaii, and implications for management |url=https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09085 |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=429 |pages=245–260 |doi=10.3354/meps09085 |issn=0171-8630}}</ref>The mating sequence may be triggered by a [[full moon]] and seems to be initiated by a male following closely behind a female while she travels at around {{convert|10|km/h|abbr=on}}. He makes repeated efforts to grasp her pectoral fin with his mouth, which may take 20 to 30 minutes. Once he has a tight grip, he turns upside-down and presses his ventral side against hers. He then inserts one of his [[clasper]]s into her [[cloaca]], where it remains for 60–90 seconds.<ref name=Yano/> The claspers form a tube and a [[siphon]] propels [[semen]] from the [[genital papilla]] into the [[oviduct]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/chondrichthyes/reproduction.htm |title=Reproduction in cartilaginous fish |author1=Compagno, Leonard J. V. |author2=Ebert, David A. |author3=Smale, Malcolm J. |year=2008 |work=Biodiversity Explorer |publisher=Iziko Museums of Cape Town |access-date=February 12, 2013 |archive-date=19 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619153042/http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/chondrichthyes/reproduction.htm }}</ref><ref name=Guide/>{{rp|41–42}} The male continues to grip the female's pectoral fin with his teeth for a further few minutes as both continue to swim, often followed by up to 20 other males. The pair then parts, the female being left with scars on her fin.<ref name=Yano>{{cite journal |author1=Yano, K. |author2=Sato, F. |author3=Takahashi, T. |year=1999 |title=Observations of mating behavior of the manta ray, ''Manta birostris'', at the Ogasawara Islands, Japan |journal=Ichthyological Research |volume=46 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF02678515 |pages=289–296|bibcode=1999IchtR..46..289Y |s2cid=46133983 }}</ref><ref name=Guide/>{{rp|46}}

The fertilized eggs develop within the female's oviduct. At first, they are enclosed in an egg case while the developing [[embryo]]s absorb the yolk. After hatching, the pups remain in the oviduct and receive additional nutrition from milky secretions called [[Histotrophy|histotroph]].<ref name=Marshall/> With no [[umbilical cord]] or [[placenta]], the unborn pup relies on [[buccal pumping]] to obtain oxygen.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2012.0288 |author1=Tomita, T. |author2=Toda, M. |author3=Ueda, K. |author4=Uchida, S. |author5=Nakaya, K. | title = Live-bearing manta ray: how the embryo acquires oxygen without placenta and umbilical cord| journal = Biology Letters| volume =8 | issue = 5| pages =721–724 | year= 2012 | pmid = 22675137 | pmc = 3440971}}</ref> Brood size is usually one or occasionally two. The [[gestation period]] is thought to be 12–13 months. When fully developed, the pup resembles a miniature adult and is expelled from the oviduct with no further parental care. In wild populations, an interval of two years between births may be normal, but a few individuals become pregnant in consecutive years, demonstrating an annual ovulatory cycle.<ref name=Marshall>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, A. D. |author2=Bennett, M. B. |year=2010 |title=Reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray ''Manta alfredi'' in southern Mozambique |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=185–186 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02669.x |pmid=20646146|bibcode=2010JFBio..77..169M }}</ref> The [[Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium]] has had some success in breeding ''M. alfredi'', with one female giving birth in three successive years. In one of these pregnancies, the gestation period was 372 days and at birth the pup had a width of {{convert|192|cm|abbr=on}} and weight of {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name=iucn2>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/pdflink.8969079 |title=''Manta alfredi'', Reef Manta Ray |author=Marshall, A. |author2=Kashiwagi, T. |author3=Bennett, M. B. |author4=Deakos, M. |author5=Stevens, G. |author6=McGregor, F. |author7=Clark, T. |author8=Ishihara, H. |author9=Sato, K. |name-list-style=amp|page=7|date=2008|work=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> In Indonesia, ''M. birostris'' males appear to mature at {{convert|3.75|m|0|abbr=on}}, while female mature around {{convert|4|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=White, W. T. |author2=Giles, J. |author3=Dharmadi |author4=Potter, I. |year=2006|title=Data on the bycatch fishery and reproductive biology of mobulid rays (Myliobatiformes) in Indonesia|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=82|issue=1–3|pages=65–73|doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2006.08.008|bibcode=2006FishR..82...65W }}</ref> In the [[Maldives]], males of ''M. alfredi'' mature at a width of {{convert|2.5|m|abbr=on}}, while females mature at {{convert|3|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=iucn/> In [[Hawaii]], ''M. alfredi'' matures at a width of {{convert|2.8|m|abbr=on}} for males and {{convert|3.4|m|abbr=on}} for females.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Deakos, M.|year=2010|title=Paired-laser photogrammetry as a simple and accurate system for measuring the body size of free-ranging manta rays Manta ''alfredi''|journal=Aquatic Biology|volume=10|issue=1 |pages=1–10|doi=10.3354/ab00258|doi-access=free|bibcode=2010AquaB..10....1D }}</ref> Female mantas appear to mature at 8–10 years.<ref name=iucn/><ref name="IUCN"/> Manta rays may live as long as 50 years.<ref name=glance>{{cite web |url=http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/mantas-at-a-glance/ |title=Mantas at a glance |year=2013 |publisher=The Manta Trust |access-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103083708/http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/mantas-at-a-glance/ |archive-date=January 3, 2013  }}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
Mantas are found in tropical and subtropical waters in all the world's major oceans, and also venture into temperate seas. The furthest from the [[equator]] they have been recorded is [[North Carolina]] in the United States (31°N) and the [[North Island]] of [[New Zealand]] (36°S). They prefer water temperatures above {{convert|68|°F|°C|abbr=on}}<ref name="Ebert">{{cite book|first=David A. |last=Ebert|title=Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1SjtuAs702kC}}|year=2003|pages=230–233|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23484-0}}</ref> and ''M. alfredi'' is predominantly found in tropical areas.<ref name=MarshallCompagnoBennett/> Both species are [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]]. ''M. birostris'' lives mostly in the open ocean, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient-rich water increase prey concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Luiz Jr, O. J. |author2=Balboni, A. P. |author3=Kodja, G. |author4=Andrade, M. |author5=Marum, H. |year=2009|title=Seasonal occurrences of ''Manta birostris'' (Chondrichthyes: Mobulidae) in southeastern Brazil|journal=Ichthyological Research|volume=56|issue=1|pages=96–99|doi=10.1007/s10228-008-0060-3|bibcode=2009IchtR..56...96L |s2cid=38384569 |issn=1616-3915}}</ref>

