Editing Manna

{{short description|Edible substance described in the Bible}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:Tissot The Gathering of the Manna (color).jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|''The Gathering of the Manna'' by [[James Tissot]]]]
'''Manna''' ({{langx|he|מָן|mān}}, {{Langx|el|μάννα}}; {{langx|ar|اَلْمَنُّ}}), sometimes or archaically spelled '''Mahna''' or '''Mana''', is described in the [[Bible]] and the [[Quran]] as an edible substance that [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] bestowed upon the [[Israelites]] while they were wandering the desert during the 40-year period that followed [[the Exodus]] and preceded the [[Book of Joshua|conquest of Canaan]].

==Description==

=== Biblical narrative ===
In the [[Hebrew Bible]], manna is described twice: once in [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 16:1–36 with the full narrative surrounding it, and once again in [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 11:1–9 as a part of a separate narrative. In the description in the Book of Exodus, manna is described as being "a fine, flake-like thing" like the [[Ground frost|frost on the ground]].<ref name="e1614">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:14|HE}}.</ref> It is described in the Book of Numbers as arriving with the [[dew]] during the night.<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|11:9|HE}}.</ref> Exodus adds that it had to be collected before it was melted by the heat of the [[Sun]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:21|HE}}.</ref> and that it was like a [[coriander seed]] in size, but white in colour.<ref name="autogenerated10">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:31|HE}}.</ref>

Numbers describes it as having the appearance of [[bdellium]],<ref name="autogenerated4">{{bibleverse||Numbers|11:7|HE}} However, commentators such as John Gill prefer to interpret the Hebrew word {{script/Hebrew|בדולח}} ''bəḏōlaḥ'', usually translated "bdellium", as a reference to a white precious stone ([http://www.biblestudytools.com/commentaries/gills-exposition-of-the-bible/numbers-11-7.html John Gill, Commentary on Numbers 11:7]). Others translate the word as "[[Gum (botany)|gum]] [[resin]]," "[[hoar frost]]," "[[pearl]]" or "[[amber]]." ([https://biblehub.com/numbers/11-7.htm BibleHub])</ref> adding that the [[Israelites]] ground it and pounded it into cakes, which were then baked, resulting in something that tasted like cakes baked with oil.<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|11:8|HE}}.</ref> Exodus states that raw manna tasted like wafers that had been made with honey.<ref name=autogenerated10/> The Israelites were instructed to eat only the manna they had gathered for each day. Stored manna "bred worms and stank",<ref name="autogenerated1">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:20|HE}}.</ref> the exception being that stored the day before the [[Sabbath]] (Preparation Day), when twice the amount of manna was gathered. This manna did not spoil overnight. Exodus 16:23–24 states:<blockquote>This is what the {{LORD}} commanded: "Tomorrow is to be a day of rest, a holy Sabbath to the {{LORD}}. So bake what you want to bake and boil what you want to boil. Save whatever is left and keep it until morning". So they saved it until morning, as [[Moses]] commanded, and it did not stink or get maggots in it.<ref>Bible, New International Version.</ref></blockquote>

===Quranic narrative===
The word ''mana'' appears three times in the [[Quran]], at 2:57, 7:160, and 20:80.<ref name="Rippin2017">{{cite book|last=Rippin|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Rippin|title=Wiley Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szlGDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA308|access-date=6 April 2017|date=24 April 2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-96480-4|page=308}}</ref> It is narrated in ''[[Sahih Muslim]]'' that [[Muhammad]] said: "[[Terfeziaceae|Truffles]] are part of the 'manna' which God sent to the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|people of Israel]] through [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and its juice is a medicine for the eye."<ref>Hadith:https://sunnah.com/mishkat:4569</ref>

===Identification===
[[Image:Pine branch with Marchalina hellenica honeydew.jpg|thumb|Pine branch with ''[[Marchalina hellenica]]'' honeydew]]
[[Image:Tamarix gallica bloemen.jpg|thumb|''[[Tamarix gallica]]'']]
''“Mann”'' or “المَنّ” or “ّمَن” in lexicon, according to some, refers to small droplets like dew that settle on trees and have a sweet taste. Others describe it as a type of sap or tree resin with a sweet flavor, sometimes sweet with a hint of sourness. According to a narration from Muhammad, ''“mann”'' was edible mushrooms that grew in {{Clarify|text=that land|date=May 2025|reason=which land?}} {{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}.

Some have also said that ''“mann”'' refers to all the blessings that God bestowed upon the Children of Israel as a divine favor {{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}.

