Editing List of monarchs of Iran

{{Short description|Rulers of Iran (678 BC–AD 1979)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
[[File:Head of a king MET 65.126.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Shapur II]] ({{reign|309|379}}) of the [[Sasanian Empire]], the longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history|upright=1.3]]
The '''monarchs of Iran'''{{Efn|The [[exonym]] "Persia" was used by the [[ancient Greeks]] to refer to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], derived from the [[Persians]] (the Iranian ethnic group to which the Achaemenid dynasty belonged). Historically, "Persia" was subsequently used in the [[Western world]] to refer to Iran and Iranians. "Iran" (''Īrān'', ایران) is the country's [[endonym]], first attested under the [[Sasanian Empire]] as ''Ērān'', though earlier forms of the name (see ''[[Aryan]]'') date back to [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] times{{Sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}}{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=451}}<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aryan "Aryan"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]].''</ref> and had been used ever since. In 1935, the Iranian monarch [[Reza Shah]] requested that foreign delegates begin using "Iran" rather than "Persia" in formal correspondence, whereafter "Iran" has also become the common name used internationally. See [[name of Iran]] for further details.}} were the rulers of the various states and civilizations in Iran ([[Name of Iran|Persia]]) from [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] until the abolition of the Iranian monarchy in the [[Iranian Revolution]] (1979).

The earliest Iranian empire is generally considered to have been either the [[Median kingdom|Median]] ({{Circa}} 727–550 BC) or the succeeding [[Achaemenid Empire]] (550–330 BC) after [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of the Achaemenid Empire (beginning in 334 BC and mostly complete by 330 BC), much of Iran was under [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] rule for two centuries, primarily under the [[Seleucid Empire]] (305–129 BC). Native Iranian rule was revived with the expansion of the [[Parthian Empire]] (247 BC–224 AD). The Parthians were succeeded by the [[Sasanian Empire]] (224 AD–651 AD), which ruled Iran until the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest]].

Medieval Iran was alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were initially incorporated in the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] (638–661), as well as the succeeding [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750) and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (749–861) caliphates. Diminishing authority of the caliphs led to the [[Iranian Intermezzo]], when various Iranian warlords established their own dynasties and kingdoms, some of which revived Sasanian royal iconography and ideology. In the eleventh century, Iran was conquered by the Turkic (though culturally [[Persianate]]) [[Seljuk Empire]] (1038–1194), which was followed by succeeding conquests by various [[Persianate]] Turkic and Mongolian conquerors, most notably the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian]] (1097–1220/1221), [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] (1220–1259), and [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] (1370–1458) empires.

Native Iranian political unity was restored in 1501 through the [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Empire]] (1501–1722). The collapse of the Safavid Empire led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the [[Hotak dynasty]] (1722–1729). [[Nader Shah]] replaced these with the [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharid Empire]] (1736–1796), but after his assassination in 1747 the Afsharids competed with the [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] (1751–1794) dynasty under [[Karim Khan Zand]] and his successors for supremacy. Iran was reunified by the [[Qajar Iran|Qajar dynasty]] (1789–1925), which was followed by the [[Pahlavi dynasty]] (1925–1979), the last imperial dynasty of Iran. Since the revolution in 1979, Iran has been ruled by theocratic [[Supreme Leader of Iran|supreme leaders]].

== Ancient Iran ({{Circa}} 727 BC–AD 651) ==

=== Medes ({{Circa}} 727–550 BC) ===
{{See also|Median kingdom|Medes}}
[[File:Median (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The "Median Empire according to [[Herodotus]]|190px]]
The [[Median dynasty#Genealogy|Median dynasty]] is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state.{{Sfn|Dandamayev|2021|p=1630}}{{Sfn|Katouzian|2013|p=xii}}{{Sfn|Gaube|2008|p=161}} Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}} Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources (particularly [[Herodotus]]) and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|pp=337–338}} There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}{{efn|There is no archaeological evidence of any Median imperial centers, no documentary archives from Median administrations, and no contemporary correspondence between foreign kings and Median rulers.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}}} The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=112}}{{efn|[[Ctesias]], another ancient Greek historian, also wrote a list of Median rulers though it differs completely from that of Herodotus except for the name of the last king ([[Astyages]]).{{Sfn|Rollinger|2021|p=344}}}}

No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used the title ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'' ({{Literal translation|[[King of Kings]]}}).{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=78}} [[Ecbatana]] was the Median capital.{{Sfn|Kuhrt|2021|p=404}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Portrait
! Name
! Reign
! Succession
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Deioces]]'''
|{{Circa}} 727–675 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 52 years)</small>
|First king of the Medes according to Herodotus. Perhaps elected by popular assembly.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=109}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Phraortes]]'''
|{{Circa}} 674–653 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 21 years)</small>
|Son of Deioces{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}}
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|'''Interregnum {{Circa}} 652 – 625 BC'''{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}<br />The Medes were invaded by [[Scythians]], perhaps under a ruler named [[Madyes]], who established some form of hegemony.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=118}}<br>The Scythian rulers were defeated by Cyaxares after about three decades, restoring the Medes to their previous power.{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Qyzqapan tomb relief 2.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Cyaxares]]'''
|{{Circa}} 624–585 BC{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 39 years)</small>
|Son of Phraortes{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Astyages]]'''
|{{Circa}} 584{{Sfn|Diakonoff|2003|p=113}}–550 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 34 years)</small>
|Son of Cyaxares{{Sfn|Dandamayev|Medvedskaya|2006}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (521 BC)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Behistun Relief Phraortes.jpg|65px]]
|[[Phraortes (rebel)|Phraortes II]]
|521 BC{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Rebel in [[Media (region)|Media]] against [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Claimed kinship with [[Cyaxares]].{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}}
|-
|[[File:Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg|65px]]
|[[Tritantaechmes]]
|521 BC{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Rebel in [[Sagartians|Sagartia]] against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares.{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=48, 53–54}}
|}

=== Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) ===
{{See also|Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire|List of Achaemenid emperors}}
[[File:Achaemenid (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Achaemenid Empire]] under [[Darius the Great]]|190px]]
The [[Achaemenid dynasty]] originated as local rulers of [[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]] under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "[[Achaemenes]]". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is [[Cyrus I]], king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC.{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} The Achaemenids united all [[Persians|Persian]] tribes under Cyrus I's son [[Cambyses I]]. Under Cambyses I's son, [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]], the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the [[Achaemenid Empire]],{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}} the largest ever Iranian state.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}}

The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'', ''xšāyaθiya dahyūnām'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings, [[King of the Lands]]}}).{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} The royal title varied in other parts of the empire.{{efn|In [[Babylonia]], the standard title up until the reign of [[Xerxes I]] was '[[List of kings of Babylon|King of Babylon]], King of the Lands'.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} In more elaborate contexts, the royal style could be augmented with additional titles, such as "the Great King" and "King in Persia".{{Sfn|Waters|2016|p=99}} The Achaemenid king was referred to as "the Great King" by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and as the "Lord of Kings" by the [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]].{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}}}} The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including [[Pasargadae]], [[Susa]], [[Ecbatana]], [[Babylon]], [[Bactra]], and [[Persepolis]].{{Sfn|Brosius|2021|pp=67–68}}

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Early local rulers in Anshan ({{Circa}} 620–550 BC)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Cyrus I on horseback, seal.png|65px]]
|[[Cyrus I]]
|{{Circa}} 620–590 BC{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 30 years)</small>
|Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Cambyses I]]
|{{Circa}} 590–559 BC{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 31 years)</small>
|Son of Cyrus I{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}}
|-
|[[File:Olympic Park Cyrus-3.jpg|87x87px]]
|[[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]]
|{{Circa}} 559{{Sfn|Bryce|2009|p=800}}–550 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 9 years)</small>
|Son of Cambyses I{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"

! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Olympic Park Cyrus-3.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]]'''<br/><small>''the Great''</small>
|{{Circa}} 550{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} – November (?) 530 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}}<br/><small>({{Circa}} 20 years)</small>
|Defeated Astyages and captured Ecbatana {{Circa}} 550 BC.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=32}} Married [[Amytis (daughter of Astyages)|Amytis]], daughter of Astyages, according to ancient Greek historians.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=33}}
|-
|[[File:Gambyses II.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Cambyses II]]'''
|August 530 – July 522 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}}<br/><small>({{Age in years, months and days|-530|8||-522|7|}})</small>
|Son of Cyrus II{{Sfn|Middleton|2015|p=148}}
|-
|[[File:Gaumata portrait on the Behistun inscription.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bardiya]]'''
|1 July – 29 September 522 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}}<br/><small>({{Age in years, months and days|-522|7|1|-522|9|29}})</small>
|Son of Cyrus II (possibly an impostor).{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=107}} Revolted against Cambyses on 11 March 522 BC and proclaimed himself ruler on 1 July.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}}
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Darius the Great at Behistun.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Darius the Great|Darius I]]'''<br/><small>''the Great''</small>
|29 September 522{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=351}} – October 486 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=178}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|-522|9|29|-486|10|}})</small>
|Claimed descent from [[Teispes]] (supposed father of Cyrus I). Seized the throne from Bardiya.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=110}}
|-
|[[File:National Meusem Darafsh 37.JPG|65px]]
|'''[[Xerxes I]]'''<br/><small>''the Great''</small>
|October 486{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=178}} – August 465 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|-486|10||-465|8|}})</small>
|Son of Darius I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=524}} and [[Atossa]] (daughter of Cyrus II){{Sfn|Llewellyn-Jones|2017|p=74}}
|-
|[[File:Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artaxerxes I]]'''<br/><small>''Longimanus''</small>
|August 465{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} – {{Circa}} December 424 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}}<br /><small>(41 years and {{Circa}} 4 months)</small>
|Son of Xerxes I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=570}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Xerxes II]]'''
|{{Circa}} December 424 – {{Circa}} January 423 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}}<br /><small>(45 days){{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}}</small>
|Son of Artaxerxes I{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}}
|-
|[[File:Daric coin of the Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Sogdianus]]'''
|{{Circa}} January – February 423 BC{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 1 month)</small>
|Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} Seized the throne from Xerxes II.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=772}}
|-
|[[File:Darius ii.png|65px]]
|'''[[Darius II]]'''<br/><small>(Ochus)</small>
|February 423 – March 404 BC{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|-423|2||-404|3|}})</small>
|Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=588}} Seized the throne from Sogdianus.{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=772}}
|-
|[[File:Artaxerxes II relief portrait detail.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artaxerxes II]]'''<br/><small>(Arsakes)</small>
|March 404{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=353}} – spring (?) 358 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=160}}<br /><small>(46 years)</small>
|Son of Darius II{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=521}}
|-
|[[File:Rock relief of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artaxerxes III]]'''<br/><small>(Ochus)</small>
|Spring (?) 358 – September (?) 338 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Son of Artaxerxes II{{Sfn|Briant|2002|p=681}}
|-
|[[File:Artaxerxes IV Arses.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Arses of Persia|Artaxerxes IV]]'''<br/><small>(Arses)</small>
|September (?) 338 – June 336 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son of Artaxerxes III{{Sfn|Sparkes|2010|p=495}}
|-
|[[File:Darius III mosaic.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Darius III]]'''<br/><small>(Artashata)</small>
|June 336{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=161}} – July 330 BC{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Great-grandson of Darius II{{Sfn|Sparkes|2010|p=495}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (330–329 BC)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Alexander Executes Janusiyar and Mahiyar, the Slayers of Darius", Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdausi MET (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Bessus|Artaxerxes V]]<br/><small>(Bessus)</small>
|July 330{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}} – spring 329 BC{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|[[Satrap]] of [[Bactria]],{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}} part of the Achaemenid dynasty.{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}} Murdered Darius III and proclaimed himself as his successor, ruling several eastern satrapies in opposition to [[Alexander the Great]].{{Sfn|Binder|2021|p=469}}
|}

=== Hellenistic rule (331–129 BC) ===
{{See also|Hellenistic period}}

==== Alexander's empire (331–305 BC) ====
{{See also|Argead dynasty}}
[[File:Macedonia (ancient kingdom, greatest extent).svg|thumb|[[Alexander the Great]]'s empire|190px]]
The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by [[Alexander the Great]], king of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], in 331{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}–329 BC.{{Sfn|Stark|2021|pp=701–702}} After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the [[Wars of the Diadochi]] broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}}

Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'.{{Sfn|Worthington|2003|p=139}}{{Sfn|Hammond|1993|p=13}} His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead ''[[basileus]]'' ({{Literal translation|king}}).{{Sfn|Worthington|2003|p=139}} To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia" (sometimes "King of Asia").{{Sfn|Worthington|2003|p=139}} The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is ''basileus''.{{Sfn|Carney|1991|p=157}} Alexander ruled his empire from [[Babylon]]{{Sfn|Sykes|2011|p=40}} and planned to establish Babylon and [[Alexandria]] in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}} From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=113}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Alexander the Great mosaic (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Alexander the Great|'''Alexander''']]{{Efn|Enumerated as Alexander III as king of Macedon (after [[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] and [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]]).}}<br/><small>''the Great''</small>
|1 October 331{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}{{efn|The date of Alexander's victory at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], which opened the way for his conquest of [[Babylonia]] and Persia.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=412}}}} – 10/11 June 323 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}}<br /><small>(7 years, 8 months and 10/11 days)</small>
|Conquered the Achaemenid Empire{{Sfn|Shenkar|2014|p=5}}
|-
|[[File:Philip Arrhidaeus Pharaoh.jpg|65px]]
|[[Philip III of Macedon|'''Philip''' Arrhidaeus]]{{Efn|Enumerated as Philip III as king of Macedon (after [[Philip I of Macedon|Philip I]] and [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]).}}
|June 323 – late 317 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Brother of Alexander the Great{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=149}}
|-
|[[File:Alexander Aegus Pharaoh.jpg|65px]]
|[[Alexander IV of Macedon|'''Alexander''' Aegus]]{{Efn|Enumerated as Alexander IV as king of Macedon (after [[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]], [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]], and Alexander the Great).}}
|August 323{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=112}} – 309 BC{{Sfn|Mørkholm|2001|p=187}} (305 BC){{efn|Alexander IV's murder by his regent [[Cassander]] in 309 BC was not made public knowledge until 306/305 BC and he thus continued to be recognized as king posthumously for an additional 3–4 years.{{Sfn|Mørkholm|2001|p=187}}}}<br /><small>(14 years, recognized for 18 years)</small>
|Son of Alexander the Great{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=149}}
|}

==== Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC) ====
{{See also|Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid Empire}}
[[File:Seleucid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Seleucid Empire]] under [[Seleucus I Nicator]]|190px]]
The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]], descendants of the Macedonian general [[Seleucus I Nicator]] and the Iranian noblewoman [[Apama]].{{Sfn|Bickerman|2003|p=3}} Seleucus seized most of the east, including [[Babylonia]], in the [[Wars of the Diadochi]] and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards.{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=413}} After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}

The main royal title used by the Seleucids was ''basileus'', as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms (such as the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]).{{Sfn|Watson|2009|p=54}} Only two Seleucid rulers ([[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]], 223–187 BC, and [[Antiochus VII Sidetes|Antiochus VII]], 139–129 BC) used the greater ''megas basileus'' ('Great King'),{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=147}} the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources.{{Sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=55}} The Seleucids at first ruled from [[Seleucia]] in Mesopotamia, though [[Antioch]] was soon made the main capital.{{Sfn|Kia|2016|p=287}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Portrait
! Name
! Reign
! Succession
|-
|[[File:Seleucos Nicator Louvre Ma3597 n3.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]]'''<br /><small>''Nicator''</small>
|305{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} – September 280 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(25 years)</small>
|Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=413}} and proclaimed king in 305 BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochos I Soter tetradrachm obverse.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus I]]'''<br /><small>''Soter''</small>
|September 280 – 261 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(19 years)</small>
|Son of Seleucus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochos II Theos portrait.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus II]]'''<br /><small>''Theos''</small>
|261–246 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small>
|Son of Antiochus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Seleucus II Callinicus (cropped), Antioch mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Seleucus II Callinicus|Seleucus II]]'''<br /><small>''Callinicus''</small>
|246–226 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Son of Antiochus II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Seleukos III Keraunos, Tetradrachm, 226-223 BC, HGC 3-414c (obverse).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Seleucus III Ceraunus|Seleucus III]]'''<br /><small>''Ceraunus''</small>
|226–223 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(3 years)</small>
|Son of Seleucus II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Male head wearing a head-band resembling king of Syria Antiochus III (223–187 BC), late 1st century BC–early 1st century AD, Louvre Museum (7462828632).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]]'''<br /><small>''the Great''</small>
|223–187 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(36 years)</small>
|Son of Seleucus II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Seleukos IV tetradrachm obverse.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Seleucus IV Philopator|Seleucus IV]]'''<br /><small>''Philopator''</small>
|187–175 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Son of Antiochus III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochus IV Epiphanes - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus IV Epiphanes|Antiochus IV]]'''<br /><small>''Epiphanes''</small>
|175 – late 164 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Antiochus III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochos V Eupator tetradrachm obverse.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus V Eupator|Antiochus V]]'''<br /><small>''Eupator''</small>
|Late 164 – 162 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son of Antiochus IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Demetrios I Soter, Tetradrachm, 162-150 BC, SC 1611.3 Obverse.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Demetrius I Soter|Demetrius I]]'''<br /><small>''Soter''</small>
|162–150 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Alexander I Balas, Antioch mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Alexander Balas|Alexander]]'''<br /><small>''Balas''</small>
|152–145 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small>
|Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the [[Roman Empire]].{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochus VI - face.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus VI Dionysus|Antiochus VI]]'''<br /><small>''Dionysus''</small>
|145–142 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(3 years)</small>
|Son of Alexander Balas{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Demetrius II Nicator (cropped), Ptolemais in Phoenicia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Demetrius II Nicator|Demetrius II]]'''<br /><small>''Nicator''</small>
|147–139 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small>
|Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|-
|[[File:Antiochos VII.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Antiochus VII Sidetes|Antiochus VII]]'''<br /><small>''Sidetes''</small>
|139–129 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}<br /><small>(10 years)</small>
|Son of Demetrius I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=119}}
|}

=== Parthian Empire ({{Circa}} 250/247 BC–224 AD) ===
{{See also|Parthian Empire|List of monarchs of Parthia}}
[[File:Parthian Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Parthian Empire]] under [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]]|190px]]
The Arsacids of [[Parthia]],{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} initially Seleucid vassals,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=151}} originated as leaders of the Iranian{{efn|The Parni was an eastern Iranian tribe established on the Amu Darya in the conferedation of [[Dahae]].{{sfn|Lecoq|2011|p=151}} To Yarshater, they were a [[Sakas|Saka]] tribe, who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids' power in Parthia.{{sfn|Yarshater|2012|p=212–225}}}} [[Parni]] tribe in the northeastern steppes.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran.{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Parthian control of Iran was secured through the {{Circa}} 142 BC conquest of [[Babylonia]].{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Although fighting continued for years, the death of [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} which then lingered on as a [[rump state]] in Syria until conquered by the [[Roman Empire]] in the 60s BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}

The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of [[Vologases I of Parthia|Vologases I]] (AD 51–78).{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=172}} Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder ([[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces]]) as a title. Their coins also have the legend ''krny'' (probably short for ''autokrator'', i.e. autocrat or sole ruler).{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=172}} From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used ''basileus megas'' ({{literal translation|Great King}}).{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]] (123–91 BC) adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings' (rendered in Greek as ''basileus basileon''). After him, this title was used only by [[Mithridates IV of Parthia|Mithridates IV]] (57–54 BC) and [[Orodes II]] (57–37 BC) before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of [[Phraates IV]] (26–2 BC) onwards.{{Sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=228}} The title was used in its Persian form (''šāhān šāh'') after Greek ceased being used.{{Sfn|Shayegan|2011|p=211}} The first Parthian capital was at [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]] in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to [[Qumis, Iran|Qumis]] and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at [[Ctesiphon]], [[Ecbatana]], and [[Ray, Iran|Ray]].{{Sfn|Curtis|Stewart|2007|pp=96–97}}

This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the [[list of monarchs of Parthia]].