Fish that have been fitted with radio transmitters have traveled as far as {{convert|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} from where they were caught, and descended to depths of at least {{convert|1000|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Support inclusion of the Giant Manta (''M. birostris'') in CMS Appendix I & II as proposed by the Government of Ecuador (I/5)|publisher=sharkadvocates.org|url=http://www.mantatrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/manta-cms-special-fact-sheet-FINAL-11-11.pdf|access-date=January 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604145519/http://www.mantatrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/manta-cms-special-fact-sheet-FINAL-11-11.pdf|archive-date=June 4, 2013}}</ref> ''M. alfredi'' is a more resident and coastal species. Seasonal migrations do occur, but they are shorter than those of ''M. birostris''.<ref name=iucn/> Mantas are common around coasts from spring to fall, but travel further offshore during the winter. They keep close to the surface and in shallow water in daytime, while at night they swim at greater depths.<ref name="Ebert"/>

==Conservation issues==

===Threats===
[[File:Elinkine3.JPG|thumb|right|Dead mantas ashore in [[Senegal]]]]
The greatest threat to manta rays is [[overfishing]]. ''M. birostris'' is not evenly distributed over the oceans, but is concentrated in areas that provide the food resources it requires, while ''M. alfredi'' is even more localized. Their distributions are thus fragmented, with little evidence of intermingling of subpopulations. Because of their long lifespans and low reproductive rate, overfishing can severely reduce local populations with little likelihood that individuals from elsewhere will replace them.<ref name="IUCN">{{Cite iucn | author = Marshall, A. | author2 = Bennett, M.B. | author3 = Kodja, G. | author4 = Hinojosa-Alvarez, S. | author5 = Galvan-Magana, F. | author6 = Harding, M. | author7 = Stevens, G. | author8 = Kashiwagi, T. | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Manta birostris'' | volume = 2011 | page = e.T198921A9108067 | date = 2011 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T198921A9108067.en }}</ref>

