Editing Limes (Roman Empire)

{{Short description|Frontier and border defences of the Roman Empire}}
{{See also|Roman military frontiers and fortifications|Borders of the Roman Empire}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
| WHS         = Frontiers of the Roman Empire
| Image       = Limes Germanicus 2nd c.png
| Caption     = The ''limes'' Germanicus, 2nd century (Note: Mogontiacum is misspelled)
| Location    = 
| Includes    =
| Criteria    = Cultural ii, iii, iv
| ID          = 430
| Year        = 1987
| Extension   = 2005, 2008
| Area        =
| Buffer_zone = 
}}
'''{{lang|la|Limes}}''' ([[Latin]]; {{singular}}, {{plural form}}: {{lang|la|limites}}) is a term used primarily for the Germanic [[border]] defence or delimiting system of [[ancient Rome]] marking the [[borders of the Roman Empire]].<ref>Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", Journal of Roman Studies, 78 (1988), pp. 125–147</ref><ref>Great Walls and Linear Barriers, Peter Spring, Pen and Sword, 2015, Chap. 24. {{ISBN|1473853842}}, 9781473853843</ref> The term has been extended in modern times to refer to the [[Roman military frontiers and fortifications|frontier defences in other parts of the empire]], such as in the east and in Africa.

==Overview==
{{See also|Borders of the Roman Empire}}
[[File:Roman Empire 125 political map.svg|thumb|350px|Roman Empire 125 AD near its maximum extent]]
[[File:Costantino nord-limes png.PNG|thumb|350px|Northern Frontiers in 337 AD showing the reconquests of [[Constantine the Great]]]]
[[File:Roman Empire with dioceses in 400 AD.png|thumb|350px|Roman Empire with dioceses in 400 AD]]

The Roman frontier stretched for more than {{convert|5000|km|mi}} from the Atlantic coast of northern [[Roman Britain|Britain]], through Europe to the [[Black Sea]], and from there to the [[Red Sea]] and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The positions of the borders changed especially during the main periods of Roman expansion and contraction, and first became more stable during the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]] period under [[Augustus]], but the borders continued to change with time in different provinces. The borders had different constituents depending on local needs; often they consisted of natural boundaries (e.g. rivers) with roads behind for easier movement of troops between linked forts (e.g. [[Danubian Limes]]), or else roads with linked forts (e.g. [[Stanegate]], [[Fosse Way]]).

The remains of the frontiers today consist of vestiges of roads, forts, fortresses, walls and ditches, and associated civilian settlements. The soldiers at a border were referred to as ''[[limitanei]]''.{{cn|date=February 2024}} They were not expected to win large-scale wars, but rather to deter small-to-medium-sized raiding parties.

Notable examples of Roman frontiers include:
*[[Hadrian's Wall]] in northern England
*[[Antonine Wall]] – in Scotland<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/newproperties/ UNESCO World Heritage Centre.  New Inscribed Properties]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/tayside_and_central/7494680.stm "Wall gains World Heritage status'"] BBC News. Retrieved 8 July 2008.</ref>
* [[Saxon Shore]], late Roman coastal forts in South-East England
*[[Limes Arabicus]], the frontier of the Roman province of [[Arabia Petraea]] facing the desert
*[[Limes Tripolitanus]], the frontier in modern Libya facing the Sahara
*[[Fossatum Africae]], the southern frontier of the Roman Empire, extending south of the [[Roman province of Africa]] in [[North-Africa]].
*[[Germanic Limes]] including the:
**[[Lower Germanic Limes]]
**[[Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes]]
*[[Danubian Limes]] including the:
**[[Rhaetian Limes]] (only those elements along the Danube)
**[[Noricum|Noric]] Limes, the frontier of the Roman province Noricum, from the River [[Inn (river)|Inn]] along the Danube to Cannabiaca ([[Zeiselmauer-Wolfpassing]]) in Austria.
**[[Pannonian Limes]], the frontier of the Roman province [[Pannonia]], along the Danube from [[Klosterneuburg]] Austria to [[Taurunum]] in Serbia.
**[[Moesian Limes]], the frontier of the Roman province [[Moesia]], from [[Singidunum]] Serbia along the Danube to Moldavia.
*[[Dacian Limes]] including:
**[[Limes Alutanus]], the eastern border of the Roman province of [[Dacia]]
**[[Limes Transalutanus]], the later advanced eastern frontier of Dacia