Alternatively, it has been interpreted as a type of natural honey found in the mountains near that desert, or an energizing syrup derived from specific plants that grew in scattered parts of the wilderness.<sup><small>[10/2]</small></sup>

In the biblical account, the name Manna is said to derive from the "question" ''man hu?'' ({{langx|he|מן הוא|mān hū}}), seemingly meaning "What is it?",<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:15|HE}}.</ref> which is perhaps derived from [[Aramaic]], not [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].<ref name="Nelson-1962" /> ''Man'' is possibly cognate with the [[Arabic]] term ''man'' ({{lang|ar|من}}), meaning [[aphid]]s, with ''man hu'' thus meaning "this is aphids",<ref name="Nelson-1962" /> which fits one widespread modern identification of manna as the crystallized [[honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]] of certain [[scale insect]]s.<ref name="Nelson-1962" /> In the environment of a desert, such honeydew rapidly dries due to [[evaporation]] of its water content, becoming a sticky solid, and later turning whitish, yellowish, or brownish.<ref name="Nelson-1962" />

In particular, there is a scale insect that feeds on [[tamarisk]], the Tamarisk manna scale (''[[Trabutina mannipara]]''), the secretions of which are often considered to be the prime candidate for biblical manna.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581818/tamarisk-manna-scale |title=Tamarisk manna scale – insect |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> At the turn of the twentieth century, [[Arabs]] of the [[Sinai Peninsula]] were selling this substance as ''man es-simma من السما'', roughly meaning "heavenly manna".<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/> Tamarisk trees (particularly ''[[Tamarix gallica]]'') were once comparatively extensive throughout the southern Sinai, and the honeydew produced by the Tamarisk manna scale is similar to wax, melts in the sun, is sweet and aromatic (like honey), and has a dirty-yellow color, fitting somewhat with the biblical descriptions of manna.<ref name="Lefrak">{{cite news |last1=Lefrak |first1=Mikaela |title=Is this biblical food the next foodie fad? This chef thinks so |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/is-this-biblical-food-the-next-foodie-fad-this-chef-thinks-so/2018/08/03/1f2cafa2-8b60-11e8-8aea-86e88ae760d8_story.html |access-date=8 August 2018 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=7 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="Biblica-1902"/><ref name="Nelson-1962">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/peakescommentary00blac/page/224/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible |date=1962 |publisher=T. Nelson |editor1-last=Black |editor1-first=M. |pages=224–225 |editor2-last=Rowley |editor2-first=H. H. |url-access=registration}}</ref> However, being mostly composed of [[sugar]], it would be unlikely to provide sufficient nutrition for a population to survive over long periods of time,<ref name="Biblica-1902">{{cite book |title=Encyclodaedia Biblica |date=1902 |publisher=MacMillan and Company |editor1-last=Cheyne |editor1-first=T. K. |volume=3 |pages=2929–2930 |chapter=Manna |editor2-last=Black |editor2-first=J. S. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/Encyclopaedia_Biblica_Vol_I_to_IV/EncyclodaediaBiblica_Vol_III/page/n139}}</ref> and it would be very difficult for it to have been compacted into cakes.<ref>{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1962|page=259}}.</ref>

Another type of honeydew is [[Quercus cerris|turkey oak]] manna, also called [[Persian language|Persian]] ''gezengevi''-gezo, ''men'', [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kudret helvasi'', ''man-es-simma'', also [[Diarbekir]] manna, or [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] manna. It is formed by aphids and appears white. It was common in western Iran, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey. When dried it forms into crystalline lumps which are hard and look like stone. They are pounded before inclusion in breads.<ref>"Sherbet & Spice: The complete story of Turkish sweets & desserts" by Mary Isin, publisher I.B. Tauris, {{ISBN|9781848858985}}.</ref>

Some scholars have proposed that manna is cognate with the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] term ''mennu'' ([[wikt:mnw#Etymology 2|''mnw'']]), which designated a substance that figured in offerings; a white aromatic plant that smelled of [[wikt:ꜥntjw|''antiu'']] (possibly [[myrrh]]).<ref>Georg Ebers, [https://archive.org/details/durchgosenzumsi00ebergoog/page/n252 ''Durch Gosen zum Sinai''], p. 226, Paul Pierret, [https://archive.org/details/vocabulairehir00pier/page/n219 ''Vocabulaire hiéroglyphique''], p. 212.</ref><ref>James P. Allen (2010). ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs'', 2nd edition, Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], →ISBN, pages 171, 257.</ref>

