Editing London boroughs

{{short description|Administrative subdivisions of Greater London}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2015}}

{{Infobox subdivision type
| name = London borough
| map = [[File:Greater London in England (wo City of London) (zoom).svg|Greater London within England|255px]]<br />The thirty-two London boroughs in [[England]]
| category = [[Districts of England|Local authority districts]]
| territory = [[Greater London]]
| start_date = 1 April 1965
| legislation_begin = ''[[London Government Act 1963]]''|legislation_begin
| current_number = 32
| number_date = 
| type = [[Inner London]] (12)
| type1 = [[Outer London]] (20)
| status = [[City status in the United Kingdom|City]] (1)
| status1 = [[Royal borough]] (3)
| population_range = 150,000–400,000
| area_range = 12–150 km<sup>2</sup>
| government = London borough council
}}
{{Politics of England}}
The '''London boroughs''' are the current 32 [[districts of England|local authority districts]] that together with the [[City of London]] make up the administrative area of [[Greater London]], England; each is governed by a London borough council. The present London boroughs were all created at the same time as Greater London on 1 April 1965 by the [[London Government Act 1963]] (c. 33) and are a type of local government district. Twelve were designated as [[Inner London]] boroughs and twenty as [[Outer London]] boroughs. The [[City of London]], the historic centre, is a separate ceremonial county and {{Lang|la|[[sui generis]]}} local government district that functions quite differently from a London borough. However, the two counties together comprise the administrative area of [[Greater London]] as well as the London [[Regions of England|Region]], all of which is also governed by the [[Greater London Authority]], under the [[Mayor of London]].

The London boroughs have populations of between 150,000 and 400,000. Inner London boroughs tend to be smaller, in both population and area, and more densely populated than Outer London boroughs. The London boroughs were created by combining groups of former local government units. A review undertaken between 1987 and 1992 led to a number of relatively small alterations in borough boundaries. London borough councils provide the majority of local government services (schools, waste management, social services, libraries), in contrast to the strategic [[Greater London Authority]], which has limited authority over all of Greater London.

The councils were first [[1964 London local elections|elected in 1964]], and acted as shadow authorities until 1 April 1965. Each borough is divided into [[List of electoral wards in Greater London|electoral wards]], subject to periodic review, for the purpose of electing councillors. Council elections take place every four years, with the [[2022 London local elections|most recent elections]] in 2022, and [[2026 London local elections|the next elections]] due in 2026. The [[political make-up of London borough councils]] is dominated by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] and [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] parties. Twenty-eight councils follow the [[leader and cabinet]] model of executive governance, while five have [[Directly elected mayors in England and Wales|directly elected mayors]] ([[Mayor of Croydon|Croydon]], [[Directly elected mayor of Hackney|Hackney]], [[Directly elected mayor of Lewisham|Lewisham]], [[Directly elected mayor of Newham|Newham]], and [[Directly elected mayor of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]]). The City of London is instead governed by the [[City of London Corporation]] (and the [[Inner Temple|Inner]] and [[Middle Temple|Middle]] Temples, which are not governed by the City of London Corporation).

== List ==
{{Main list|List of London boroughs}}

{| style="width=100%;"
| {{London boroughs imagemap}}
| <ol>
<li>[[City of London]] (not a London borough)</li>
<li>[[City of Westminster]]</li>
<li>[[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea|Kensington and Chelsea]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham|Hammersmith and Fulham]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Wandsworth|Wandsworth]]</li>

<li>[[London Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]]</li>

<li>[[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Islington|Islington]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Camden|Camden]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Brent|Brent]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Ealing|Ealing]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Hounslow|Hounslow]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Richmond upon Thames|Richmond upon Thames]]</li>
<li>[[Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames|Kingston upon Thames]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Merton|Merton]]</li>
</ol>
|<ol start=18>
<li>[[London Borough of Sutton|Sutton]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]]</li>
<li>[[Royal Borough of Greenwich|Greenwich]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Bexley|Bexley]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Havering|Havering]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Barking and Dagenham|Barking and Dagenham]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Redbridge|Redbridge]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Newham|Newham]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Waltham Forest|Waltham Forest]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Barnet|Barnet]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Harrow|Harrow]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]]</li>
</ol>
|}

There are four boroughs that do not have "London Borough" in their official names: the [[city status in the United Kingdom|City]] of Westminster, and the [[List of UK place names with royal patronage|Royal Boroughs]] of Kingston upon Thames, Kensington and Chelsea, and Greenwich.