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Early local rulers in Parthia ({{Circa}} 250/247–142 BC)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of Arsaces I (1), Nisa mint (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Arsaces I of Parthia|Arsaces I]]
|{{Circa}} 250/247–217 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(30–33 years)</small>
|Conquered [[Parthia]] from the Seleucid satrap [[Andragoras (Seleucid satrap)|Andragoras]]{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}}
|-
|[[File:Arsaces II coin crop.png|65px]]
|[[Arsaces II of Parthia|Arsaces II]]
|{{Circa}} 217–191 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(26 years)</small>
|Son of Arsaces I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Priapatius coin.png|65px]]
|[[Priapatius]]
|{{Circa}} 191–176 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small>
|Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Phraates I coin.png|65px]]
|[[Phraates I]]
|{{Circa}} 176–171 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(5 years)</small>
|Son of Priapatius{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]]
|{{Circa}} 171{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}–142 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Efn|The Parthian conquest of Babylonia, whereafter Mithridates I assumed the style 'Great King' and firmly established his empire.|name=Mithribab}}<br /><small>(29 years)</small>
|Son of Priapatius{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]]'''<br /><small>''the Great''</small>
|{{Circa}} 142{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Efn|name=Mithribab}}–132 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 10 years)</small>
|Established Parthia as an empire.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=29}} Conquered the [[Iranian plateau]] in the 160s BC,{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} followed by conquests of [[Babylonia]] (142 BC),{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} [[Media (region)|Media]] (141 BC), and [[Persis]] (139 BC).{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Phraates II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates II]]'''
|{{Circa}} 132–127 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(5 years)</small>
|Son of Mithridates I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Artabanus I of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus I]]'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus II since some historians consider the early Arsacid ruler Arsaces II to also be Artabanus I.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59}}}}
|{{Circa}} 127–124/123 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(3–4 years)</small>
|Son of [[Priapatius]] (and brother of Mithridates I){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Mithradates II of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]]'''<br /><small>''the Great''</small>
|{{Circa}} 123–91 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 32 years)</small>
|Son of Artabanus I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Gotarzes I (2, cropped), Ectbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Gotarzes I]]'''
|91–87(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 4 years)</small>
|Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I and Artabanus I){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of the Parthian monarch Orodes I, Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Orodes I of Parthia|Orodes I]]'''
|87–79(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 8 years)</small>
|Son of Gotarzes I or Mithridates II (?){{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=36}}
|-
|[[File:Sinatruces transparent.png|65px]]
|'''[[Sinatruces of Parthia|Sinatruces]]'''
|{{Circa}} 78–70 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 8 years)</small>
|Son of Mithridates I, previously a rival claimant c. 91–88 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Phraates III, Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates III]]'''
|70–57 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(13 years)</small>
|Son of Sinatruces{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Mithridates IV (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mithridates IV of Parthia|Mithridates III]]'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates IV, after another supposed Parthian king named Mithridates (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 87–80 BC.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=41}}}}<!--Links to the article on Mithridates IV since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Mithridates III" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Mithridates IV".-->
|57–54 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(3 years)</small>
|Son of Phraates III.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} Co-ruler with his brother Orodes II until killed in 54 BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Orodes II, Mithradatkert (Nisa) mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Orodes II]]'''
|57–37 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Son of Phraates III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates IV]]'''
|37–32(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} <small>(''1st reign'')</small><br /><small>(5 years?)</small>
|Son of Orodes II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Tiridates II coin.png|65px]]
|'''[[Tiridates II of Parthia|Tiridates]]'''{{efn|name=tird|Often enumerated as Tiridates II, after [[Tiridates I of Parthia|Tiridates I]], a supposed Parthian king now believed to be unhistorical.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}}}
|32–31(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} <small>(''1st reign'')</small><br /><small>(1 year?)</small>
|Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=47–48}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates IV]]'''
|31–28(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} <small>(''2nd reign'')</small><br /><small>(3 years?)</small>
|Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Tiridates II coin.png|65px]]
|'''[[Tiridates II of Parthia|Tiridates]]'''{{efn|name=tird}}
|28–26(?) BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} <small>(''2nd reign'')</small><br /><small>(2 years?)</small>
|Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates IV]]'''
|26(?)–2 BC{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}} <small>(''3rd reign'')</small><br /><small>(24 years?)</small>
|Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=163}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Phraatakes (Phraates V), Seleucia mint (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Phraates V]]'''
|2 BC – AD 4(?){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(6 years?)</small>
|Son of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Musa{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:The portrait of Musa of Parthia on the reverse of a drachm, Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Musa of Parthia|Musa]]'''
|2 BC – AD 4(?){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(6 years?)</small>
|Widow of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Phraates V.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} First of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were [[Boran]] (630), [[Azarmidokht]] (630–631), and [[Sati Beg]] (1338/1339–1339/1340).}}
|-
|[[File:Orodes III coin.png|65px]]
|'''[[Orodes III of Parthia|Orodes III]]'''
|4(?)–6/7{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(2/3 years?)</small>
|Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=48}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of Vonones I, Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vonones I]]'''
|6/7–11/12{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(4–6 years)</small>
|Son of Phraates IV, nominated as king by the [[Roman Empire]]{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of Artabanus II, Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artabanus II of Parthia|Artabanus II]]'''{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus III, if Artabanus I is considered to be Artabanus II. He is also sometimes referred to as Artabanus IV if another supposed Parthian king named Artabanus (based on numismatics), dated by some historians to 126–122 BC, is accepted.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59}}}}
|11/12–38{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(26/27 years)</small>
|Cousin of Vonones{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of Gotarzes II, minted in 49.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Gotarzes II]]'''
|38–51{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(13 years)</small>
|Son of Artabanus (?){{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vardanes I (cropped, 2), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vardanes I|Vardanes]]'''
|39–45/46{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(6/7 years)</small>
|Son of Artabanus (?).{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} Rival and later co-ruler of the empire with Gotarzes.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=49}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vonones II, minted at Hamadan.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vonones II]]'''
|51{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=52}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=52}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of Vologases I, minted at Seleucia.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vologases I of Parthia|Vologases I]]'''
|51–78{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(27 years)</small>
|Son of Vardanes{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Pacorus II|Pacorus]]'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Pacorus II, after [[Pacorus I]], a Parthian prince who never ruled in his own right.|name=pacorus}}<!--Links to the article on Pacorus II since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Pacorus" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Pacorus II".-->
|78–79{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} <small>(''1st reign'')</small><br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Son of Vologases I{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=58}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Artabanus III of Parthia (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Artabanus III of Parthia|Artabanus III]]'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus IV or Artabanus V (see note on Artabanus II).}}
|79–81{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son or brother of Vologases I{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=59–60}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Pacorus II|Pacorus]]'''{{Efn|name=pacorus}}<!--Links to the article on Pacorus II since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Pacorus" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Pacorus II".-->
|81–115{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} <small>(''2nd reign'')</small><br /><small>(34 years)</small>
|Retook the throne{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vologases III (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Vologases III of Parthia|'''Vologases II''']]{{efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases III, after another supposed Parthian king named Vologases (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 77–80.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=58}}}}<!--Links to the article on Vologases III since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Vologases II" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Vologases III".-->
|115–116{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Son of Pacorus{{sfn|Dąbrowa|2012|p=176}}
|-
|[[File:Parthamaspates coin.png|65px]]
|'''[[Parthamaspates of Parthia|Parthamaspates]]'''
|116–117{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Grandson of Pacorus, installed as king by the Roman Empire{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Osroes I (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Osroes I|Osroes]]'''
|117–128{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Pacorus and father of Parthamaspates{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|pp=60–61}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Mithridates V of Parthia, Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mithridates V of Parthia|Mithridates IV]]'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates V (see note on Mithridates III).}}<!--Links to the article on Mithridates V since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Mithridates IV" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Mithridates V".-->
|128–148{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}}
|-
|[[File:Tetradrachm of Vologases IV, minted at Seleucia in 153.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vologases IV|Vologases III]]'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases IV (see note on Vologases II).}}<!--Links to the article on Vologases IV since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Vologases III" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Vologases IV".-->
|148–191{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(43 years)</small>
|Son of Mithridates IV{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=61}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vologases V (cutted out), Hamadan mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vologases V|Vologases IV]]'''{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases V (see note on Vologases II).}}<!--Links to the article on Vologases V since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Vologases IV" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Vologases V".-->
|191–207{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(16 years)</small>
|Son of Vologases III{{sfn|Patterson|2013|pp=180–181}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vologases VI of Parthia (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Vologases VI|'''Vologases V''']]{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Vologases VI (see note on Vologases II).}}<!--Links to the article on Vologases VI since this list uses an enumeration different from the one used in the article titles. The "Vologases V" here is the figure Wikipedia otherwise calls "Vologases VI".-->
|207–213{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Son of Vologases IV.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}} Possibly still in control of some parts of the empire by 228.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=63}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Artabanus IV (2), Hamadan mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Artabanus IV of Parthia|'''Artabanus IV''']]{{Efn|Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus V or Artabanus VI (see note on Artabanus II).}}
|213{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=164}}–224{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=63–64}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Vologases IV.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=63–64}} Fought with Vologases V over control of the empire.{{Sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=|pp=63–64}}
|}

=== Sasanian Empire (224 AD–651 AD) ===
{{See also|Sasanian dynasty|Sasanian Empire|List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire}}
[[File:Sasanian Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Sasanian Empire]] under [[Khosrow II]]|190px]]
The [[Sasanian dynasty]] originated as kings of [[Persis]], a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast [[Ardashir I]] led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=166}} The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=167}}

Sasanian kings continued to use the title ''šāhān šāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}).{{Sfn|Gnoli|1989|p=103}} The title was extended by Ardashir to ''šāhān šāh ērān'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}){{sfn|MacKenzie|1998}} and extended again by his son [[Shapur I]] (240–270) to ''šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran}}).{{sfn|MacKenzie|1998}}{{sfn|Yücel|2017|pp=331–344}} Sasanian queens ruled with the title ''bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān'' ({{Literal translation|Queen of Queens of Iran and non-Iran}}).''{{sfn|Sundermann|1988|pp=678–679}}'' [[Ctesiphon]] was the capital of the Sasanian Empire.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of Ardashir I (phase 3), Hamadan mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ardashir I]]'''<br /><small>''the Unifier''</small>
|224 – May 240{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}<br /><small>(16 years)</small>
|Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=166}}
|-
|[[File:ShapurICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shapur I]]'''
|May 240 – May 270{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}<br /><small>(30 years)</small>
|Son of Ardashir I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}
|-
|[[File:HormizdICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Hormizd I]]'''
|May 270 – June 271{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}<br /><small>(1 year and 1 month)</small>
|Son of Shapur I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Bahram I (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bahram I]]'''
|June 271 – 274{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}<br /><small>(3 years)</small>
|Son of Shapur I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=168}}
|-
|[[File:Silver coin of Bahram II (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bahram II]]'''
|274–293{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(19 years)</small>
|Son of Bahram I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Bahram III.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bahram III]]'''
|293{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(4 months)</small>
|Son or cousin of Bahram II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:NarsehCoin2.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Narseh]]'''
|293–302{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small>
|Son of Shapur I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Sasanian king Hormizd II (1, cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Hormizd II]]'''
|303–309/310{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(6/7 years)</small>
|Son of Narseh{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Adur Narseh]]'''<br /><small>(Narseh II)</small>
|309/310{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Hormizd II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}
|-
|[[File:The portrait of Shapur II on the obverse of a silver drachm, struck circa 309–320 (crop).png|65px]]
|'''[[Shapur II]]'''<br /><small>''the Great''</small>
|310–379{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(69 years)</small>
|Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} The longest-reigning Iranian monarch.
|-
|[[File:ArdashirIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ardashir II]]'''<br /><small>''the Beneficent''</small>
|379–383{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small>
|Son of Hormizd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Shapur III, Merv mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shapur III]]'''
|383–388{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(5 years)</small>
|Son of Shapur II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Bahram IV (cropped), Herat mint.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bahram IV]]'''
|388–399{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Shapur II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:YazdegerdICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Yazdegerd I]]'''<br /><small>''the Sinner''</small>
|399–420{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(21 years)</small>
|Son of Shapur III{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm of Shapur IV.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shapur IV]]'''
|420{{sfn|Klíma|1988|pp=514-522}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd I{{sfn|Klíma|1988|pp=514-522}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)|'''Khosrow''' ('''I''')]]{{Efn|Khosrow's rule was brief and ephemeral and he is not counted in the numbering of later kings of this name.}}
|420{{sfn|Klíma|1988|pp=514-522}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Bahram IV{{sfn|Klíma|1988|pp=514-522}}
|-
|[[File:Drachma of Bahram V - cropped.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Bahram V]]'''<br /><small>''the [[Onager]]''</small>
|420–438{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(18 years)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:YazdegerdIICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Yazdegerd II]]'''
|438–457{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(19 years)</small>
|Son of Bahram V{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:King Hormizd II or Hormizd III Hunting Lions, 400-600.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Hormizd III]]'''
|457{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:PerozICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Peroz I]]'''
|457–484{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(27 years)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Sasanian king Balash from Susa.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Balash]]'''
|484–488{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Kavad I]]'''
|488–497{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} <small>(''1st reign'')</small><br /><small>(9 years)</small>
|Son of Peroz{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Sasanian king Jamasp from Susa.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Jamasp]]'''
|497–499{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son of Peroz{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Kavad I]]'''
|499–531{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}} <small>(''2nd reign'')</small><br /><small>(32 years)</small>
|Restored to the throne with [[Hephthalites|Hepthalite]] support{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Plate of the Sasanian king Khosrow I Anushirvan.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Khosrow I]]'''<br /><small>''Anushirvan'' ({{Literal translation|the Immortal Soul}})</small>
|531–579{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(48 years)</small>
|Son of Kavad I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Hormizd IV]]'''
|579–590{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Khosrow I{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:BahramChobinCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Bahram Chobin|'''Bahram VI''' Chobin]]
|590–591{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|General of Parthian descent ([[House of Mihran]]){{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=103}}
|-
|[[File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Khosrow II]]'''<br /><small>''Parviz'' ({{Literal translation|the Victorious}})</small>
|June 590 – 28 February 628{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|590|6||628|2|28}})</small>
|Son of Hormizd IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Vistahm, minted at Ray in 595 or 596.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Vistahm]]'''
|591–597{{Sfn|Chegini|Nikitin|p=77|1996}}<br /><small>(6 years, usurper in the east)</small>
|General of Parthian descent ([[House of Ispahbudhan]]) and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king.{{Sfn|Shahbazi|1989}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavadh II (cropped), minted at Ray in 628.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Kavad II]]'''
|28 February 628 – 628{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=169}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father{{Sfn|Venning|2023|pp=169–170}}
|-
|[[File:ArdashirIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ardashir III]]'''
|628–630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Cousin{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} or son{{sfn|Shahbazi|1986|pp=381–382}} of Kavad II
|-
|[[File:ShahrbarazCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shahrbaraz]]'''
|630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|General of Parthian descent ([[House of Mihran]]){{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=181}}
|-
|[[File:XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Khosrow III]]'''
|630{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Nephew of Khosrow II{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}
|-
|[[File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Boran]]'''
|630{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=185, 204–205}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Daughter of Khosrow II.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]] (2 BC–AD 4), [[Azarmidokht]] (630–631), and [[Sati Beg]] (1338/1339–1339/1340).}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Shapur-i Shahrvaraz|Shapur V]]'''
|630{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–205}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Shahrbaraz{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–205}}
|-
|[[File:Obverse coin of Azarmidokht.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Azarmidokht]]'''
|630–631{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–210}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Daughter of Khosrow II.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]] (2 BC–AD 4), [[Boran]] (630), and [[Sati Beg]] (1338/1339–1339/1340).}}
|-
|[[File:FarrokhHormizdVCoin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Farrukh Hormizd|Farrukh '''Hormizd V''']]
|631–632{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|General of Parthian descent ([[House of Ispahbudhan]]). Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=204–210}}
|-
|[[File:HormizdVICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Hormizd VI]]'''
|630–632{{Sfn|Shahbazi|2004}}<br /><small>(2 years, usurper in [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]])</small>
|Grandson of Khosow II.{{Sfn|Shahbazi|2004}} Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at [[Nusaybin|Nisibis]].{{Sfn|Shahbazi|2004}}
|-
|[[File:KhosrauIVCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Khosrow IV]]'''
|632{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Great-nephew of Hormizd IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Peroz II]]'''
|632–632/633{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(1 year?)</small>
|Brother of Khosrow IV{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}
|-
|[[File:FarrukhzadKhosrauVCoin - Cropped.jpg|65px]]
|[[Farrukhzad Khosrow V|Farrukhzad '''Khosrow V''']]
|632/633–{{Circa}} 633{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>(1 year?)</small>
|Brother of Hormizd V{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}
|-
|[[File:YazdegerdIIICoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Yazdegerd III]]'''
|{{Circa}} 633–651{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<br /><small>({{Circa}} 18 years)</small>
|Grandson of Khosrow II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (651–731)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Headless Statue of Foreign Envoy, Qianling Mausoleum.jpg|65px]]
|[[Peroz III]]
|651–678/679{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}}<br /><small>(27/28 years)</small>
|Son of Yazdegerd III, lived in exile in China ([[Tang dynasty]]) and led Iranian resistance against the Arabs. Recognized by the Tang dynasty as "king of Persia".{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|pp=144, 147}} Ruled a Tang-supported Iranian kingdom in [[Sistan]] or [[Tokharistan]]{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|pp=144, 146}} 661–674.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=144}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Narsieh]]<br /><small>(Narseh III)</small>
|678/679{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}}–after 708/709{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=148}}<br /><small>(over 20 years)</small>
|Son and successor of Peroz III.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=147}} Crowned by the Chinese general [[Pei Xingjian]] and placed in charge of [[Tokharistan]]. Narsieh defended the region for twenty years until defeated by the Arabs in 708/709, whereafter he returned to China.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=148}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Bó Qiāng Huó]]{{Efn|Name in Chinese sources. His original name in Persian may have been ''Pušang''.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}}}
|{{Floruit}} 723{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}
|Son of Narsieh.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 723.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Mù Shānuò]]{{Efn|Name in Chinese sources.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} The original Persian name is unknown.}}
|{{Floruit}} 726–731{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}
|Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 726 and 731.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}} Names of Sasanian claimants disappear from Chinese sources after 731.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=150}}
|}
=== Minor kingdoms and dynasties ===
* The [[Frataraka|Fratarakas]] (3rd–mid-2nd century BC), rulers/governors in [[Persis]] under the Seleucid Empire
* [[List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms|Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms]] (2nd century BC–5th century AD), various local vassal dynasties of the Parthian Empire
** The [[kings of Persis]] (2nd century BC–3rd century AD), vassal kings in Persis under the Parthian Empire