Other researchers have believed manna to be a form of [[lichen]]{{snd}} a plant-like colony that often has a low mass per unit volume density and a large "sail area". In particular, ''[[Lecanora|Lecanora esculenta]]'' has been postulated. Known natural aerial falls of various lichens have been described as occurring in accounts separate from that in the Bible. "In some parts of Asia ''Lecanora esculenta'' covers the soil to such a degree that, according to Parrot, it forms beds 15 to 20 centimetres thick."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.anbg.gov.au/lichen/case-studies/diyarbakir-manna.html |title=Diyarbakir's heavenly bread – Lichen Case Studies |website=www.anbg.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.anbg.gov.au/lichen/case-studies/manna-lichens.html |title=Manna Lichens – Lichen Case Studies |website=www.anbg.gov.au}}</ref>

In 1921, the American consul in [[Jerusalem]] reported to the American government that he had identified manna as a "form of dew" that "hardens and assumes the form of a grain" when it falls on the leaves of oak trees.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tells of Modern Manna |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/03/24/98657938.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120030611/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/03/24/98657938.pdf |archive-date=2021-11-20 |url-status=live |access-date=24 March 2021 |work=The New York Times |volume=LXX|issue=23,070 |date=24 March 1921 |page=4}}</ref>

===Differences===
[[Image:Frostw.jpg|thumb|[[Hoarfrost]] on grass lawn. Manna is described as white and comparable to hoarfrost in colour.]]
Some [[form critic]]s posit conflicting descriptions of manna as derived from different lore, with the description in Numbers being from the [[Jahwist]] tradition, and the description in Exodus being from the later [[Priestly source|Priestly tradition]].<ref name="Nelson-1962"/><ref name="Hirsch-1906"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hirsch |first1=E. G. |last2=Seligsohn |first2=M. |last3=Barton |first3=G. A. |date=1906 |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11617-numbers-book-of |title=Numbers, Book of |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com}}</ref> The [[Babylonian Talmud]] states that the differences in description were due to the taste varying depending on who ate it, with it tasting like [[honey]] for small children, like [[bread]] for youths, and like [[Olive oil|oil]] for the elderly.<ref>[[Yoma]] 75b.</ref> Similarly, [[classical rabbinical literature]] rectifies the question of whether manna came before or after dew, by holding that the manna was sandwiched between two layers of dew, one falling before the manna, and the other after.<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/><ref name="Hirsch-1906"/>

==Origin==
Manna is from [[Heaven]], according to the [[Hebrew Bible]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Psalm|78:24-25|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Psalm|105:40|HE}}.</ref> and to [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]],<ref>{{bibleverse||John|6:31|KJV}}.</ref> but the various identifications of manna are naturalistic. In the [[Mishnah]], manna is treated as a natural but unique substance, "created during the [[twilight]] of the sixth day of [[Genesis creation myth|Creation]]",<ref>[[Pirkei Avot]] 5:9.</ref> and ensured to be clean, before it arrives, by the sweeping of the ground by a northern wind and subsequent rains.<ref>Mekhilta, ''Beshalah'', ''Wayassa'', p. 3.</ref> According to [[classical rabbinical literature]], manna was ground in a heavenly mill for the use of the righteous, but some of it was allocated to the wicked and left for them to grind themselves.<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/>

==Use and function==
[[Image:Coriander.png|thumb|According to the book of Exodus, manna is like a coriander seed in size but is white (this is explained by ancient commentaries as a comparison to the round shape of the coriander seed).<ref>Rashi on Exodus 16:31</ref>]]
Until they reached [[Canaan]], the Israelites are implied by some passages in the Bible to have eaten only manna during their desert sojourn,<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|21:5|HE}}.</ref> despite the availability of [[milk]] and meat from the livestock with which they traveled, and the references to provisions of fine [[flour]], oil, and meat, in parts of the journey's narrative.<ref name="Seligsohn-1906">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10366-manna# |title=Manna |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |date=1906 |last=Seligsohn |first=M.}}</ref>

As a natural food substance, manna would produce [[waste product]]s; but in classical rabbinical literature, as a supernatural substance, it was held that manna produced no waste, resulting in no [[defecation]] among the Israelites until several decades later, when the manna had ceased to fall.<ref name="sifre">[[Sifre]] (on Numbers), pp. 87–89.</ref> Modern medical science suggests the lack of defecation over such a long period of time would cause severe bowel problems, especially when other food later began to be consumed again. Classical rabbinical writers say that the Israelites complained about the lack of defecation, and were concerned about potential bowel problems.<ref name=sifre/>