== History ==
=== Creation ===
From the mid-1930s, the Greater London area comprised four types of local government authorities. There were [[county borough]]s, [[municipal borough]]s, [[Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)|urban districts]] and [[Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London|metropolitan boroughs]]. The large county boroughs provided all local government services and held the powers usually invested in county councils. The municipal borough and urban district authorities had fewer powers. The situation was made more complex because county councils could delegate functions such as elementary education and library provision to the municipal borough and district councils, and this was implemented piecemeal. Reform of London local government sought to regularise this arrangement.

The [[Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London]] was established in 1957 and the report was published on 19 October 1960. It proposed 52 "Greater London Boroughs" with a population range of 100,000 to 250,000.<ref>{{cite book |title = The Report of The Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London |year = 1961 |last = Sharpe |first = LJ }}</ref> This was made up of a mixture of whole existing units, mergers of two or three areas, and two boroughs formed as the result of a split. In December 1961 the government proposed that there would be 34 boroughs rather than 52, and detailed their boundaries. The proposed number was further reduced to 32 in 1962.

On 1 April 1965, the 32 London boroughs and [[Greater London]] were created by the ''[[London Government Act 1963]]''. Twelve boroughs in the former County of London area were designated [[Inner London]] boroughs and the 20 others were designated [[Outer London]] boroughs. Outer London borough councils were [[Local education authority|local education authorities]], but Inner London borough councils were so designated primarily to continue the existence of an [[Inner London Education Authority]], praised by official Opposition and government who further noted that unusually the former County of London's many small local authorities had no history of providing education. The [[City of London]] continued to be administered by the [[City of London Corporation]], and the [[Inner Temple|Inner]] and [[Middle Temple|Middle]] Temples continued to govern their own areas.{{NoteTag|Local government legislation makes special provision for the City of London Corporation, Inner Temple and Middle Temple to perform the functions of London borough councils in their areas.}}

Elections were held on [[1964 London local elections|7 May 1964]], with the new councils acting as shadow authorities before coming into their powers the following year.

=== Former authorities ===
The boroughs were created as follows. Some relatively minor changes have been made to the boundaries of boroughs since 1965, and two have changed their names.

[[File:Greater London composite parts.PNG|600px|thumb|center|Former local authorities in the Greater London area
* [[County borough]]s
* [[Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London|Metropolitan boroughs]]
* [[Municipal borough]]s
* [[Urban district (Great Britain and Ireland)|Urban districts]]
]]