Both [[Commercial fishing|commercial]] and [[Artisan fishing|artisanal]] fisheries have targeted mantas for their meat and products. They are typically caught with nets, [[Trawling|trawls]], and harpoons.<ref name="IUCN"/> Mantas were once captured by fisheries in California and Australia for their liver oil and skin; the latter made into [[abrasive]]s.<ref name=flmnh/> Their flesh is edible and is consumed in some countries, but is unattractive compared to other fish.<ref name="manta fisheries"/> Demand for their gill rakers, the cartilaginous structures protecting the gills, has recently entered [[Chinese medicine]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Radford, B.|date=September 22, 2012|title=Unproven Chinese Medicine Killing Manta Rays|publisher=Discovery News|access-date=April 13, 2013|url=http://news.discovery.com/animals/endangered-species/unproven-chinese-medicine-killing-manta-rays-121022.htm}}</ref> To fill the growing demand in Asia for gill rakers, targeted fisheries have developed in the Philippines, Indonesia, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and Tanzania.<ref name="manta fisheries">{{cite web | title = Manta Fisheries | publisher = Manta Trust | year = 2011 | url = http://www.mantatrust.org/threats/manta-fisheries/ | access-date = February 21, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127060340/http://www.mantatrust.org/threats/manta-fisheries/ | archive-date = January 27, 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Each year, thousands of manta rays, primarily ''M. birostris'', are caught and killed purely for their gill rakers. A fisheries study in Sri Lanka and India estimated that over 1000 were being sold in the country's fish markets each year.<ref>{{cite web | title = Sri Lanka Manta Project | publisher = The Manta Trust | year = 2011 | url = http://www.mantatrust.org/in-the-field/sri-lanka/ | access-date = February 21, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127165733/http://www.mantatrust.org/in-the-field/sri-lanka/ | archive-date = January 27, 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> By comparison, ''M. birostris'' populations at most of the key aggregation sites around the world are estimated to have significantly fewer than 1000 individuals.<ref>{{cite web | title = Manta Hotspots | publisher = The Manta Trust | year = 2011 | url = http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/manta-hotspots/ | access-date = February 21, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127172157/http://www.mantatrust.org/about-mantas/manta-hotspots/ | archive-date = January 27, 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Targeted fisheries for manta rays in the [[Gulf of California]], the west coast of Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines have reduced populations in these areas dramatically.<ref name="IUCN"/>

Manta rays are subject to other [[Human impact on the environment|human impacts]]. Because mantas must swim constantly to flush oxygen-rich water over their gills, they are vulnerable to entanglement and subsequent [[suffocation]]. Mantas cannot swim backwards, and because of their protruding cephalic fins, are prone to entanglement in fishing lines, [[fishing net|nets]], [[ghost net]]s, and even loose mooring lines. When snared, mantas often attempt to free themselves by somersaulting, tangling themselves further. Loose, trailing line can wrap around and cut its way into its flesh, resulting in irreversible injury. Similarly, mantas become [[bycatch]] when entangled in gill nets designed for smaller fish.<ref>{{cite web | title = Bycatch | publisher = The Manta Trust | year = 2011 | url = http://www.mantatrust.org/threats/bycatch/ | access-date = February 21, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130127171053/http://www.mantatrust.org/threats/bycatch/ | archive-date = January 27, 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Some mantas are injured by collision with boats, especially in areas where they congregate and are easily observed. Other threats or factors that may affect manta numbers are [[climate change]], tourism, pollution from [[oil spill]]s, and the ingestion of [[microplastics]].<ref name="IUCN"/>