Many [[Christian vegetarianism|Christian vegetarians]] say that [[God]] had originally intended that man would not eat meat, because plants cannot move and killing them would not be [[sin]]ful: manna, a non-meat substance, is used to support this theory.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Counihan |first1=Carole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5BG3_z6nEMC&q=manna&pg=PA55 |title=Food and Culture: A Reader |last2=Esterik |first2=Penny Van |date=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-91710-0 |language=en}}</ref> Further, when the people complained and wished for [[quail]], God gave it to them, but they apparently still complained and some greedily gathered the quail. "While the meat was still between their teeth, before it was chewed, the anger of the Lord was kindled against the people."<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|11:4-11:35|HE}}.</ref>

Food was not manna's only use; one classical rabbinical source states that the fragrant odor of manna was used in a Jewish perfume.<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/>

==Gathering==
[[File:Gathering of the Manna.jpg|thumb|''The Gathering of the Manna'', {{circa|1460–1470}}.]]
Exodus says each day one [[Omer (unit)|omer]] of manna was gathered per family member (about 3.64 litres),<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:16|HE}}.</ref> and may imply this was regardless of how much effort was put into gathering it.<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:17-18|HE}}.</ref> A midrash attributed to Rabbi [[Tanhuma]] remarks that although some were diligent enough to go into the fields to gather manna, others just lay down lazily and caught it with their outstretched hands.<ref>Tanhuma, ''Beshalah'' 22.</ref> The Talmud states that this factor was used to solve disputes about the ownership of slaves, since the number of omers of manna each household could gather would indicate how many people were legitimately part of the household.<ref name="autogenerated11">Yoma 75a.</ref> The omers of manna for stolen slaves could be gathered only by legitimate owners, and therefore legitimate owners would have spare omers of manna.<ref name=autogenerated11/>

According to the Talmud, manna was found near the homes of those with strong belief in [[God]], and far from the homes of those with doubts;<ref name=autogenerated11/> indeed, one classical midrash says that manna was intangible to Gentiles, as it would inevitably slip from their hands.<ref>[[Midrash Abkir]] (on Exodus), p. 258.</ref> The [[Midrash Tanhuma]] holds that manna melted, formed liquid streams, was drunk by animals, flavored the animal flesh, and was thus indirectly eaten by Gentiles, this being the only way that Gentiles could taste manna.<ref name="autogenerated6">Midrash Tanhuma.</ref>

Despite these hints of uneven distribution, classical rabbinical literature expresses the view that manna fell in very large quantities each day. It holds that manna was layered out over 2,000 [[cubit]]s square, between 50 and 60 cubits in height, enough to nourish the Israelites for 2,000 years<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/> and to be seen from the palaces of every king in the East and West.<ref>Yoma 76a.</ref>

===Sabbath===
[[File:Gathering of the Manna - Hours of Catherine of Cleves - MS M. 917-945 137v - Morgan Library New York, around 1440 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The Gathering of the Manna, a cropped image from [[Hours of Catherine of Cleves]]. Manuscript MS M. 917-945 ff 137v, [[Morgan Library & Museum]] New York, around 1440.]]
According to Exodus, [[Shabbat]] (Sabbath) was reinstituted the first week manna appeared.<ref name="autogenerated14">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:23|HE}}.</ref> It states that twice as much manna as usual was available on the sixth morning of the week, and none at all could be found on the seventh day;<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:5|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Exodus|16:22|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Exodus|16:26-27|HE}}.</ref> although manna usually rotted and became maggot-infested after a single night,<ref name=autogenerated1/> that which had been collected on the sixth day remained fresh until the second night.<ref name="autogenerated7">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:24|HE}}.</ref> Moses stated that the double portion of Preparation Day was to be consumed on Shabbat;<ref name=autogenerated14/> and that [[God]] instructed him that no one should leave his place on Shabbat,<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:27-29|HE}}.</ref> so that the people could rest during it.<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:30|HE}}.</ref>

[[Form critic]]s regard this part of the manna narrative to be spliced together from the Yahwist and Priestly traditions, with the Yahwist tradition emphasizing rest during Shabbat, while the Priestly tradition merely states that Shabbat exists, implying that the meaning of "Shabbat" was already known.<ref name="Nelson-1962"/><ref name="Hirsch-1906">{{cite web |date=1906 |last1=Hirsch |first1=E. G. |last2=Jacob |first2=B. |last3=Driver |first3=S. R. |title=Exodus, Book of |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5940-exodus-book-of |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com}}</ref> These critics regard this part of the manna narrative as an [[etiology|etiological]] supernature story designed to explain the origin of Shabbat observance, which in reality was probably pre-[[Moses|Mosaic]].<ref name="Nelson-1962"/>