{| class="wikitable sortable" 
|-
! London borough
! Designation
! colspan="5" class="unsortable" | Former areas
|-
| [[London Borough of Camden|Camden]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead|Hampstead]] (11a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras|St Pancras]] (11b) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Holborn|Holborn]] (11c) || ||
|- 
| [[Royal Borough of Greenwich|Greenwich]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich|Greenwich]] (22a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich|Woolwich]] (part) (22b) || || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Hackney|Hackney]] (9a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Shoreditch|Shoreditch]] (9b) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Stoke Newington|Stoke Newington]] (9c) || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham|Hammersmith]]{{NoteTag|Later renamed Hammersmith and Fulham}}
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith|Hammersmith]] (4a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Fulham|Fulham]] (4b) || || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Islington|Islington]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Islington|Islington]] (10a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury|Finsbury]] (10b) || || ||
|-
| [[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea|Kensington and Chelsea]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Kensington|Kensington]] (3a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea|Chelsea]] (3b) || || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]] (6a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth|Wandsworth]] (part) (6b) || || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]] (21a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Deptford|Deptford]] (21b) || || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey|Bermondsey]] (7b) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell|Camberwell]] (7c) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Southwark|Southwark]] (7a) || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green|Bethnal Green]] (8a) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Poplar|Poplar]] (8c) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Stepney|Stepney]] (8b) || ||
|-
| [[London Borough of Wandsworth|Wandsworth]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Battersea|Battersea]] (5b) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth|Wandsworth]] (part) (5a) || || ||
|-
| [[City of Westminster|Westminster]]
| Inner
| [[Metropolitan Borough of Paddington|Paddington]] (2c) || [[Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone|St Marylebone]] (2b) || [[Metropolitan Borough of Westminster|Westminster]] (2a) || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Barking and Dagenham|Barking]]{{NoteTag|Renamed Barking and Dagenham in 1980}}
| Outer
| [[Municipal Borough of Barking|Barking]] (part) (25a) || [[Municipal Borough of Dagenham|Dagenham]] (part) (25b) || || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Barnet|Barnet]]
| Outer
|[[Barnet Urban District|Barnet]] (31a)|| [[East Barnet Urban District|East Barnet]] (31b) ||[[Municipal Borough of Finchley|Finchley]] (31d)||[[Municipal Borough of Hendon|Hendon]] (31c)|| [[Friern Barnet Urban District|Friern Barnet]] (31e)
|-
|[[London Borough of Bexley|Bexley]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Bexley|Bexley]] (23b)  || [[Municipal Borough of Erith|Erith]] (23a) || [[Crayford Urban District|Crayford]] (23c) || [[Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District|Chislehurst and Sidcup]] (part) (23d)  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Brent|Brent]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Wembley|Wembley]] (12a) || [[Municipal Borough of Willesden|Willesden]] (12b) || || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Bromley|Bromley]] (20c) || [[Municipal Borough of Beckenham|Beckenham]] (20b) || [[Orpington Urban District|Orpington]] (20e) || [[Penge Urban District|Penge]] (20a) || [[Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District|Chislehurst and Sidcup]] (part) (20d)
|-
|[[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]]
| Outer
|[[County Borough of Croydon|Croydon]] (19a) || [[Coulsdon and Purley Urban District|Coulsdon and Purley]] (19b)  || || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Ealing|Ealing]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Acton|Acton]] (13b) || [[Municipal Borough of Ealing|Ealing]] (13a) || [[Municipal Borough of Southall|Southall]] (13c) ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Edmonton|Edmonton]] (30c) || [[Municipal Borough of Enfield|Enfield]] (30a) ||[[Municipal Borough of Southgate|Southgate]] (30b)  ||   ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Hornsey|Hornsey]] (29b) || [[Municipal Borough of Tottenham|Tottenham]] (29c) || [[Municipal Borough of Wood Green|Wood Green]] (29a) || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Harrow|Harrow]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Harrow|Harrow]] (32)  ||  || ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Havering|Havering]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Romford|Romford]] (24a) || [[Hornchurch Urban District|Hornchurch]] (24b)  ||  ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]]
| Outer
|[[Hayes and Harlington Urban District|Hayes and Harlington]] (33c) || [[Ruislip Northwood Urban District|Ruislip Northwood]] (33b) || [[Municipal Borough of Uxbridge|Uxbridge]] (33a) || [[Yiewsley and West Drayton Urban District|Yiewsley and West Drayton]] (33d)  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Hounslow|Hounslow]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick|Brentford and Chiswick]] (14c) || [[Feltham Urban District|Feltham]] (14a) || [[Municipal Borough of Heston and Isleworth|Heston and Isleworth]] (14b)  ||  ||
|-
|[[Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames|Kingston upon Thames]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Kingston upon Thames|Kingston upon Thames]] (16a) ||[[Municipal Borough of Malden and Coombe|Malden and Coombe]] (16b) ||[[Municipal Borough of Surbiton|Surbiton]] (16c) ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Merton|Merton]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Mitcham|Mitcham]] (17c) || [[Merton and Morden Urban District|Merton and Morden]] (17b) || [[Municipal Borough of Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] (17a) ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Newham|Newham]]
| Outer
|[[County Borough of West Ham|West Ham]] (27a) ||[[County Borough of East Ham|East Ham]] (27b) ||[[Municipal Borough of Barking|Barking]] (part) (27c) ||[[Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich|Woolwich]] (part) (27d)  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Redbridge|Redbridge]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Ilford|Ilford]] (26a) || [[Municipal Borough of Wanstead and Woodford|Wanstead and Woodford]] (26b) || [[Municipal Borough of Dagenham|Dagenham]] (part) (26c) || [[Chigwell Urban District|Chigwell]] (part) (26d)  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Richmond upon Thames|Richmond upon Thames]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Barnes|Barnes]] (15a) || [[Municipal Borough of Richmond (Surrey)|Richmond]] (15b) || [[Municipal Borough of Twickenham|Twickenham]] (15c) ||  ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Sutton|Sutton]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Beddington|Beddington]] (18c) || [[Carshalton Urban District|Carshalton]] (18b) || [[Municipal Borough of Sutton and Cheam|Sutton and Cheam]] (18a)  || ||
|-
|[[London Borough of Waltham Forest|Waltham Forest]]
| Outer
|[[Municipal Borough of Chingford|Chingford]] (28a) || [[Municipal Borough of Leyton|Leyton]] (28c) || [[Municipal Borough of Walthamstow|Walthamstow]] (28b)  || ||
|}