===Status===
[[File:Manta birostris-Thailand3.jpg|thumb|''M. birostris'' at Hin Daeng, near [[Phi Phi Islands]], [[Thailand]]]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] listed the reef manta as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] in 2019 and the giant manta as [[endangered species|endangered]] in 2020.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Marshall, A. |author2=Barreto, R. |author3=Carlson, J. |author4=Fernando, D. |author5=Fordham, S. |author6=Francis, M.P. |author7=Herman, K. |author8=Jabado, R.W. |author9=Liu, K.M. |author10=Pacoureau, N. |author11=Rigby, C.L. |author12=Romanov, E. |author13=Sherley, R.B. |date=2019 |title=''Mobula alfredi'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T195459A68632178 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T195459A68632178.en |access-date=November 20, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite iucn |author=Marshall, A. |author2=Barreto, R. |author3=Carlson, J. |author4=Fernando, D. |author5=Fordham, S. |author6=Francis, M.P. |author7=Derrick, D. |author8=Herman, K. |author9=Jabado, R.W. |author10=Liu, K.M. |author11=Rigby, C.L. |author12=Romanov, E. |year=2020 |title=''Mobula birostris'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T198921A68632946 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T198921A68632946.en |access-date=3 July 2024}}</ref> In 2011, mantas became strictly protected in international waters because of their inclusion in the [[Bonn Convention|Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]. The CMS is an international treaty organization concerned with conserving migratory species and habitats on a global scale. Although individual nations were already protecting manta rays, the fish often migrate through unregulated waters, putting them at increased risk from overfishing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cms.int/news/PRESS/nwPR2012/01_jan/nw_130112_cop_manta_ray.htm |title=COP10 Outcome: Migratory Manta Ray under CMS Protection |date=25 November 2011 |work=Convention on Migratory Species |publisher=UNEP; CMS |access-date=19 February 2013}}</ref> The [[Manta Trust]] is a UK-based charity dedicated to research and conservation efforts for manta rays. The organization's website is also an information resource for manta conservation and biology.<ref name="Manta Trust">{{cite web | title = The Manta Trust Homepage | publisher = The Manta Trust | url = http://www.mantatrust.org/ | access-date =March 9, 2011 }}</ref>

In 2009, Hawaii became the first state in the United States to introduce a ban on the killing or capturing of manta rays. Previously, no fishery for mantas existed in the state but migratory fish that pass the islands are now protected. In 2010, Ecuador introduced a law prohibiting all fishing for manta and other rays, their retention as bycatch and their sale.<ref name="IUCN"/>

==Relation with humans==
[[Image:MantarayMocheLMC.jpg|thumb|right|Ceramic manta ray made by Moche people, 200 AD, [[Larco Museum]] Lima, Peru|alt=Photo of manta-shaped ceramic vessel with painting of another on its surface]]
The ancient [[Peru]]vian [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people worshipped the sea and its animals. Their art often depicts manta rays.<ref name="Berrin1997">{{cite book|first=Kathleen |last=Berrin|title=The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=_9sjPAAACAAJ}}|year=1997|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-88401-092-0}}</ref> Historically, mantas were feared for their size and power. Sailors believed that they were dangerous to humans and could pull ships out to sea by the anchor. This attitude changed around 1976, when divers around the Gulf of California found them to be placid and safe to interact with. Several divers photographed themselves with mantas, including ''[[Jaws (novel)|Jaws]]'' author [[Peter Benchley]].<ref name="Ellis2004">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Ellis|title=Monsters of the Sea|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nzfvYlO1hDcC}}|year=2004|publisher=Lyons Press|pages=9–11|isbn=978-1-59228-967-7}}</ref>

===Aquariums===
[[File:Mobula.jpg|thumb|left|''Manta alfredi'' at [[Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium]]]]
The Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium acquired mantas in 1978 which survived for four days.<ref>{{cite book|author=佐藤 圭一|title=沖縄美ら海水族館はなぜ役に立たない研究をするのか?|publisher=産業編集センター}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://jses.info/mngmnt/wp-content/uploads/report/bansai_report_014.pdf　|title=1982年日本板鰓類研究会会報 第14号|publisher= 板鰓類研究会 |access-date=2021-12-29|language=Japanese}}</ref> In addition, at the [[Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium]], a male manta ray, which started captivity in 1992 at its predecessor, the Okinawa Ocean Expo Aquarium, was recorded to have lived for approximately 23 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churaumi.okinawa/sp/userfiles/files/about/research/h26_nepou.pdf　|title=平成２６年度 沖縄美ら海水族館年報|publisher=Okinawa Churaumi aquarium |access-date=2021-05-29|language=Japanese}}</ref> The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium houses manta rays in the "Kuroshio Sea" tank, one of the largest aquarium tanks in the world. The first manta ray birth in captivity took place there in 2007. Although this pup did not survive, the aquarium has since had the birth of four more manta rays in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011.<ref name=iucn2/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churaumi.okinawa/userfiles/files/about/research/h22-23_nepou.pdf　|title=平成22-23年度 沖縄美ら海水族館年報|publisher=Okinawa Churaumi aquarium |access-date=2021-05-29|language=Japanese}}</ref> However, although Manta became pregnant in 2012, she was stillborn.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churaumi.okinawa/userfiles/files/about/research/h24_nepou.pdf　|title=平成24年度 沖縄美ら海水族館年報|publisher=Okinawa Churaumi aquarium |access-date=2021-05-29|language=Japanese}}</ref> In 2013, she became pregnant, but her mother, manta ray, died and the pup that was taken out died.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churaumi.okinawa/userfiles/files/about/research/h25_nepou.pdf　|title=平成25年度 沖縄美ら海水族館年報|publisher=Okinawa Churaumi aquarium |access-date=2021-05-29|language=Japanese}}</ref> In August 2024, a female all black body manta ray kept in the Kuroshio tank gave birth. The pups were born black all over like their mother, {{Convert|1.6|m|ft|0}} wide, and weighed {{Convert|42|kg|lb|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churaumi.okinawa/blog/1723021258/ |title=【世界初！！ブラックマンタが産まれました！】 |publisher=Okinawa Churaumi aquarium |access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref>