== Medieval Iran (651–1501) ==
{{See also|Islamic dynasties of Iran}}
The fall of the [[Sasanian Empire]] in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the [[Safavid Empire]] in 1501.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}} In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}} Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the [[Middle Ages]].{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}}

The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist [[Touraj Daryaee]].{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}}

=== Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861) ===
{{See also|Iran during the Caliphate|List of caliphs}}

==== Rashidun Caliphate (638–661) ====
{{See also|Rashidun Caliphate}}
[[File:Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Rashidun Caliphate]] under [[Uthman]]|190px]]
The [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian [[Asoristan]] in 633.{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}} In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} and Persia itself was conquered in 640{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}–650.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=140}} By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained [[Bactria]].{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Islamic [[caliphs]].{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxvii}} Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.{{Sfn|Farrokh|2011|loc=Chapter 1: The Rise of the Safavids}}

The style of the caliphs was [[Amir al-Mu'minin|''amīr al-mu'minīn'']] ({{Literal translation|commander of the faithful}}).''{{Sfn|Montgomery Watt|2007|p=34}}'' An additional title, ''[[Khalifa|khalīfat]] [[Allah|Allāh]]'' ({{Literal translation|deputy of God}}), was also introduced beginning with [[Uthman]] (644–656).''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=5–6}}'' The caliphate was initially ruled from [[Medina]]. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to [[Kufa]] in Iraq.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Umar al-Farooq Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]]
|[[Umar]]
|637/638{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<!-- Counting from the conquest of Mesopotamia --> – 3 November 644{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xv}}<br /><small>(6/7 years)</small>
|Second Islamic [[caliph]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Oversaw the initial [[Muslim conquest of Persia]].{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}}
|-
|[[File:Uthman Dhul-nurayn Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]]
|[[Uthman]]
|3 November 644 – 17 June 656{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=xv–xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|644|11|3|656|6|17}})</small>
|Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by [[Ali]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}}
|-
|[[File:Ali Murtaza Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]]
|[[Ali]]
|18 June 656 – 28 January 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|656|6|18|661|1|28}})</small>
|Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiya]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}}
|-
|colspan=4 style="background:#E6E6E6;" |
|-
|[[File:Hasan Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]]
|[[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]]
|28 January – August 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|661|1|28|661|8|}})</small>
|Son of Ali and grandson of [[Muhammad]].{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=311}} Challenged by Mu'awiya.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=317}}
|}

==== Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) ====
{{See also|Umayyad Caliphate}}
[[File:Umayyad Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] under [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz|Umar II]]|190px]]
The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] was established by [[Mu'awiya I]], governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs,{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} leading to the civil war known as the [[First Fitna]] (656–661).{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}}

Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from [[Damascus]], though the capital was briefly transferred to [[Harran]] under the last caliph, [[Marwan II]].''{{Sfn|Daiber|2012|p=49}}''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin of Muawiyah I, struck at the Fasa mint in Darabjird (Fars).jpg|65px]]
|[[Mu'awiya I]]
|July/August 661 – April/May 680{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>(18 years and 9 months)</small>
|Seized power in the [[First Fitna]]{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}}
|-
|[[File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Yazid I ibn Mu'awiya. AH 60-64 AD 680-683.jpg|65px]]
|[[Yazid I]]
|April/May 680 – 11 November 683{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>(3 years and 6 or 7 months)</small>
|Son of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}
|-
|[[File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Mu'awiya II ibn Yazid. AH 64 AD 683-684.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mu'awiya II]]
|11 November 683 – 22 June 684{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|683|11|11|684|6|22}})</small>
|Son of Yazid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}
|-
|[[File:Drachm from Yazid I to Marwan I; Talha governor.jpg|65px]]
|[[Marwan I]]
|22 June 684 – 7 May 685{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|684|6|22|685|5|7}})</small>
|Cousin of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}}
|-
|[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin (issue of Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra) struck during the reign of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.jpg|65px]]
|[[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]]
|7 May 685 – 8 October 705{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|685|5|7|705|10|8}})</small>
|Son of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dinar of al-Walid I.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Walid I]]
|8 October 705 – 25 February 715{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|705|10|8|715|2|25}})</small>
|Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Gold dinar of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715-716.jpg|65px]]
|[[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]]
|25 February 715 – 22 September 717{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|715|2|25|717|9|22}})</small>
|Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Gold dinar of Umar II.jpg|65px]]
|[[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz|Umar II]]
|22 September 717 – 5 February 720{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|717|9|22|720|2|5}})</small>
|Son of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Yazid II. Dinar.jpg|65px]]
|[[Yazid II]]
|5 February 720 – 28 January 724{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|720|2|5|724|1|28}})</small>
|Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dihrem of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik.jpg|65px]]
|[[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Hisham]]
|28 January 724 – 6 February 743{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|724|1|28|743|2|6}})</small>
|Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Umayyad fresco of Prince (future caliph) Walid bin Yazid.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Walid II]]
|6 February 743 – 16 April 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|743|2|6|744|4|16}})</small>
|Son of Yazid II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dihrem of Yazid III ibn al-Walid, AH 126.jpg|65px]]
|[[Yazid III]]
|16 April – 20 September 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|744|4|16|744|9|20}})</small>
|Son of al-Walid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dihrem of Ibrahim ibn al-Walid.jpg|65px]]
|[[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid|Ibrahim]]
|20 September – 25 November 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|744|9|20|744|11|25}})</small>
|Son of al-Walid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dirham of Marwan II ibn Muhammad, AH 127-132.jpg|65px]]
|[[Marwan II]]
|25 November 744 – 750{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{circa}} 6 years)</small>
|Grandson of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|}

==== Abbasid Caliphate (749–861) ====
{{See also|Abbasid Caliphate}}
[[File:Abbasid Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Abbasid Caliphate]] under [[al-Mutawakkil]]|190px]]
Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the [[Abbasid revolution]], in which the Umayyads were replaced with the [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasids]], descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]].{{Sfn|Osman|2014|pp=62–63}}

Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from [[Kufa]], until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded [[Baghdad]] in 762.''{{Sfn|Starkey|2013|p=359}}''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Dirhem of al-Saffah, AH 132-136.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Saffah]]
|6 November 749 – 9 June 754{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|749|11|6|754|6|9}})</small>
|Seized power in the [[Abbasid revolution]]{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}}
|-
|[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Mansur - 140 AH (758 AD).JPG|65px]]
|[[al-Mansur]]
|9 June 754 – 7 October 775{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|754|6|9|775|10|7}})</small>
|Brother of al-Saffrah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin of the Tabaristan type issued under Caliph al-Mahdi.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Mahdi]]
|7 October 775 – 4 August 785{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|775|10|7|785|8|4}})</small>
|Son of al-Mansur{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dirhem of Al-Hadi, AH 170.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Hadi]]
|4 August 785 – 15 September 786{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|785|8|4|786|9|15}})</small>
|Son of al-Mahdi{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Ar-Rashid AV dinar 171AH Harun amir yevlem.jpg|65px]]
|[[Harun al-Rashid]]
|15 September 786 – 24 March 809{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|786|9|15|809|3|24}})</small>
|Son of al-Mahdi{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Amin]]
|24 March 809 – 27 September 813{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|809|3|24|813|9|27}})</small>
|Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Ma'mun]]
|27 September 813 – 7 August 833{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|813|9|27|833|8|7}})</small>
|Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Mu'tasim]]
|7 August 833 – 5 January 842{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|833|8|7|842|1|5}})</small>
|Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Dinar of al-Wathiq, AH 227-232.jpg|65px]]
|[[al-Wathiq]]
|5 January 842 – 10 August 847{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|842|1|5|847|8|10}})</small>
|Son of al-Mu'tasim{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}}
|-
|[[File:Al-Mutawakkil.png|65px]]
|[[al-Mutawakkil]]
|10 August 847 – 11 December 861{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|847|8|10|861|12|11}})</small>
|Son of al-Mu'tasim.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power.{{Sfn|Gillespie|2013|p=227}}
|}

=== Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090) ===
{{See also|Iranian Intermezzo}}
The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}}

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012){{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}} and Mahendrarajah (2019){{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} list the major dynasties of the period as the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]], [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]], [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarids]], [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]], and [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]]. Daryaee also includes the [[Ghaznavids]], omitted by Mahendrarajah.