==Etymology==
The stem of ''limes'', ''limit''-, which can be seen in the genitive case, ''limitis'', marks it as the ancestor of an entire group of words in many languages related to Latin; for example, English ''[[wikt:limit|limit]]'' or French ''[[wikt:limite|limite]]''.  The [[Latin language|Latin]] noun ''līmes'' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|l|aɪ|m|iː|z}};<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (1989)</ref> Latin {{abbr|pl.|Plural}}&nbsp;''{{lang|la|līmitēs}}'') had a number of different meanings: a path or balk delimiting [[Field (agriculture)|fields]]; a boundary line or marker; any road or path; any channel, such as a stream channel; or any distinction or difference.<ref>Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", ''[[Journal of Roman Studies]]'', 78 (1988), pp. 125–147</ref> The term was also commonly used after the 3rd century AD to denote a military district under the command of a ''dux limitis''.<ref>Benjamin Isaac, "The Meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in Ancient Sources", ''[[Journal of Roman Studies]]'', 78 (1988), pp. 125–147; Benjamin Isaac, ''The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, revised edition 1992).</ref>

An etymology by [[Julius Pokorny]] in ''Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch'' says that ''limes'' comes from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110809064309/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/cgi-bin/startq.cgi?flags=endnnnl&root=leiden&basename=%5Cdata%5Cie%5Cpokorny ''el-'', ''elei-'', ''lei-''], "to bow", "to bend", "elbow".  According to Pokorny, Latin ''limen'', "threshold", is related to ''limes'', being the stone over which one enters or leaves the house. Some scholars have viewed the frontier as a [https://web.archive.org/web/20120722015516/http://otal.umd.edu/~paulette/Dissertation/outside_in/getin/etylimen.html threshold].  The Merriam–Webster dictionaries take this view, as does J. B. Hofmann in ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen'' under ''leimon''. ''The White Latin Dictionary'' denies any connection, deriving ''limen'' from *''ligmen'', as in ''lien'' from [https://web.archive.org/web/20080804194545/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE272.html *leig-], "tie". In this sense, the threshold ties together the doorway.  W. Gebert also wrote an article discussing the term.<ref>W. Gebert, "Limes", ''Untersuchungen zur Erklärung des Vortes und seiner Anwendung'', Bonner Jahrbücher Bd. 119, No. 2, 1910, 158–205.</ref>

The first use of the term ''limes''<ref>{{Citation|last1=Carol-Opriş|first1=Ioan|last2=Raţiu|first2=Alexandru|last3=Stoian|first3=Gabriel|title=Stadiul cercetării siturilor din jud. Braşov şi Covasna ("Stage of the research in Braşov and Covasna Counties")|series=Raport ştiinţific Privind Derularea Proiectului Strategii Defensive şi Politici Transfrontaliere: Integrarea Spaţiului Dunării De Jos în Civilizaţia Romană (STRATEG) ("Scientific Report on the Progress of the Project "Defensive Strategies and Border Policies: Integration of the Lower Danube Region in Roman Civilization (STRATEG)""), pp. 37- }}</ref> as meaning "land border" appears for the first time in 98 AD by [[Tacitus]]:<ref>Tacitus, De vita et moribus Julius Agricolae, 41, 2-3</ref><ref>E. Schallmayer, Der Limes. Geschichte einer Grenze, München, 2006, p. 14</ref>

<blockquote>''...nec iam de '''limite''' imperii et ripa, sed de hibernis legionum et de possessione dubitatum''  (...not only were the frontier of the empire and the banks [of the Danube] in danger but also the winter-quarters of the legions and the provinces).</blockquote>

Its definitive use for the Danubian border seems to date from about 122 in the time of Hadrian:<ref>Scriptores Historiae Augustae, De vita Hadriani, XII, 6</ref>

<blockquote>''Per ea tempora et alia frequenter in plurimis locis, in quibus barbari non fluminibus sed '''limitibus''' dividuntur, stipitibus magnis in modum muralis saepis funditus iactis atque conexis barbaros separavit'' (During this period and on many other occasions also, in many regions where the barbarians are held back not by rivers but artificial barriers, [Hadrian] shut them out by tall stakes planted deep in the ground and fastened together in the manner of a palisade).</blockquote>

Some experts suggested that the Germanic ''limes'' may have been called ''Munimentum Traiani'' (Trajan's Bulwark) by contemporaries, referring to a passage by [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], according to which emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] had reoccupied this fortification in 360 AD.<ref>Hessian state archaeologist Prof. E. Schallmeyer, quoted in Schmid, A., Schmid, R., Möhn, A., ''Die Römer an Rhein und Main'' (Frankfurt: Societäts-Verlag, revised edition 2006).</ref>