There are currently three mantas spending time at the [[Georgia Aquarium]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.georgiaaquarium.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Manta-Ray-Specialty.pdf |title= SPC 641 Specialty |publisher= Georgia Aquarium |access-date= 2021-12-29 |archive-date= 29 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211229002217/https://www.georgiaaquarium.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Manta-Ray-Specialty.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref> One notable individual is "Nandi", a manta ray which was accidentally caught in shark nets off [[Durban]], South Africa, in 2007. Rehabilitated and outgrowing her aquarium at [[uShaka Marine World]], Nandi was moved to the larger Georgia Aquarium in August 2008, where she resides in its 23,848 m<sup>3</sup> (6,300,000 US gal) "Ocean Voyager" exhibit.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Georgia Aquarium is excited to welcome Nandi, the manta ray! |publisher=George Aquarium.org |access-date=May 13, 2013 |url=http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/nandi/about-nandi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129164718/http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/nandi/about-nandi/ |archive-date=November 29, 2014 }}</ref> A second manta ray, "Tallulah", joined that aquarium's collection in September 2009<ref>{{cite web|title=Georgia Aquarium Welcomes Second New Manta Ray |publisher=Georgia Aquarium.org |url=http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/newsroom/pressdetail.aspx?id=147 |date=September 3, 2009 |access-date=September 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131140033/http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/newsroom/pressdetail.aspx?id=147 |archive-date=January 31, 2012 }}</ref> and a third was added in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Georgia Aquarium Welcomes Third Manta Ray |publisher=George Aquarium.org |url=http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/newsroom/pressdetail.aspx?id=159 |date=April 22, 2013 |access-date=September 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303200029/http://www.georgiaaquarium.org/newsroom/pressdetail.aspx?id=159 |archive-date=March 3, 2012 }}</ref>

The [[Atlantis Paradise Island|Atlantis]] resort on [[Paradise Island]], Bahamas, hosted a manta named "Zeus" that was used as a research subject for three years until it was released in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|title=Giant manta ray released after years of research|newspaper=USAToday.com|date=May 8, 2008|access-date=May 16, 2013|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/environment/2008-05-08-ray-release_N.htm?csp=341020}}</ref>

===Tourism===
[[File:Giant oceanic manta ray.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Manta and scuba diver|''Manta birostris'' and scuba diver]]
Manta ray tourism is estimated to generate over US$73 million per year and brings US$140 million per year to local economies. The majority of global revenues come from ten countries: [[Japan]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Maldives]], [[Mozambique]], [[Thailand]], [[Australia]], [[Mexico]], [[United States]], the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] and [[Palau]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=O'Malley, M. P.|author2=Lee-Brooks, K.|author3=Medd, H. B.|year=2013|title=The Global Economic Impact of Manta Ray Watching Tourism|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=5|page=e65051|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065051|pmid=23741450|pmc=3669133|bibcode=2013PLoSO...865051O|doi-access=free}}</ref> Divers may get a chance to watch mantas visiting cleaning stations and [[Manta ray night dive|night dives]] enable viewers to see mantas feeding on plankton attracted by the lights.<ref name=Kona>{{cite web |url=http://www.konahonudivers.com/ |title=Kona, Hawaii Scuba Diving |publisher=Kona Honu Diving|access-date=March 14, 2013}}</ref>