==== Tahirids (821–873) ====
{{See also|Tahirid dynasty}}
[[File:Tahirid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not ''[[de jure]]'' independent;{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=139}}{{sfn|Esposito|2000|p=38}}{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} The Tahirids were [[Arabization|Arabized]], but they were nevertheless Persians.<ref>
* {{Harvnb|Bosworth|1975|p=90}}: "The Ṭāhirids were culturally highly Arabicized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The firm and generally just rule which they gave to the eastern Iranian world favoured a material and cultural progress, whereas earlier, the indigenous, older Iranian culture had been weakened by the dynamic impact of Islamic religion and Arab political dominance."
* {{harvnb|Yarshater|2004a}}: "The Taherids were thoroughly Arabicized and remained loyal to the caliphate, but the fact that they were of Persian extraction and were ruling in Persian territory made a start for dynasties in Persia enjoying local autonomy."</ref> The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero [[Rostam]].{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=152}}

As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|El-Hibri|2021|p=147}} The Tahirids initially ruled from [[Merv]]. The capital was transferred to [[Nishapur]] under Abdallah.{{sfn|Daniel|2000}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:TahiribnHusaynCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Tahir ibn Husayn|Tahir I]]
|821–822{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Granted governorship of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by Caliph [[al-Ma'mun]] for his service in the [[Fourth Fitna]]{{sfn|Daniel|2000}}
|-
|[[File:Talha ibn Tahir.jpg|65px]]
|[[Talha ibn Tahir|Talha]]
|822–828{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Son of Tahir I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani|Abdallah]]
|828–845{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small>
|Son of Tahir I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Tahir ibn Abdallah|Tahir II]]
|845–862{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small>
|Son of Abdallah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Muhammad ibn Tahir|Muhammad]]
|862–873{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Tahir II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|}

==== Saffarids (867–1002) ====
{{See also|Saffarid dynasty}}
[[File:Saffarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in [[Sistan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Although the dynastic founder [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub]] (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent,{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} and their power was attained solely through military might.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and [[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr I]] (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}

Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} [[Zaranj]] served as the Saffarid capital.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Ya'qub al-Layth's Silver Dirham.jpg|65px]]
|[[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub]]
|867–879{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Local ruffian{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} who established control over [[Sistan]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and beyond{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}
|-
|[[File:Amr ibn al-Layth.jpg|65px]]
|[[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr I]]
|879–901{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(22 years)</small>
|Brother of Ya'qub{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr|Tahir]]
|901–909{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small>
|Grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[al-Layth]]
|909–910{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Layth|Muhammad]]
|910–911{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Brother of al-Layth{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[al-Mu'addal]]
|911{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Brother of al-Layth{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Amr ibn Ya'qub|Amr II]]
|912–913{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Great-grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Interregnum 913–923:{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} occupation by the [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}
|-
|[[File:AhmadIbnMuhammadSaffaridCoin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Muhammad|Ahmad]]
|923–963{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(40 years)</small>
|Married to a granddaughter of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:KhalafibnAhmadCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Khalaf ibn Ahmad|Khalaf]]
|963–1002{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(39 years)</small>
|Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|}

==== Samanids (875–999)<!-- The timespan does not count the earlier, disunited Samanid emirates --> ====
{{See also|Samanid Empire}}
[[File:Samanid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of [[Rafi ibn al-Layth]].{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of [[Transoxiana]]{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler ([[Ismail Samani|Ismail]]). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} The Samanids claimed descent from [[Bahram Chobin|Bahram VI Chobin]] (589–590).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}

Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Haug|2022}} [[Mansur I]] (961/962–976/977) assumed the style ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids.{{sfn|Madelung|Daftary|Meri|2003|p=330}} Mansur I's son, [[Nuh II]] (976/977–997), also used ''šāhānšāh''.{{sfn|al-Mulk|2002|p=156}} The Samanid capital was at [[Samarkand]] (875–892) and then at [[Bukhara]].{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Nasr I]]
|875{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} – August/September 892{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small>
|Appointed governor of [[Transoxiana]] by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:Coinage of Isma'il I ibn Ahmad (AH 279-295 AD 892-907) Usrushana mint. Dated AH 280 (AD 893-4).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ismail Samani|Ismail]]
|August/September 892 – 24 November 907{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(15 years and 2–3 months)</small>
|Brother of Nasr I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:Ruler Aḥmad Sāmānī from the genealogy (silsilanāma), Cream of Histories (Zübdet-üt Tevarih, 1598).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ahmad Samani|Ahmad]]<br />''<small>the Martyred Amir</small>''
|November/December 907 – 24 January 914{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(6 years and 2–3 months)</small>
|Son of Ismail{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Nasr II]]<br />''<small>the Fortunate</small>''
|January 914 – March/April 943{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(29 years and 2–3 months)</small>
|Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:NuhISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Nuh I]]
|April/May 943 – 954/955{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(11–12 years)</small>
|Son of Nasr II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}
|-
|[[File:Gold coin of the Samanid ruler Abd al-Malik I, minted at Nishapur in 955 or 956.jpg|65px]]
|[[Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik I]]
|954/955–961/962{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small>
|Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:Mansur I.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mansur I]]<br />''<small>the Righteous Amir</small>''
|961/962–976/977{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small>
|Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}
|-
|[[File:NuhIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Nuh II]]
|976/977 – 22 July 997{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(10–11 years)</small>
|Son of Mansur I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|[[File:Ghaznavid coin citing the Samanid ruler Mansur II as overlord.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mansur II]]
|July/August 997 – 1 February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(1 year and 6–7 months)</small>
|Son of Nuh II{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik II]]
|February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} – 999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Nuh II{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (999–1005)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Isma'il Muntasir|Ismail II]]<br /><small>''Muntasir'' ({{Literal translation|the Victorious}})</small>
|999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}–1005{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Son of Nuh II.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} Fought against the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]], which conquered Bukhara, for several years in an effort to restore the Samanids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}
|}

==== Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) ====
{{See also|Ziyarid dynasty}}
[[File:Ziyarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by [[Mardavij]], a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the [[Caspian Sea]], inherited by Mardavij's Islamic relatives.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}}

Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) since later [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid]] writers attribute the title to him.{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Efn|Mardavij also fashioned a golden throne for himself, in imitation of the ancient throne of the Sasanian rulers.{{sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}}}} Later Ziyarid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Blair|1992}} The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including [[Ray, Iran|Ray]], [[Amol]], and [[Gorgan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:MardavijCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mardavij]]
|927/928–934/935{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small>
|Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Vushmgir]]
|934/935–966/967{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small>
|Brother of Mardavij{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|[[File:Bisutun of Ziyarid.jpg|65px]]
|[[Bisutun]]
|966/967–977/978{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small>
|Son of Vushmgir{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Qabus, minted in Jurjan (Gorgan).jpg|65px]]
|[[Qabus]]
|977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998){{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(35 years)</small>
|Son of Vushmgir{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Manuchihr]]
|1012/1013–1029/1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small>
|Son of Qabus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Anushirvan Sharaf al-Ma'ali|Anushirvan]]
|1029/1030–1049/1050{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Son of Manuchihr{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Keikavus (Ziyarid)|Keikavus]]
|1049/1050–?{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|Cousin of Anushirvan{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Gilanshah]]
|?–1090/1091{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|Son of Keikavus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}
|}

==== Buyids (934–1062) ====
{{See also|Buyid dynasty}}
[[File:Buyid Dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under [[Mardavij]] (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of [[Baghdad]] and domination of the caliph himself.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king [[Bahram V]] (420–438),{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} almost certainly a forgery.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}}

Individual Buyid rulers were styled as ''[[amir]]''. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title ''amīr al-omarāʾ'' ({{Literal translation|great emir}}).{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under [[Rukn al-Dawla]] and his son [['Adud al-Dawla]], who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}).{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.{{efn|[[Rukn al-Dawla]] claimed Iranian imperial status by 962, when he minted a medal depicting him similar to a Sasanian ruler with the inscription "may the glory of the king of kings increase".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} 'Adud al-Dawla also claimed the title ''šāhānšāh'' by 965. In 969, he minted a medal with the inscriptions "''šāhānšāh'', may his glory increase" and "May ''šāh'' Panāh Khusraw live long".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} The caliphs opposed Buyid use of the old imperial title.{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} 'Adud al-Dawla's son [[Baha al-Dawla]] is recorded to have used the Arabic version of 'King of Kings' (''malik al-mulūk'') and the title is also recorded in both Arabic and Persian for Baha al-Dawla's grandson [[Abu Kalijar|Abu Kalijar Marzuban]].{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} The title was sometimes assumed by rival emirs not part of the 'main branch' listed below, such as [[Fakhr al-Dawla]] and [[Musharrif al-Dawla]].}}

This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012).{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see [[Buyid dynasty#Buyid rulers|Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Imad al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Imad al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Ali)</small>
|933/934–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>(16 years, [[Fars province|Fars]]{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small>
|Son of a [[Daylamites|Daylamite]] chief.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}}
|-
|[[File:Mu'izz al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mu'izz al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Ahmad)</small>
|935/936–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=111–112}}<br /><small>(14 years, [[Kerman province|Kerman]]{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} then Iraq{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small>
|Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Rukn al-Dawla (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Rukn al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Hasan)</small>
|946/947 – 16 September 976{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=112}}<br /><small>(29–30 years, [[Ray, Iran|Ray]]{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small>
|Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Adud al-Dawla.jpg|65px]]
|[['Adud al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Panāh Khusraw)</small>
|949/950 – 26 March 983{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>(33–34 years)</small>
|Son of Rukn al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Sharaf al-Dawla.jpg|65px]]
|[[Sharaf al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Shirdil)</small>
|March/April 983 – September/October 989{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|983|3||989|9|}})</small>
|Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Samsam al-Dawla.jpg|65px]]
|[[Samsam al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Kalijar Marzuban)</small>
|989–998{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small>
|Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Baha' al-DawlaBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Baha al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Nasr Firuz)</small>
|998–1012{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(14 years)</small>
|Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:Sultan al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Sultan al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Shuja)</small>
|1012–1024{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Son of Baha al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|[[File:AbuKalijarBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Abu Kalijar|Abu Kalijar Marzuban]]
|1024–1048{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(24 years)</small>
|Son of Sultan al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun]]
|1048–1062{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(14 years)</small>
|Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}
|}

==== Ghaznavids (977–1040) ====
{{See also|Ghaznavids}}
[[File:Ghaznavids (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ghaznavids]] at their greatest extent|190px]]
The Ghaznavids were of Turkic{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} slave origin.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander [[Sabuktigin]] seized power in [[Ghazni]], nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler [[Yazdegerd III]] ({{Circa}} 633–651).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}

Sabuktigin ruled with the title ''al-ḥājeb al-ajall'' ({{Literal translation|most noble commander}}).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} From 999 onwards,{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} the Ghaznavids ruled with the title ''[[Sultan|sulṭān]]''.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Ghaznavid amir Sabuktigin, citing the Samanid amir Nuh II as his overlord. Date unknown, minted at Ghazna.jpg|65px]]
|[[Sabuktigin]]
|977/978–997/998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small>
|Seized power in [[Ghazni]]{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Ismail of Ghazni|Ismail]]
|997/998–998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Sabuktigin{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}
|-
|[[File:Mahmud of Ghazni bilingual dirham.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]]
|998 – 30 April 1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small>
|Son of Sabuktigin{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}
|-
|[[File:MohammadGhaznavidCoin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Muhammad of Ghazni|Muhammad]]
|1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Mahmud{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}
|-
|[[File:Mas'udIGhaznavidCoin.jpg|65px]]
|[[Masʽud I|Masʽud]]
|1030 – 23 May 1040{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(10 years)</small>
|Son of Mahmud{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}
|}
The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] after the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] (1040).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} For later Ghaznavid rulers, see [[Ghaznavids#List of rulers|Ghaznavids § List of rulers]].

=== Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508) ===

==== Seljuk Empire (1038–1194) ====
{{See also|Seljuk Empire|Seljuk dynasty|List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire}}
[[File:Seljuk Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Seljuk Empire]] under [[Malik-Shah I]]|190px]]
The Seljuk Empire was established by the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] chieftain [[Tughril I]], who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|pp=107–108}} In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ending the Iranian Intermezzo.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from [[Afrasiab]], a legendary figure from the ''[[Shahnameh]]''.''{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}''

From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) in its Persian form,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title ''[[Sultan|sulṭān]]'' and royal styles such as the Arabic ''malik'' and Persian ''šāh'' were bestowed on vassals.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ''Šāhānšāh'' continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "''šāhānšāh'' king of Islam".{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=150}} [[Nishapur]] served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and a few years later it was moved again to [[Isfahan]]. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingle unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including [[Baghdad]], [[Hamadan]], and [[Merv]].{{sfn|Lowe|Yasuhara|2017|loc=The golden age of Islam}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Tugrul bey.jpg|65px]]
|[[Tughril I]]
|June/July 1038{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}} – 4 September 1063{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>(25 years and 2–3 months)</small>
|Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}}
|-
|[[File:Alp Arslan on throne Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru (cropped).png|65px]]
|[[Alp Arslan]]
|4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1063|9|4|1072|12|15}})</small>
|Nephew of Tughril I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Malik-Shah I (portrait).jpg|65px]]
|[[Malik-Shah I]]
|15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1072|12|15|1092|10|14}})</small>
|Son of Alp Arslan{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Gold dinar of the Seljuk sultan Mahmud I, minted at Isfahan in 1093 or 1094.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mahmud I (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud I]]
|14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}} – 1093{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}<br /><small>(c. 1 year)</small>
|Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:BarkiyaruqPainting (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Berkyaruq]]
|October/November 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=67}} – 22 December 1104{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}}<br /><small>(12 years and 1–2 months)</small>
|Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Malik-Shah II]]
|22 December 1104 – February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}}<br /><small>(2–3 months)</small>
|Son of Berkyaruq{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}}
|-
|[[File:Muhammad I Tapar (cropped).png|65px]]
|[[Muhammad I Tapar]]
|February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} – 5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>(13 years and 5–6 months)</small>
|Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Coin struck under Mughith al-Din Mahmud II, citing governor Inanch Yabghu.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mahmud II (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud II]]
|5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 11 September 1131{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1118|8|5|1131|9|11}})</small>
|Son of Muhammad I Tapar.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|pp=79–80}} Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=99}}
|-
|[[File:Ahmad Sanjar (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ahmad Sanjar]]
|1118{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} – 8 May 1157{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}}<br /><small>(39 years)</small>
|Son of Malik-Shah I.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Previously Seljuk ruler in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=80}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Dawud (Seljuk sultan)|Dawud]]
|December 1132/January 1133{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=102}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small>
|Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Tughril II]]
|December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(1 year and 10 months)</small>
|Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud|Mas'ud]]
|October/November 1134{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}} – 10 October 1152{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(18 years)</small>
|Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Malik-Shah III]]
|October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(2–3 months)</small>
|Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Muhammad II ibn Mahmud|Muhammad II]]
|December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=140}} – December 1159/January 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=132}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small>
|Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Suleiman of the Seljuk Empire|Suleiman-Shah]]
|22 March{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=135}} – September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}}<br /><small>(6–7 months)</small>
|Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Arslan-Shah (Seljuk sultan)|Arslan-Shah]]
|September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}} – January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}}<br /><small>(15 years and 4 months)</small>
|Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|-
|[[File:Tughril III.jpg|65px]]
|[[Toghrul III|Tughril III]]
|January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}} – 1194{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(18 years)</small>
|Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}}
|}

==== Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221) ====
{{See also|Khwarazmian Empire|Anushtegin dynasty|Khwarazmshah}}
[[File:Khwarazmian dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Khwarazmian Empire]] under [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad II]]|190px]]
The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent.{{sfn|El-Azhari|2019|p=311}} One of these vassals was the [[Anushtegin dynasty]], which ruled the [[Khwarazm]] region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of [[Anushtegin Gharchai]], a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans.{{Sfn|Bosworth|1986}} In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler [[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekish]] conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}

The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title [[Khwarazmshah|''xwârazmšāh'']], traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} [[Konye-Urgench|Urganj]] was the Khwarazmian capital.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|
|[[Muhammad I of Khwarazm|Muhammad I]]
|1096/1097 – 1127/1128{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(31 years)</small>
|Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of the Khwarazmshah Atsiz, citing his suzerain Ahmad Sanjar.jpg|65px]]
|[[Atsiz]]
|1127/1128 – 30 July 1156{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(28–29 years)</small>
|Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|-
|[[File:Il-Arslan (portrait).jpg|65px]]
|[[Il-Arslan]]
|22 August 1156 – March 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(15 years and 7 months)</small>
|Son of Atsiz{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]]
|1172 – 11 December 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Il-Arslan.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekish]]
|11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1172|12|11|1200|7|3}})</small>
|Son of Il-Arslan.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|-
|[[File:Muhammad II portrait in a 1430 manuscript of the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.jpg|65px]]
|[[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad II]]
|3 August 1200 – 1220/1221{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(20–21 years)</small>
|Son of Tekish{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (1220/1221–1231)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Khwarizm Shahs. Jalal al-Din Mangubarni. AH 617-628 AD 1220-1231. AR Double Dirhem (20mm, 5.90 g, 1h). Qal 'a Nay mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Jalal al-Din Mangburni|Mangburni]]
|1220/1221 – August 1231{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(10–11 years)</small>
|Son of Muhammad II.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Fled to India for three years (1221–1224) after the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire and was then involved in various wars in western Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}}
|}

==== Mongol Empire (1220–1259) ====
{{See also|Mongol Empire|Borjigin|List of Mongol rulers}}
[[File:Mongol Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Mongol Empire]]'s nominal size under [[Kublai Khan]] (1279)|190px]]
The Mongol Empire was established by [[Genghis Khan]] in 1206 through uniting the [[Mongols|Mongol]] clans.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=244}} The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=244}} In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around [[Bukhara]] was conquered in 1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the [[Siege of Baghdad|fall of Baghdad]] and end of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]'s rule there in 1258.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}}

The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title ''[[khagan]]'' ({{Literal translation|Great Khan' or 'emperor}}).{{Sfn|Falk|2010|p=9}} In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at [[Karakorum]] in Mongolia.{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=85}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg|65px]]
|[[Genghis Khan]]
|1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} – 25 August 1227{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small>
|Founder of the Mongol Empire.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=249–250}} Conquered the region around [[Bukhara]] in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}}
|-
|[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg|65px]]
|[[Ögedei Khan]]
|13 September 1229{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}} – 11 December 1241{{Sfn|Pow|2022}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1229|9|13|1241|12|11}})</small>
|Son of Genghis{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}}
|-
|[[File:Guyuk khan from Persian miniature.jpg|65px]]
|[[Güyük Khan]]
|24 August 1246 – April 1248{{Sfn|Jackson|2002}}<br /><small>(1 year and 8 months)</small>
|Son of Ögedei{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=82}}
|-
|[[File:Audience de Möngke.jpeg|65px]]
|[[Möngke Khan]]
|2 May 1252{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=27}} – 11 August 1259{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=143}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1252|5|2|1259|8|11}})</small>
|Grandson of Genghis{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=86}}
|}

==== Ilkhanate (1256–1388) ====
{{See also|Ilkhanate|Borjigin|Division of the Mongol Empire}}
[[File:Ilkhanate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ilkhanate]] under [[Ghazan|Ghazan Khan]]|190px]]
After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. [[Kublai Khan]] (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to [[Hulegu Khan]],{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a ''[[fatwa]]'' issued by the Shia scholar [[Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli]].{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} [[Ghazan Khan]] (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}}

The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ''ilkhan'' ({{Literal translation|subordinate khan}}) to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title ''[[Padishah|pādishāh]]-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}), sometimes extended to ''pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran and Islam}}).{{Sfn|Fragner|2013|p=73}} The version ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}) is also recorded.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with [[Maragheh]] (1256–1265), [[Tabriz]] (1265–1306), and [[Soltaniyeh]] (1306–1335).{{Sfn|Falk|2024|loc=Us and Them}} After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, [[Luqman (ilkhan)|Luqman]], ruled from [[Astarabad]] under [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] suzerainty.{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Hulagu Khan.jpg|65px]]
|[[Hulegu Khan]]
|1256{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small>
|Grandson of Genghis Khan.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}}
|-
|[[File:Abaqa Khan.jpg|65px]]
|[[Abaqa Khan]]
|8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}} – 1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=175}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1265|2|8|1282|4|1}})</small>
|Son of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Tegüder portrait.jpg|65px]]
|[[Tekuder|Ahmad Tekuder]]
|1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 10 August 1284{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1282|4|1|1284|8|10}})</small>
|Son of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:ArghunEnthroned (cropped).png|65px]]
|[[Arghun|Arghun Khan]]
|11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1284|8|11|1291|3|10}})</small>
|Son of Abaqa{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:سکه گیخاتو.jpg|65px]]
|[[Gaykhatu]]
|10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1291|3|10|1295|3|26}})</small>
|Son of Abaqa{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Gold Mithqal of Baydu, Madinat Tabriz, 694 H (1295).jpg|65px]]
|[[Baydu]]
|26 March – summer? 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>(a few months)</small>
|Grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam (cropped).JPG|55px]]
|[[Ghazan|Ghazan Khan]]
|Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small>
|Son of Arghun{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Majma' al-Tavarikh 001 (cropped) (cropped).jpg|55px]]
|[[Öljaitü]]
|11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1304|5|11|1316|12|16}})</small>
|Son of Arghun{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}
|-
|[[File:In the Court of Abu Saʿid, folio from a manuscript of Nigaristan, Iran, probably Shiraz, dated 1573-74 (Abu Saʿid detail).jpg|65px]]
|[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]]
|16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 30 November 1335{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1316|12|16|1335|11|30}})</small>
|Son of Öljaitü{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Ilkhan Musa Khan Dirham.jpg|65px]]
|[[Musa (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Musa Khan]]
|1335/1336–1336{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Grandson of Baydu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}
|-
|[[File:سکه آرپاخان.jpg|65px]]
|[[Arpa Ke'un|Arpa Khan]]
|1335–1336{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Descendant of [[Tolui]], the father of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}
|-
|[[File:Ilkhanids, Muhammad Khan (1337-1338) Dinar, Al-Jazira mint, Dated AH 737 (1336-1337).jpg|frameless|65x65px]]
|[[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad Khan]]
|1336–1338{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}
|-
|[[File:Gold Dinar of Taghaytimur, Kashan, 739 H, 1338-1339.jpg|65px]]
|[[Togha Temür]]
|1337–1353<br /><small>(6 years)</small>
|Descendant of [[Qasar]], a brother of Genghis Khan{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Jahan Temür]]
|1338/1339–1340/1341{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Grandson of Gaykhatu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Sati Beg]]
|1338/1339–1339/1340{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Daughter of Öljaitü.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]] (2 BC–AD 4), [[Boran]] (630), and [[Azarmidokht]] (630–631).}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Suleiman Khan]]
|1339/1340 – 1343/1344{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small>
|Great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}
|-
|[[File:Silver Dirham of Anushirwan, Tiflis, 1344-1353.jpg|65px]]
|[[Anushirwan|Anushirwan Khan]]
|1344–1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Unknown lineage{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Ghazan II]]
|1356–1357{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Son of Togha Temür{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Luqman (ilkhan)|Luqman]]
|1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}}–1388{{Sfn|Roemer|2001|p=29}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small>
|Son of Togha Temür.{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} Puppet ruler under various warlords, including [[Amir Vali]]{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}} and later [[Timur]].{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}}
|}

==== Timurid Empire (1370–1458) ====
{{See also|Timurid Empire|Timurid dynasty}}
[[File:Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Timurid Empire]] under [[Timur]]|190px]]
The Timurid Empire was established by [[Timur]], a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the [[Chagatai Khanate]].{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of [[Transoxiana]]. He went on to establish his seat of power in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}

During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}).{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Timur also used the style ''guregen'' ({{Literal translation|son-in-law}}) to stress his marriage to [[Saray Mulk Khanum]], a descendant of Genghis Khan.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=13}} ''Pādishāh'' continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of ''sulṭān''.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=13}} [[Samarkand]] was the capital of the Timurid Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Timur reconstruction03.png|65px]]
|[[Timur]]
|9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1370|4|9|1405|2|18}})</small>
|Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Pir Muhammad (son of Jahangir)|Pir Muhammad]]
|February 1405 – 1407{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Grandson of Timur{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} and his designated heir.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Ruler in [[Fars province|Fars]].{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}
|-
|[[File:Contemporary drawing of Khalil Sultan, 1405-1406 (Ms. Diez A. fol.74, p.24) contoured.jpg|frameless|79x79px]]
|[[Khalil Sultan]]
|February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1409/1410{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(4–5 years)</small>
|Grandson of Timur.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}
|-
|[[File:Contemporary portrait of Shah Rukh, painted in his lifetime in 1435-36, by commission of his son Ibrahim Sultan.jpg|65px]]
|[[Shah Rukh]]
|February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1446/1447{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(41–42 years)</small>
|Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
|-
|[[File:Ulugh Beg, Timurid painting 1425-50.jpg|65px]]
|[[Ulugh Beg]]
|1446/1447 – October/November 1449{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(2–3 years)</small>
|Son of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abdal-Latif Mirza]]
|October/November 1449 – May 1450{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(6–7 months)</small>
|Son of Ulugh Beg{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abdullah Mirza]]
|May 1450 – 1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(1–2 years)</small>
|Grandson of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
|-
|[[File:Abu Said seated on a throne.png|65px]]
|[[Abu Sa'id Mirza]]
|1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}}<br /><small>(6–7 years)</small>
|Great-grandson of Timur{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}
|}
The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] in 1452–1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see [[Timurid Empire#Emperors (Emir)|Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir)]].

==== Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469) ====
{{See also|Qara Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu}}
[[File:Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Qara Qoyunlu]] under [[Jahan Shah]]|190px]]
The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} Under the leader [[Jahan Shah]], the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of [[Jibal]] in 1452, and continued with further conquests of [[Isfahan]], [[Fars province|Fars]], and [[Kerman]] in 1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}}

The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Iran}}).{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} [[Tabriz]] served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=154}}

This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the [[list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu.jpg|65px]]
|[[Jahan Shah]]
|1452–1467{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small>
|Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}}
|-
|[[File:Hasan Ali bin Cahan shah.jpg|65px]]
|[[Hasan Ali (Qara Qoyunlu)|Hasan Ali]]
|1467–1469{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son of Jahan Shah{{Sfn|Roemer|2001b|p=116}}
|}

==== Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508) ====
{{See also|Aq Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu}}
[[File:Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Aq Qoyunlu]] under [[Uzun Hasan]]|190px]]
Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under [[Uzun Hasan]] defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}}

Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Iran}}), among other titles.{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=104}} The capital was transferred to [[Tabriz]] under Uzun Hasan.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}}

This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the [[list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of Uzun Hasan, minted in Amed (Amid, Diyarbakır). Obverse.jpg|65px]]
|[[Uzun Hasan]]
|1465/1469–1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(9–13 years)</small>
|Conquered Iran in the 1460s{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}}
|-
|[[File:Sultan Khalil of the Aq Qoyunlu 1478 (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Sultan-Khalil]]
|1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small>
|Son of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:Soltan Yaʿqub Aq Qoyunlu and his weeping courtiers. Source- The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS Ouseley Add. 24, fol. 177r (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Yaqub (Aq Qoyunlu)|Yaqub]]
|1478–1490{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small>
|Son of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:Gold coin of the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Baysunghur, Tabriz mint.jpg|65px]]
|[[Baysunghur (Aq Qoyunlu)|Baysunghur]]
|1490–1492{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small>
|Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Sultan Rustam (Aq Qoyunlu).png|65px]]
|[[Rustam Beg]]
|1492–1496{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small>
|Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Sultan Ahmad (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ahmad Beg]]
|1496–1497{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small>
|Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Sultan Alvand (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg|65px]]
|[[Alvand Beg]]
|1497–1502{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(5 years, in [[Diyar Bakr]] and then [[Azerbaijan]])</small>
|Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Muhammad Beg]]
|1499–1500{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia)</small>
|Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|[[File:The envoy Qanbar Aqa, sent by Shah Ismail I, before Sultan Murad Turkman. Mu'in Musavvir, Isfahan, circa 1670 (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Sultan Murad (Aq Qoyunlu)|Sultan Murad]]
|1500–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(8 years, in [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Kerman province|Kerman]])</small>
|Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Zayn al-Abidin (Aq Qoyunlu)|Zayn al-Abidin]]
|1504–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(4 years, in [[Diyar Bakr]])</small>
|Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}
|}

=== Minor kingdoms and dynasties ===

* Various local Iranian dynasties in [[Tabaristan]]:
** [[Qarinvand dynasty]] (550s–11th century)
** [[Dabuyid dynasty]] (642–760)
** [[Bavand dynasty]] (651–1349)
** [[Baduspanids|Baduspanid dynasty]] (665–1598)
** [[Afrasiyab dynasty]] (1349–1504)
* [[Ghurid dynasty]] (786–1215), which controlled parts of eastern Iran
* Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo:
** [[Sajid dynasty]] (889–929) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
** [[Rawadid dynasty]] (900–1070/1116) in Azerbaijan
** [[Sallarid dynasty]] (919–1062) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
** The [[Ilyasids]] (932–968) in [[Kerman]]
** The [[Shaddadids]] (951–1199) in Armenia
** The [[Hasanwayhids]] (959–1015) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
** The [[Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)|Marwanids]] (983/990–1084) in Mesopotamia
** The [[Annazids]] (990/991–late 12th century) in western Iran/eastern Iraq
** The [[Kakuyids]] (1008–1141) in central Iran
* Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate:
** [[Kart dynasty]] (1244–1381) in much of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]
** The [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] (1314–1393) in central and southern Iran
** The [[Injuids]] (1335–1357) in southern Iran
** [[Jalayirid Sultanate]] (1335–1432) in Iraq and western Iran
** The [[Sarbadars]] (1337–1381) in parts of Khorasan
** The [[Chobanids]] (1338–1357) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan

== Modern Iran (1501–1979) ==

=== Safavid Iran (1501–1722) ===
{{See also|Safavid Iran|Safavid dynasty}}[[File:Safavid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|[[Safavid Iran]] under [[Abbas the Great]]|190px]]
Of native Iranian (possibly [[Kurds|Kurdish]]) origins,<ref>
* {{Harvnb|Savory|1970|p=394}}: "Despite recent research, the origins of the Safavid family are still obscure. Such evidence as we have seems to suggest that the family hailed from Kurdistān. What does seem certain is that the Safavids were of native Iranian stock, and spoke Āzarī, the form of Turkish used in Āzarbāyjān. Our lack of reliable information derives from the fact that the Safavids, after the establishment of the Safavid state, deliberately falsified the evidence of their own origins."
* {{Harvnb|Amoretti|Matthee|2009}}: "Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)"
* {{Harvnb|Matthee|2005|p=18}}: "The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background, did not fit this pattern, although the stat they set up with the aid of Turkmen tribal forces of Eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup. Yet, the Turk versus Tajik division was not impregnable."
* {{Harvnb|Matthee|2008}}: "As Persians of Kurdish ancestry and of a non-tribal background, the Safavids did not fit this pattern, though the state they set up with the assistance of Turkmen tribal forces of eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup."
* {{Harvnb|Savory|2008|p=8}}: "This official version contains textual changes designed to obscure the Kurdish origins of the Safavid family and to vindicate their claim to descent from the Imams."
* {{Harvnb|Hamid|2006|p=456–474}}: "The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafeʿite in school and probably Kurdish in origin."
* {{Harvnb|Amanat|2017|p=40}} "The Safavi house originally was among the landowning nobility of Kurdish origin, with affinity to the Ahl-e Haqq in Kurdistan (chart 1). In the twelfth century, the family settled in northeastern Azarbaijan, where Safi al-Din Ardabili (d. 1334), the patriarch of the Safavid house and Ismail's ancestor dating back six generations, was a revered Sufi leader."
* {{harvnb|Tapper|1997|p=39}}: "The Safavid Shahs who ruled Iran between 1501 and 1722 descended from Sheikh Safi ad-Din of Ardabil (1252–1334). Sheikh Safi and his immediate successors were renowned as holy ascetics Sufis. Their own origins were obscure; probably of Kurdish or Iranian extraction, they later claimed descent from the Prophet."
* {{harvnb|Manz|2021|p=169}}: "The Safavid dynasty was of Iranian – probably Kurdish – extraction and had its beginnings as a Sufi order located at Ardabil near the eastern border of Azerbaijan, in a region favorable for both agriculture and pastoralism."</ref> the [[Safavid dynasty]] originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic [[Safavid order]]. In 1499, the Safavid ''[[sheikh]]'' [[Ismail I|Ismail]] defeated the [[Shirvanshahs]] of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of [[Alvand Beg]].{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} In 1502, Ismail crowned himself ''šâhanšâh'' at [[Tabriz]].{{Sfn|Rahimi|2011|p=166}} The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian [[nation state]].{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. [[Shia Islam]] was for the first time established as the state religion.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}

The Safavids ruled as ''šâhanšâh-e Irân'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}).{{Sfn|O'Brien|2022|p=47}} The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to [[Qazvin]] in 1548, and then to [[Isfahan]] in the 1590s.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Shah Ismail I. Inscribed "Ismael Sophy Rex Pers". Painted by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, dated 1552-1568.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ismail I]]'''
|11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1502|5|11|1524|5|22}})</small>
|Conquered and reunified Iran{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Shah Tahmasp I. Inscribed "Tammas Pers". Painted by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, dated 1552-1568.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Tahmasp I]]'''
|22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1524|5|22|1576|8|22}})</small>
|Son of Ismail I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Shah Ismayil I.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ismail II]]'''
|22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1576|8|22|1578|2|11}})</small>
|Son of Tahmasp I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Illustration of the Safavid shah Mohammad Khodabandeh.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mohammad Khodabanda]]'''
|11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1578|2|11|1587|12|2}})</small>
|Son of Tahmasp I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Abbas the Great|Abbas I]]'''<br /><small>''the Great''</small>
|2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1587|12|2|1629|1|21}})</small>
|Son of Mohammad Khodabanda{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Shah Safi I of Persia on Horseback Carrying a Mace- Sahand Ace.png|65px]]
|'''[[Safi of Persia|Safi I]]'''
|21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1629|1|21|1642|5|12}})</small>
|Grandson of Abbas I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Abbas II of Persia.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]]'''
|12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1642|5|12|1667|9|27}})</small>
|Son of Safi I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Portrait of a ruler of Persia, painted by a follower of Ali Quli Jabbadar, Safavid Iran.jpg|65px]]
|'''Safi II'''{{efn|The coronation of Safi II was followed by epidemics and famine. Court astrologers thus declared that he had been crowned at an inauspicious time. This prompted the ''shah'' to have himself re-crowned under the name Suleiman I in 1668.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}}} <small>(1667–1668)</small><br />'''[[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman I]]''' <small>(1668–1694)</small>
|3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1667|10|3|1694|1|30}})</small>
|Son of Abbas II{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Sultan Husayn of Persia.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Soltan Hoseyn|Soltan Hoseyn I]]'''
|28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1694|4|28|1722|10|22}})</small>
|Son of Suleiman I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|}

=== Intermediate period (1722–1796) ===
Complex rivalries in the region of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] led to the Afghan [[Hotak dynasty]] invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the [[siege of Isfahan]].{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}} The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the [[Qajar dynasty]] in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharid]] and [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] dynasties were established by [[Nader Shah]] (1736–1747) and [[Karim Khan Zand|Karim Khan]] (1751–1779), respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}}

==== Hotaks (1722–1729) ====
{{See also|Hotak dynasty}}
[[File:Hotak dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Hotak dynasty]] under [[Mahmud Hotak]]|190px]]
In 1701, unrest among the [[Ghilji]] [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] tribe of [[Afghanistan]] led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, [[George XI of Kartli]], but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under [[Mirwais Hotak]] and his son, [[Mahmud Hotak]]. Mahmud initially feigned loyalty and was officially appointed as governor of [[Kandahar]]. In 1720, he began raiding the [[Kerman]] area and in March 1722, a larger hastily assembled and more powerful Safavid army was defeated at the [[Battle of Gulnabad]]. Following a six-month [[siege of Isfahan]], [[Soltan Hoseyn|Soltan Hoseyn I]] formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new ''shah'' of Iran.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan.{{Sfn|Balland|1987}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Mahmud Hotak]]'''
|22 October 1722 – April/May 1725{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1722|10|22|1725|4}})</small>
|Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I{{Sfn|Balland|1987}}
|-
|[[File:Ashraf Shah Hotaki 1725-1729.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ashraf Hotak]]'''
|April/May 1725 – 1729{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small>
|Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud{{Sfn|Balland|1987}}
|}