==Duration of supply==
Exodus states that the Israelites consumed the manna for 40 years, starting from the fifteenth day of the second month ([[Iyar]] 15),<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:1-4|HE}}.</ref> but that it then ceased to appear once they had reached a settled land, and once they had reached the borders of Canaan (inhabited by the [[Canaanites]]).<ref name="autogenerated9">{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:35|HE}}.</ref> Form critics attribute this variation to the view that each expression of the manna ceasing derives from different lore; the "settled land" is attributed to the Priestly tradition,<ref name="Hirsch-1906"/> and "Canaan's borders" to the Yahwist tradition, or to a hypothetical [[Documentary hypothesis|later redaction]] to synchronize the account with that of the [[Book of Joshua]],<ref name="Hirsch-1906"/> which states that the manna ceased to appear on the day after the annual [[Passover]] festival ([[Nisan 14]]), when the Israelites had reached [[Gilgal]].<ref name="j5">{{bibleverse||Joshua|5:10-12|HE}}.</ref> The duration from Iyar 15 to Nisan 14, taken literally, is forty years less one month.

There is also a disagreement among classical rabbinical writers as to when the manna ceased, particularly in regard to whether it remained after the death of Moses for a further 40 days, 70 days, or 14 years;<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/> indeed, according to [[Joshua ben Levi]], the manna ceased to appear at the moment that Moses died.<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/>

Despite the eventual termination of the supply of manna, Exodus states that a small amount of it survived within an omer-sized pot or jar, which was kept facing the Testimony (possibly, adjacent to the [[Ark of the Covenant]]);<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:34|HE}}.</ref> it indicates that God instructed this of Moses, who delegated it to [[Aaron]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|16:32-33|HE}}.</ref> The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] states that the pot was stored inside the Ark.<ref>{{bibleverse||Hebrews|9:4|KJV}}.</ref> Classical rabbinical sources believe the pot was made of [[gold]]; some say it was only there for the generation following Moses, and others that it survived at least until the time of [[Jeremiah]].<ref name="Seligsohn-1906"/> However, the [[First Book of Kings]] states that it was absent earlier than Jeremiah, during [[Solomon]]'s reign in the tenth century B.C.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Kings|8:9|HE}}.</ref> Form critics attribute the mention of the pot to the Priestly tradition, concluding that the pot existed in the early sixth century B.C.<ref name="Hirsch-1906"/>

==Later cultural references==
By extension, "manna" has been used to refer to any divine or spiritual nourishment.

At the [[Basilica di San Nicola]] in [[Bari, Italy]], there is an annual ceremony of collecting a clear liquid from the tomb of Saint Nicholas;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devotion & Use of Manna |url=https://www.stnicholascenter.org/who-is-st-nicholas/saint-in-bari/manna |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=St. Nicholas Center |language=en-us}}</ref> legend credits the pleasant perfume of this liquid with warding off evil, and it is sold to [[pilgrim]]s as "the Manna of Saint Nicholas".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carroll |first=Rory |title=Bones of contention {{!}} The Guardian {{!}} guardian.co.uk |url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,414584,00.html |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> The liquid gradually seeps out of the tomb, but it is unclear whether it originates from the body within the tomb, or from the marble itself; since the town of Bari is a harbor, and the tomb is below [[sea level]], there are several natural explanations for the manna fluid, including the transfer of [[seawater]] to the tomb by [[capillary action]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Girling |first=Richard |date=December 12, 2004 |title=The Times & The Sunday Times |url=https://www.thetimes.com/ |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=[[The Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

In the 17th century, a woman marketed a clear, tasteless product as a cosmetic, "the Manna of Saint Nicholas of Bari". After the deaths of some 600 men, Italian authorities discovered that the alleged cosmetic was a preparation of [[arsenic]], used by their wives.<ref name=time/>

[[Robert Nozick]] references "manna from heaven" in a thought experiment about [[distributive justice]].<ref>{{Cite IEP|url-id=nozick|title=Robert Nozick (1938–2002)|first=Edward|last=Feser}}</ref>

In a modern botanical context, manna is often used to refer to the secretions of various plants, especially of certain shrubs and trees, and in particular the sugars obtained by evaporating the sap of the [[Fraxinus ornus|manna ash]], extracted by making small cuts in the bark.<ref name="rushforth">Rushforth, K., 1999, ''Trees of Britain and Europe'', Collins, {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}.</ref> The manna ash, native to [[Southern Europe]] and [[Southwest Asia]], produces a blue-green sap, which has medicinal value as a mild [[laxative]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Grieve |first=Mrs. M. |title=A Modern Herbal {{!}} Ash, Manna |url=https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/ashmn075.html |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=www.botanical.com}}</ref> [[demulcent]], and weak [[expectorant]].<ref name="time">{{Cite web |date=2008-06-02 |orig-date=August 29, 1927 |title=Manna |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723060,00.html |access-date=2024-01-14 |publisher=Time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602152953/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,723060,00.html |archive-date=2 June 2008 }}</ref>