Ray tourism benefits locals and visitors by raising awareness of natural resource management and educating them about the animals.<ref name=tourism/> It can also provide funds for research and conservation.<ref name=Maldives>{{cite journal|author1=Anderson, R. C. |author2=Adam, M. S. |author3=Kitchen-Wheeler, A.-M. |author4=Stevens, G. |year=2011|title=Extent and economic value of manta ray watching in Maldives|journal=Tourism in Marine Environments|volume=7|issue=1|pages=15–27|doi=10.3727/154427310X12826772784793|s2cid=143733610 }}</ref> Constant unregulated interactions with tourists can negatively affect them by disrupting ecological relationships and increasing disease transmission.<ref name=tourism>{{cite book|first=Michael |last=Lück|title=The Encyclopedia of Tourism and Recreation in Marine Environments|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Yuc2Aro6ukkC}}|year=2008|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-1-84593-350-0}}</ref>

In 2014, Indonesia banned fishing and export targeting mantas, as manta ray tourism is more economically beneficial than allowing them to be killed. A dead manta is worth $40 to $500, while the economic impact of tourism at a popular dive site can be $1 million per manta over its life,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=O'Malley |first1=Mary P. |last2=Lee-Brooks |first2=Katie |last3=Medd |first3=Hannah B. |date=2013-05-31 |title=The Global Economic Impact of Manta Ray Watching Tourism |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=e65051 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065051 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3669133 |pmid=23741450|bibcode=2013PLoSO...865051O |doi-access=free }}</ref> the most famous spot for Manta Ray spotting being Manta Point located in Labuan Bajo.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://divetribekomodo.com/blog/manta-point-in-labuan-bajo-guide |title=Manta Point in Labuan Bajo: A Comprehensive Guide |publisher=Dive Tribe Komodo|access-date=October 4, 2024}}</ref> Indonesia has {{convert|5.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} of ocean, and this is now the world's largest sanctuary for manta rays.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/21/indonesia-hopes-cash-manta-ray-tourism.html |title=Indonesia hopes to cash in on manta ray tourism |author=Mason, Margie |date=February 21, 2014|website=TheJakartaPost}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

==See also==
* [[List of threatened rays]]
* [[Manta Matcher]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Manta (genus)}}
{{Wikispecies|Manta}}
*[http://www.facebook.com/dcaquaventure/videos/1773241009425587/ Maldives Manta Rays: VIDEO]
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/ Microdocs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727042839/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/ |date=27 July 2011 }}: [http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/mantaray.html Manta ray] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109212837/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/mantaray.html |date=November 9, 2013 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091115103422/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/Manta_ray Manta Ray videos and news stories from the BBC including footage of the possible new species]
*{{cite iucn |author=Marshall, A. |author2=Barreto, R. |author3=Carlson, J. |author4=Fernando, D. |author5=Fordham, S. |author6=Francis, M.P. |author7=Derrick, D. |author8=Herman, K. |author9=Jabado, R.W. |author10=Liu, K.M. |author11=Rigby, C.L. |author12=Romanov, E. |date=2020 |title=''Mobula birostris'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T198921A68632946 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T198921A68632946.en |access-date=November 19, 2021}}
*{{ARKive}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-TmonIb3MU Diving with Mantas at the Azores]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130604113636/http://www.mantatrust.org/photo-stories/meet-the-maldivian-mantas/ Meet the Maldivian Mantas] ''[[Manta Trust]]''.
* [http://mantamatcher.org/ Manta Matcher – The Wildbook for Manta Rays]
* [https://marinehobby.com/2018/12/09/japans-giant-manta-ray-okinawa-worlds-first-to-exhibit/ Japans giant manta ray, Okinawa world's first to exhibit]

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{{Taxonbar|from=Q1536199}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Manta ray}}
[[Category:Myliobatidae]]
[[Category:Pantropical fish]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Extant Miocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Aquitanian genus first appearances]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Edward Nathaniel Bancroft]]