===Greater London Council===
Between 1965 and 1986 the boroughs were part of a two-tier system of government and shared power with the [[Greater London Council]] (GLC). The split of powers and functions meant that the Greater London Council was responsible for "wide area" services such as fire, ambulance, flood prevention, and refuse disposal; with the London borough councils responsible for "personal" services such as social care, libraries, cemeteries and refuse collection. Several London borough councils and the GLC were involved in the [[rate-capping rebellion]] of 1985. On 1 April 1986 the GLC was abolished and the borough councils gained responsibility for some services that had been provided by the Greater London Council, such as [[Waste disposal authorities in London|waste disposal]]. The [[Inner London Education Authority]] continued to exist as an {{Lang|la|ad hoc}} authority. In 1990 it was abolished and the Inner London borough councils also became local education authorities.

=== Name and boundary changes ===
The [[Local Government Act 1972]] provided a mechanism for the name of a London borough and its council to be changed. This was used by the London Borough of Hammersmith (changed to Hammersmith and Fulham) on 1 April 1979 and the London Borough of Barking (changed to Barking and Dagenham) on 1 January 1980. Borough names formed by combining two locality names had been discouraged when the boroughs were created.

The London boroughs were created by combining whole existing units of local government and it was realised that this might provide arbitrary boundaries in some places. The London Government Act 1963 provided a mechanism for communities on the edge of Greater London to petition for transfer from London boroughs to a neighbouring county district.<ref>London Government Act 1963 Section 6 (4)</ref> This was used in 1969 in the transfers of [[Knockholt]] in Bromley to Kent, and of [[Farleigh, Surrey|Farleigh]] and [[Hooley]] in Croydon to Surrey. The Act also provided for transfers between London boroughs and neighbouring counties where there was consensus for the change between all the relevant local authorities. This provision was used to exchange two islands on the [[River Thames]] between Richmond upon Thames and Surrey. (See [[List of Greater London boundary changes]].)

The [[Local Government Boundary Commission for England]] was established by the Local Government Act 1972 to review periodically the boundaries of Greater London and the London boroughs. The first review of boundaries commenced on 1 April 1987 and reported in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Local Government Boundary Commission for England, The Boundaries of Greater London and The London Borough, Report 627 |date = 1992 |url = https://www.lgbce.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/11419/627-the-boundaries-of-greater-london-and-the-london-boroughs.pdf |website=Lgbce.org.uk |access-date=21 December 2017 }}</ref> Following the review a series of relatively minor adjustments were made to borough boundaries, for example uniting the whole of the [[Becontree]] estate in [[London Borough of Barking and Dagenham|Barking and Dagenham]]. The commission noted that many of its recommendations were strongly opposed and were not implemented. The boundary of the City of London with adjacent boroughs was adjusted to remove some anomalies.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1993/1445/made |title = The City and London Borough Boundaries Order 1993 |website = Legislation.gov.uk |access-date = 22 December 2017 }}</ref>

The London boroughs were incorporated using the provisions of the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1882]].<ref>{{cite web |title=London Government Act 1963 (as amended) |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1963/33 |website=legislation.gov.uk |access-date=15 February 2024 |quote=The Municipal Corporations Act 1882 shall apply to every London borough}}</ref> In the London boroughs the legal entity is not the council, as elsewhere in the country, but the inhabitants incorporated as a legal entity by [[royal charter]] (a process abolished elsewhere in England and Wales under the [[Local Government Act 1972]]). Thus, a London authority's official legal title is "The Mayor and [[Burgess (title)|Burgess]]es of the London Borough of X" (or "The Lord Mayor and Citizens of the City of Westminster").<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Government Act 1933 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1933/51/pdfs/ukpga_19330051_en.pdf |website=legislation.gov.uk |access-date=15 February 2024 |quote=The municipal corporation of a borough shall [...] (a) in the case of a borough being a city, the mayor of which is entitled to bear the title of lord mayor, bear the name of the lord mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; (b) in the case of any other borough being a city, bear the name of the mayor, aldermen and citizens of the city; and (c) in the case of any other borough, bear the name of the mayor,' aldermen and burgesses of the borough.}}</ref>

=== Greater London Authority ===
In 2000 the [[Greater London Authority]] was created, comprising the [[Mayor of London]] and the [[London Assembly]]. As a strategic authority, it absorbed only limited powers, such as major highways and planning strategy, from the borough councils.