The names of both the sugar [[mannose]] and its hydrogenated [[sugar alcohol]], [[mannitol]], are derived from manna.<ref>Cooley's Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts, 6th ed. (1880).</ref>

=== Manna in medicine ===
[[File:Manna Hortus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Hortus sanitatis, Mainz 1491. Woodcut showing manna]]
[[File:Houel 1782 Totale1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Jean-Pierre Houël]] 1782. Collection of manna in [[Cinisi]]]]

Greek and Latin physicians and encyclopedists of the 1st century AD ([[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioskurides]] and [[Pliny the Elder|Plinius]]) held manna for crumbs of [[Frankincense]], fallen from ''[[Boswellia sacra]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dioscorides Pedanius |first=of Anazarbos |url=http://archive.org/details/despedaniosdios00pedagoog |title=Des Pedanios Dioskurides aus Anazarbos : Arzneimittellehre in fünf Büchern |date=1902 |publisher=Stuttgart : F. Enke |others=unknown library}}</ref><ref>[[Pliny the Elder]]. 1. Jh. ''Naturalis historia''. Übersetzt und erläutert von Philipp H. Külb. Metzler, Stuttgart 1840–1864. Buch XII, Kapitel 32 ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10246058_00698}}).</ref>

Starting with [[Avicenna]], the physicians of the Arabian and Latin [[Middle Ages]] held that manna was a [[dew]] (''ros'') falling on stones and trees, and that it was sweet like honey. This manna was believed to incorporate the nature of whatever it fell upon. Its virtues were to soften the abdomen, eradicate acute fever, and to be useful to the chest and lungs as well as to the [[Humorism#Unification with Empedocles's model|choleric and hot natures]].

====References in medieval Muslim works====
* [[Avicenna]] 10th–11th Century<ref>[[Avicenna]]. 10th–11th Century. ''Kanon der Medizin''. Book II. Simples. Translation and commentary by [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Arnaldus de Villanova]]. Revision by Andrea Alpago (1450–1521). Venedig 1555, S. 272: Manna [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0009/bsb00090355/images/index.html?id=00090355&groesser=&fip=yztsewqxdsydeayaxseayaeayayztsxdsydenen&no=16&seite=320 (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* [[Constantine the African]] 11th Century<ref>[[Constantine the African]]. 11th Century. ''Liber de gradibus simplicium''  = translation of ''Liber de gradibus simplicium'' of Ibn al-Dschazzar. 10th Century, Druck. ''Opera''. Basel 1536, S. 347: Manna {{Digitalisat|MDZ=11069388_00365}}.</ref>
* ''Circa instans'' 12th Century<ref>Circa instans. 12th Century. Druck. Venedig 1497, Blatt 202r: Manna [https://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00061068&pimage=407&v=100&nav=&l=de (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* ''Pseudo-Serapion'' 13th Century<ref>Pseudo-Serapion. 13th Century. Druck. Venedig 1497, Blatt 106r: Manna [http://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00061068&pimage=215&v=100&nav=&l=de (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* [[Ibn al-Baitar]] 13th Century<ref>[[Ibn al-Baitar]]. 13th Century. ''Kitāb al-jāmiʿ li-mufradāt al-adwiya wa al-aghdhiya.'' Übersetzung. Joseph Sontheimer unter dem Titel ''Große Zusammenstellung über die Kräfte der bekannten einfachen Heil- und Nahrungsmittel.'' Hallberger, Band II, Stuttgart 1842, S. 533 Manna [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10219077?page=541 (Digitalisat)].</ref>