==== Safavid dynasts (1722–1773) ====
When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son [[Tahmasp II]] at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself ''shah''.{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}} Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran.{{Sfn|Balland|1987}} Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general [[Nader Shah|Nader Khan]]. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old [[Abbas III]]. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new ''shah'' of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty.{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran.{{Sfn|Perry|1998}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Coin of Tahmasp II, minted in Ganja (obverse).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Tahmasp II]]'''
|31 October 1722{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} – August 1732{{Sfn|Savory|1982}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1722|10|22|1732|8}})</small>
|Son of Soltan Hoseyn I{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|[[File:Abbas III.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Abbas III]]'''
|7 September 1732 – 8 March 1736{{Sfn|Savory|1982}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1732|9|7|1736|3|8}})</small>
|Son of Tahmasp II{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|No recognized Safavid ruler 1736–1750
|-
|[[File:Suleiman II of Iran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Suleiman II of Persia|Suleiman II]]'''
|13 January – March 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}<br /><small>(2 months)</small>
|Grandson of Suleiman I.{{Sfn|Floor|2005|pp=435–481}} Proclaimed ''shah'' at [[Mashhad]] after the deposition of Shahrokh Shah (Afsharid) and ruled until Shahrokh was restored.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|-
|[[File:Coin minted in the name of Ismail III in Mazandaran.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ismail III]]'''
|Summer 1750 – 1773{{Sfn|Perry|1998}}<br /><small>(23 years)</small>
|Grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I. Proclaimed ''shah'' at Isfahan by [[Karim Khan Zand]] in 1750, as a puppet ruler.{{Sfn|Perry|1998}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|'''[[Soltan Hoseyn II]]'''
|1752{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}/1753{{Sfn|Perry|1971|pp=63–72}}
|Son of an [[Azerbaijanis|Azeri]] man and an [[Armenians|Armenian]] woman, but claimed to be a son of Tahmasp II.{{Sfn|Perry|1971|pp=63–72}} Proclaimed ''shah'' at Baghdad by [[Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari]], as a puppet ruler.{{Sfn|Perry|1971|pp=63–72}}
|}
==== Afsharids (1736–1796) ====
{{See also|Afsharid Iran|Afsharid dynasty}}
[[File:Afsharid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|[[Afsharid Iran]] under [[Nader Shah]]|190px]]
The [[Afsharid dynasty]] was established by [[Nader Shah]], a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III.{{Sfn|Savory|1982}} Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival [[Zand dynasty]] as well as the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]]. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} The Afsharids ruled with the style of ''šâhanšâh''{{Sfn|Tucker|2022|p=9}} and their capital was at [[Mashhad]].{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Contemporary portrait of Nader Shah. Artist unknown, created in ca. 1740 in Iran (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Nader Shah]]'''
|8 March 1736 – 20 June 1747{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1736|3|8|1747|6|20}})</small>
|General; deposed Abbas III{{Sfn|Savory|1982}}
|-
|[[File:Portrait of Adel Shah.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Adel Shah]]'''
|6 July 1747{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} – 24 September 1748{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1747|8|6|1748|9|24}})</small>
|Nephew of Nader Shah; proclaimed ruler after Nader's assassination{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Shahrokh Afshar, struck at the Ganja mint (obverse).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shahrokh Shah]]'''
|1 October 1748{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} – 13 January 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}<br /><small>(</small><small>''1st reign'')</small><br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1748|10|1|1750|1|13}})</small>
|Grandson of Nader Shah and matrilineal grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I (Safavid). Proclaimed ruler by tribal leaders at Mashhad in opposition to Adel.{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Ebrahim Shah Afshar, struck at the Tiflis mint (obverse).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Ebrahim Afshar|Ebrahim Shah]]'''
|8 December 1748 – December 1749{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}}<br /><small>(~1 year)</small>
|Brother of Adel Shah; proclaimed ruler (in opposition to Shahrokh Shah) after deposing and blinding Adel{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Shahrokh Shah was removed from the throne in January–March 1750 in favor of the Safavid ruler [[Suleiman II of Persia|Suleiman II]]{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|-
|[[File:Coin of Shahrokh Afshar, struck at the Ganja mint (obverse).jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Shahrokh Shah]]'''
|March 1750{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}} – 1796{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=310}} <small>(''2nd reign'')</small><br /><small>(46 years)</small>
|Restored to the throne{{Sfn|Perry|1984b}}
|}

==== Zands (1751–1794) ====
{{See also|Zand dynasty}}
[[File:Zand dynasty.svg|thumb|Land held by the [[Zand dynasty]] under [[Lotf Ali Khan]]|190px]]
In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] family grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} Established by the tribal leader [[Karim Khan Zand]], the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be ''shah''s.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}}''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet [[Ismail III]] (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}}''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of ''khân'', as well as the style of ''wakil'' (regent) or ''wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ'' ({{Literal translation|regent of the people}}).''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' His successors ruled simply as ''khân'', though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' The Zand dynasty ruled from [[Shiraz]].''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Karim Khan-e Zand.png|65px]]
|[[Karim Khan Zand|Karim Khan]]
|1751 – 1 March 1779''{{Sfn|Perry|2011}}''<br /><small>(28 years)</small>
|Seized power over much of Iran{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Mohammad-Ali Khan Zand|Mohammad-Ali Khan]]
|2 March – 19 June 1779{{Sfn|Busse|1983}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1779|3|2|1779|6|19}})</small>
|Son of Karim Khan.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath Khan.{{Sfn|Busse|1983}}
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Abol-Fath Khan Zand|Abol-Fath Khan]]
|2 March – 22 August 1779{{Sfn|Busse|1983}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1779|3|2|1779|8|22}})</small>
|Son of Karim Khan.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali Khan.{{Sfn|Busse|1983}}
|-
|[[File:Image of sadiq khan zand.png|60px]]
|[[Sadeq Khan Zand|Sadeq Khan]]
|22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1779|8|22|1781|3|14}})</small>
|Brother of Karim Khan''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Ali-Morad Khan Zand|Ali-Morad Khan]]
|14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1781|3|14|1785|1|10}})</small>
|Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''
|-
|[[File:Ja`far Khan.png|60px]]
|[[Jafar Khan]]
|17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1785|1|17|1789|1|23}})</small>
|Son of Sadeq Khan''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''
|-
|{{Centre|—}}
|[[Sayed Morad Khan]]
|23 January – 7 May 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1789|1|23|1789|5|7}})</small>
|Cousin of Ali-Morad Khan. Mutinied against Jafar Khan (leading to Jafar's death) and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali Khan.''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''
|-
|[[File:Lotf Ali Khan Zand.jpg|65px]]
|[[Lotf Ali Khan]]
|7 May 1789{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}} – November 1794''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1789|5|7|1794|11}})</small>
|Son of Jafar Khan.{{Sfn|Spuler|1977|p=311}}
|}

=== Qajar Iran (1789–1925) ===
{{See also|Qajar Iran|Qajar dynasty}}
[[File:Qajar dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|[[Qajar Iran]] under [[Agha Mohammad Shah]]|190px]]
The Qajar dynasty originated as a local [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]]{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in [[Agha Mohammad Shah]] proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} and was officially crowned in 1796.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}}

Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title ''khân'' and later ''šâh'', never assuming the more grandiose ''šâhanšâh''.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=10}} Agha Mohammad's successor, [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]], assumed both ''šâhanšâh'' and the Mongol ''khagan'',{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=10}} titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers.{{sfn|Ashraf|2024|p=48}} Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=10}} The Qajar dynasty ruled from [[Tehran]], inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|p=12}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Agha mohamad khan qajar (cropped).JPG|65px]]
|[[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar|'''Agha Mohammad Khan''']]
|1789{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} – 17 June 1797{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small>
|Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}}
|-
|[[File:Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar (reg. 1798-1834), Persia, second half of the 19th Century.jpg|65px]]
|[[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|'''Fath-Ali Shah''']]
|17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1797|6|17|1834|10|23}})</small>
|Nephew of Agha Mohammad Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|-
|[[File:Mohammad Shah.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mohammad Shah Qajar|'''Mohammad Shah''']]
|23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1834|10|23|1848|9|5}})</small>
|Grandson of Fath-Ali Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|-
|[[File:Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, close up, with slight smile by Nadar.png|65px]]
|[[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|'''Naser al-Din Shah''']]
|5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1848|9|5|1896|5|1}})</small>
|Son of Mohammad Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|-
|[[File:Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar portrait.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar|'''Mozaffar ad-Din Shah''']]
|1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1896|5|1|1907|1|3}})</small>
|Son of Naser al-Din Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|-
|[[File:Mohammad Ali Shah.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar|'''Mohammad Ali Shah''']]
|3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1907|1|3|1909|7|16}})</small>
|Son of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|-
|[[File:AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ahmad Shah Qajar|'''Ahmad Shah''']]
|16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1909|7|16|1925|12|15}})</small>
|Son of Mohammad Ali Shah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=397}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (1925–1943)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg|65px]]
|[[Ahmad Shah Qajar|Ahmad Shah]]
|15 December 1925{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=20}} – 27 February 1930{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=364}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1925|12|15|1930|2|27}})</small>
|Ruler of Iran 1909–1925. Died in exile in France.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=13}}
|-
|[[File:Mohammad Hassan Mirza portrait 2.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mohammad Hassan Mirza]]
|27 February 1930{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=364}} – 7 January 1943{{Sfn|Majd|2016|p=356}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1930|2|27|1942|1|7}})</small>
|Son of Mohammad Ali Shah and designated successor of Ahmad Shah (his brother).{{Sfn|Majd|2016|p=356}}
|-
|[[File:Hamid Mirza.jpg|65px]]
|[[Hamid Mirza]]
|''No formal claim put forth''
|Son of Mohammad Hassan Mirza. Viewed himself as the rightful heir after his father's death but did not officially claim the throne.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=369}} Was monitored by the [[United States Department of State|US Department of State]] in 1943 over whether he would declare himself Shah of Iran.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=367}}
|-
|[[File:Fereydoun Mirza.jpg|65px]]
|[[Fereydoun Mirza Qajar|Fereydoun Mirza]]
|''No formal claim put forth''
|Son of Ahmad Shah. While he lived in Switzerland in 1943, the [[United States Department of State|US Department of State]] intercepted and suppressed messages from relatives urging Fereydoun to declare himself the rightful Shah of Iran.{{Sfn|Majd|2012|p=367}}
|-
|colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|<!-- Later heads of the family shouldn't be added here since they did not claim the Iranian throne -->There continues to be recognized heads of the Qajar family in exile to the present day, though the family has renounced all claims to rule through lineage and does not endorse political activity under its coat of arms.<ref>{{Cite Instagram |postid=CniG-yVt7PB |user=qajar.association |title=Official Statement of the Qajar Association |date=17 January 2023}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2025}}
|}

=== Pahlavi Iran (1925–1979) ===
{{See also|Pahlavi Iran|Pahlavi dynasty}}
[[File:Iran (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Map of [[Pahlavi Iran]]|190px]]
During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] (1905–1911). In 1923, the brigade commander [[Reza Shah|Reza Khan]] quickly rose through the ranks to become [[Prime Minister of Iran|prime minister]].{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=14}} In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch.{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}} As his family name, Reza took ''Pahlavi'', after the [[Middle Persian|Pahlavi language]] of the pre-Islamic [[Sasanian Empire]].{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}}

The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as ''šâhanšâh-e Irân'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings of Iran}}).{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}}''{{Sfn|Bulloch|Morris|2017|p=202}}'' [[Tehran]] remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule.{{Sfn|Lee|2024|p=105}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Reign
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Reza shah uniform.jpg|65px]]
|'''[[Reza Shah]]'''
|15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1925|12|15|1941|9|16}})</small>
|Former prime minister{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=14}}
|-
|[[File:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (cropped).png|65px]]
|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|'''Mohammad Reza Shah''']]
|16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1941|9|16|1979|2|11}})</small>
|Son of Reza Shah{{Sfn|Hiro|2011|p=29}}
|}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ Later pretenders (1979–present)
|-
! width="7%" |Portrait
! width="27%" |Name
! width="32%" |Tenure
! width="34%" |Succession
|-
|[[File:Shahanshah Aryamehr 2.jpg|65px]]
|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah]]
|11 February 1979{{Sfn|Papoli-Yazdi|Dezhamkhooy|2021|p=21}} – 27 July 1980{{Sfn|Lea|2001|p=55}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1979|2|11|1980|7|27}})</small>
|Ruler of Iran 1941–1979. Died in exile in Egypt.{{Sfn|Lea|2001|p=55}}
|-
|[[File:Shahbanu of Iran.jpg|65px]]
|[[Farah Pahlavi]]
|27 July – 31 October 1980<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1980|7|27|1980|10|31}})</small>
|As regent
|-
|[[File:Reza Pahlavi Crown Prince of Iran 1973.jpg|65px]]
|[[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Reza Pahlavi]]<br /><small>("Reza Shah II"{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}})</small>
|31 October 1980{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}} – present<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1980|10|31}})</small>
|Son of Mohammad Reza Shah. Proclaimed himself "Reza Shah II", rightful ruler of Iran, in October 1980.{{Sfn|Brentjes|1999|p=160}} Has voiced support for democracy but has not renounced his claim to the throne.{{Sfn|Kazemzadeh|2022|p=124}}
|}

== See also ==

* [[History of Iran]] – a general overview of Iranian history
* [[Monarchism in Iran]] – advocacy for restoring the Iranian monarchy
* [[List of royal consorts of Iran]] – the consorts of the rulers of Iran
* [[Pishdadian dynasty]] and [[Kayanian dynasty]] – two legendary Iranian dynasties from the [[Avesta]] and the ''[[Shahnameh]]''
* [[List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran]] – poorly attested regional rulers before the Achaemenid Empire

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Sources ===
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{{refend}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:List of Kings of Persia}} [[Category:Iran history-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of monarchs in Asia|Persia]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia|*]]