== London borough councils ==
<!-- [[London borough councils]] redirects here -->
{{Politics of London}}

The London boroughs are administered by London borough councils (sometimes abbreviated LBCs), which are elected every four years. They are the principal [[local government in England|local authorities]] in London and are responsible for running most local services, such as schools, social services, waste collection and roads. Some London-wide services are run by the [[Greater London Authority]], and some services and lobbying of government are pooled within [[London Councils]]. Some councils group together for services such as [[Waste disposal authorities in London|waste collection and disposal]]. The boroughs are [[Districts of England|local government districts]] and have similar functions to [[metropolitan borough]]s. Each borough council is a [[local education authority]].

{{London local authority functions}}

=== Shared services ===
[[Shared services]] are borough council services shared between two or more boroughs. Shared services were previously resisted due to councils guarding their authority. However, as the need for budget cuts in the late 2000s became apparent some councils have sought service mergers.<ref>Jane Dudman (20 October 2010) [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/oct/20/public-service-cuts-back-office Public sector cuts will not hit 'back office' hardest], ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref> Westminster and Hammersmith & Fulham were due to merge their education services, including school admissions and transport, by 2011.<ref>Jaimie Kaffash (7 July 2010) [http://www.publicfinance.co.uk/news/2010/07/london-boroughs-to-share-education-services/ London boroughs to share education services], Public Finance</ref> In October 2010, [[Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council|Hammersmith & Fulham]], [[Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council|Kensington & Chelsea]] and [[Westminster City Council|Westminster]] announced [[Tri-borough shared services|plans to merge all their services]] to create a "super-council". Each would retain its own political identity, leadership and councillors but staff and budgets would be combined for cost savings.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-11603545 Pickles backs plan to merge Tory councils], BBC News, 22 October 2010</ref> Lambeth and Southwark likewise expressed an interest in sharing services.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.london-se1.co.uk/news/view/4456 |title=Lambeth and Southwark councils to merge some services under Labour plan |website=London-se1.co.uk |access-date=22 December 2017 }}</ref>

The management thinker and inventor of [[the Vanguard Method]], Professor [[John Seddon]], claims that shared service projects based on attempts to achieve [[economies of scale]] are a mix of a) the plausibly obvious and b) a little hard data{{clarify|date=May 2015}}, brought together to produce two broad assertions, for which there is little hard factual evidence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thesystemsthinkingreview.co.uk/index.php?pg=18&utwkstoryid=266 |title=Why do we believe in economy of scale? |access-date=6 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008081545/http://www.thesystemsthinkingreview.co.uk/index.php?pg=18&utwkstoryid=266 |archive-date=8 October 2011  }}</ref> He argues that shared service projects fail (and often end up costing more than they hoped to save) because they cause a disruption to the service flow by moving the work to a central location, creating waste in hand-offs, rework and duplication, lengthening the time it takes to deliver a service and consequently creating [[failure demand]] (demand caused by a failure to do something or do something right for a customer).<ref>Systems Thinking in the Public Sector, John Seddon, Page 57.</ref> Seddon referred directly to the so-called [[tri-borough shared services]] in an article in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://opinion.publicfinance.co.uk/2012/07/shared-illusions/ |title=Shared illusions &#124; Public Finance Opinion |access-date = 13 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130421042212/http://opinion.publicfinance.co.uk/2012/07/shared-illusions/ |archive-date = 21 April 2013  }}</ref>

== Gallery of London-wide election results ==
{{Gallery
|title = Results across Greater London Boroughs at ward level.
|align = centre |width=200 |height=200
|Citywide ward results of the 2002 London local elections.svg|2002 results map
|Citywide ward results of the 2006 London local elections.svg|2006 results map
|Citywide ward results of the 2010 London local elections.svg|2010 results map
|Citywide ward results of the 2014 London local elections.svg|2014 results map
|Citywide ward results of the 2018 London local elections.svg|2018 results map
|Citywide ward results of the 2022 London local elections.svg|2022 results map
}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|London}}
* [[Borough]]
* [[ISO 3166-2:GB]], subdivision codes for the United Kingdom
* [[Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.londoncouncils.gov.uk/who-runs-london/essential-guide-london-local-government London Councils' page on the Boroughs]
* [http://citymayors.com/local-government/london-boroughs.html Directory of current Borough Leaders and Mayors]

{{-}}
{{London}}
{{Subdivisions of England}}
{{Borough status in the United Kingdom}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:London Borough}}
[[Category:London boroughs| ]]
[[Category:Local government in London]]
[[Category:Interested parties in planning in England]]
[[Category:Types of subdivision in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Boroughs in England|*]]