====References in medieval Christian works====
* [[Conrad of Megenberg]] 14th Century<ref>[[Conrad of Megenberg]]. 14th Century. Main sources: [[Thomas of Cantimpré]], ''Liber de natura rerum.'' Edition. [[Franz Pfeiffer (literary scholar)|Franz Pfeiffer]]. Konrad von Megenberg. '' Buch der Natur.'' Aue, Stuttgart 1861, S. 90–91: Himelprot [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10076915?page=164 (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* ''[[Herbarius moguntinus]]'' 1484<ref>[[Herbarius moguntinus]]. [[Peter Schöffer]], Mainz 1484, pat II, capitel 7 Manna [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0002/bsb00029223/images/index.html?id=00029223&groesser=&fip=qrssdaseayasdasfsdrxdsydxdsydqrseayasdasyzts&no=4&seite=321 (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* ''[[Gart der Gesundheit]]'' 1485<ref>Gart der Gesundheit. [[Peter Schöffer]], Mainz 1485, capitel 267: Manna hymmeldauwe [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0003/bsb00032739/images/index.html?id=00032739&groesser=&fip=xsyztsxdsydewqsdasfsdrqrsxdsydeayaewq&no=4&seite=431 (Digitalisat)].</ref>
* ''[[Hortus Sanitatis|Hortus sanitatis]]'' 1491<ref>Hortus sanitatis. Jacobus Meydenbach, Mainz 1491, capitel 275: Manna [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0002/bsb00027846/images/index.html?id=00027846&groesser=&fip=193.174.98.30&no=&seite=253 (Digitalisat)].</ref>

In 1586 the German physician [[Joachim Camerarius the Younger]] wrote in his herbal, that manna, that was used to purge humours, was collected in [[Walhaz|Welschland]] from species of [[Fraxinus]].<ref>Joachim Camerarius the Younger. Kommentar in: ''Kreutterbuch des hochgelehrten vnnd weitberühmten [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli|Herrn D. P. Andreae Matthioli]]'' … Frankfurt 1586, Blatt 37r [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0009/bsb00091089/images/index.html?id=00091089&groesser=&fip=qrssdaseayasdasfsdrxdsydwewqyzts&no=3&seite=93 (Digitalisat)]: ''In Welſchlandt wirdt die Manna / welche ſo gebreuchlich iſt die Gallen vnnd wäſſerige feuchtigkeit damit ohne beſchwernuß zu purgieren / gemeinglich auff dem Fraxino vnd ſeinen geſchlechten gefunden vnd geſammlet …''</ref> In the same article he showed a [[woodcut]] of ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]''. A woodcut of ''[[Fraxinus ornus]]'' had been published earlier in 1554 and in 1562 by [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]].<ref>''Petri Andreae Matthioli medici senensis Commentarii, in libros sex Pedacii Dioscoridis Anazarbei, de medica materia. Adiectis quàm plurimis plantarum et animalium imaginibus, eodem authore.'' Vincentius Valgrisi, Venedig 1554, p. 87 ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10139457_00113}}).</ref><ref>Übersetzung des Mattiolischen Dioskurides-Kommentars durch Georg Handsch (1529–ca. 1578), Prag 1563, Blatt. 39r–40r ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10149845_00156}}).</ref>

Until the end of the 19th century, manna was brought to [[Northern Europe]] from [[Calabria]] (manna calabrina) and from [[Sicilia]]. It was collected as a secrete from species of ''Fraxinus'', mainly of ''[[Fraxinus ornus]]'' and of ''[[Fraxinus excelsior]]''. Following the rules of [[Humorism#Unification with Empedocles's model|Humorisme]], physicians in Northern Europe prescribed this manna as a mild [[laxative]].

====References in the 17th and 18th centuries====
* [[Pierre Pomet]]. ''Histoire générale des drogues …'' 1694.<ref>[[Pierre Pomet]]. ''Histoire générale des drogues, traitant des plantes, des animaux, & des mineraux ; ouvrage enrichy de plus de quatre cent figures en taille-douce tirées d'aprés nature ; avec un discours qui explique leurs differens noms, les pays d'où elles viennent, la maniere de connoître les veritables d'avec les falsifiées, & leurs proprietez, où l'on découvre l'erreur des anciens & des modernes...par le sieur Pierre Pomet....'' Jean-Baptiste Loyson & Augustin Pillon Paris 1694, Buch 7 : Des gommes, Kapitel 2 : De la manne (S. 236–239) [https://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/resultats/index.php?cote=pharma_000056&p=305&do=page (Digitalisat)].</ref> – [[Nicolas Lemery]]. ''Dictionnaire universel des drogues simples …'' 1699.<ref>[[Nicolas Lemery]]. ''Dictionnaire universel des drogues simples, contenant leurs noms, origines, choix, principes, vertus, étymologies, et ce qu’il y a de particulier dans les animaux, dans les végétaux et dans les minéraux'', Laurent d'Houry, Paris, 1699, S. 470–471: Manna [https://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/resultats/index.php?cote=20798&p=490&do=page (Digitalisat)].</ref> – [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] 1717<ref>[[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]]. ''Traité de la matière médicale, ou l'Histoire et l'usage des médicamens et leur analyse chymique, avec les noms des plantes en latin et en françois, leurs vertus, leurs doses et les compositions où on les employe.'' Edited by M. Besnier, L. d'Houry, Paris 1717. vol I, p. 28–37 [https://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/resultats/index.php?cote=pharma_032249x01&p=103&do=page (Digitalisat)].</ref> – Pomet – Lémery – Tournefort<ref>''A compleat history of drugs, written in French by Monsieur Pomet … To which is added what is further observable on the same subject from Mess. Lémery and Tournefort … Done into English from the originals''. Third edition, London 1737, p. 173 ff. [[iarchive:compleathistoryo00pome/page/173|(Digitalisat)]].</ref>
* ''Lettere del signor abate Domenico Sestini …'' 1780.<ref>Domenico Sestini. ''Lettere del signor abate Domenico Sestini''. Florenz 1780, Band 2, S. 176–192 [[iarchive:bub gb eF71ZECnAQUC/page/n181|(Digitalisat)]].</ref> – [[Jean-Pierre Houël]]. ''Voyage pittoresque des isles de Sicile …'' 1782.<ref>[[Jean-Pierre Houël]]. ''Voyage pittoresque des isles de Sicile, de Malte et de Lipari: Où l'on traite des Antiquités qui s'y trouvent encore ; des principaux Phénomènes que la Nature y offre ; du Costume de Habitans, & de quelques Usages''. Paris 1782, Band I, Kapitel 6, S. 52–53 [https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/houel1782bd1/0064/image (Digitalisat)]; Abb. No 32: [https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/houel1782bd1/0213/image (Digitalisat)]</ref>
* [[Johann Andreas Murray]]. ''Apparatus Medicaminum …'' 1784.<ref>[[Johann Andreas Murray]]. ''Apparatus Medicaminum Tam Simplicium Quam Praeparatorum Et Compositorum In Praxeos Adiumentum Consideratus''. Dieterich, Göttingen 1784, Band III, S. 535–541 Fraxinus excelsior ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10287788_00545}}), S. 542–561: Fraxinus ornus – Manna vel Manna calabrina ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10287788_00552}}).</ref>
* [[William Cullen]]. ''A treatise of the materia medica …'' 1789.<ref>[[William Cullen]]. ''A treatise of the materia medica.'' 2 Bände. Charles Elliot, Edinburgh 1789, Band II, S. 508–510: Manna ({{Digitalisat|MDZ=10226635_00516}}).</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* ''[[Alhagi maurorum]]''
* [[Ambrosia]] and [[Amrita]]
* [[Bread of Life Discourse]]
* [[Gum arabic]]
* [[Golden calf]]
* [[Soma (drink)]] and [[haoma]], sacraments of the [[Rigveda]] and [[Zoroastrian]] canons, respectively
* [[The Manna Machine]]

==References==
<small>10/2</small>.  Islamic Encyclopedia{{reflist|30em}}{{reflist|30em}}{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=Mushrooms and Mankind: The Impact of Mushrooms on Human Consciousness and Religion |first=James |last=Arthur |publisher=Book Tree |location=Escondido, California |language=en-us |year=2000 |isbn=1-58509-151-0}}
*{{cite book |title=Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy |first=Clark |last=Heinrich |publisher=Park Street Press |location=Rochester, Vermont |language=en-us |year=2002 |isbn=0-89281-997-9}}
*{{cite book |title=The Mystery of Manna: The Psychedelic Sacrament of the Bible |first=Dan |last=Merkur |publisher=Park Street Press |location=Rochester, Vermont |language=en-us |year=2000 |isbn=0-89281-772-0}}
*{{cite book |title=Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge, A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution |first=Terence |last=McKenna |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |location=New York, New York |language=en-us |year=1993 |isbn=0-553-37130-4}}
*William R. Corliss. ''Tornados, Dark Days, Anomalous Precipitation, and related weather phenomena'' (The Sourcebook Project, 1983), pages 52 to 54, GWF5: ''The Fall of Manna''.

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=147&letter=M ''Jewish Encyclopedia''], Manna
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2437 chabad.org], The Manna
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09604a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia''], Manna
* [http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=42 Devotion and Use of the Manna of Saint Nicholas]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131114132301/http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=10494 Lycaeum], Manna as a mushroom [psilocybe]

* [https://www.rudaw.net/sorani/kurdistan/2410201626 Rudaw.net. Retrieved August 1, 2023.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170806050505/http://www.anbg.gov.au/lichen/case-studies/diyarbakir-manna.html "Austrian National Library." Archived from the original on August 6, 2017. Retrieved September 18, 2017.]
* [https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09604a.htm "Manna; Catholic Encyclopedia".]
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