{{clear}}

== In Europe ==
=== Britain===
{{Main|Gask Ridge||Antonine Wall|Hadrian's Wall|Stanegate|Fosse Way|Limes Britannicus}}
{{Unreferencedsect|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Gask Ridge Limes 85 n. chr.png|thumb|Gask Ridge Limes 85 AD]]
[[File:Roman.Britain.north.155.jpg|thumb|Map of forts and walls in North Britain around 155 AD (most forts on and south of [[Hadrian's Wall]] have been omitted)]]

The frontier in Britain existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD. Initially the Fosse Way road was a frontier. From the 1st to the 2nd century first the Gask Ridge and then the Stanegate, with their chains of forts and watchtowers, marked the northern boundary of [[Britannia]]. Later [[Hadrian's Wall]] was built as the frontier and for a short time the [[Antonine Wall]] further north. The defence of Hadrian's Wall was achieved through the incorporation of [[castra|forts]] and ''[[Castellum|castella]]''. Security and monitoring on the coasts in the west and southeast were achieved by forts and by chains of watchtowers or signal towers, both along the coastline.

The garrisons, ''Exercitus Britannicus''{{cn|date=February 2024}}, consisted mostly of [[cohort (Roman)|cohorts]] of [[auxilia]]. The strategic reserve comprised three [[legion (Roman)|legions]] based in [[Eburacum]] (York), [[Isca Silurum]] and [[Chester|Deva]]. The observation and surveillance of the waters around the British Isles was the responsibility of the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', whose headquarters were in ''[[Rutupiae]]'' (Richborough). Legions, auxilia and the fleet were commanded by the provincial governors. From the 3rd century, units of ''[[comitatenses]], [[limitanei]]'' and ''[[liburnaria]]'' (marines) came under the command of two generals:{{cn|date=February 2024}}

* ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]''
* ''[[Dux Britanniarum]]''
{{clear}}

=== Saxon Shore ===
{{Main|Saxon Shore}}
{{Unreferencedsect|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Litus Saxonicum.png|thumb|Map of British and Gallic forts on the Saxon Shore]]
This section of the ''limes'' existed from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD and covered the provinces of:

* ''Britannia Inferior''
* ''Belgica''
* ''[[Lugdunensis]]''
* ''[[Aquitania]]''

This ''limes'' of the [[Late Antiquity]] ran through the territory of the present-day [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]]. In the 3rd century, a separate military district, the ''Litus Saxonicum'',{{cn|date=February 2024}} was established on the British side of the [[English Channel]] between the estuaries of [[the Wash]] and the [[Solent]], to repel [[Saxon]] pirates and plunderers. The Gallic side of the English Channel and Atlantic coast were included therein. Monitoring and coastal surveillance were carried out by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers, forts and fortified ports (Gaul). Most of the Saxon Shore camps probably served as naval bases.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

The garrisons of the forts were composed of infantry and several cavalry regiments. Monitoring and surveillance of the Channel were the responsibility of the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'' and ''Classis Sambrica'', whose headquarters were in ''Locus Quartensis'' (Port d'Etaple), guarding the mouth of the [[River Somme]]. The units of ''[[comitatenses]], [[limitanei]]'' and ''liburnaria'' in this area came under the command of three generals:

* ''[[Count of the Saxon Shore|Comes litoris Saxonici per Britanniam]]'' (Count of the Saxon Shore)
* ''[[Dux Belgicae secundae]]''
* ''[[Dux tractus Armoricani et Nervicani]]''
{{clear}}

=== Lower Germania ===
{{Main|Lower Germanic Limes}}
{{Unreferencedsect|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Limes1.png|thumb|Map of the legion camps and forts in Germania Inferior]]
This section of ''limes'' existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and ran through the province of Lower Germania (''Germania Inferior'').

It lies on the territory of today's [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]]. This ''limes'' was a river border (''limes ripa'') on the [[Rhine]], defended by a chain of [[Roman camp|camps]], that ran from the North Sea (Katwijk-Brittenburg camp) to Vinxtbach (opposite [[Rheinbrohl fort]] on the [[Upper Germanic Limes]]), forming the border between the Roman provinces of ''[[Germania Inferior]]'' and ''[[Germania Superior]]''. By contrast with the [[Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes]], it was not marked by a solid palisade or wall. Neither can any [[defensive ditch]] or [[rampart (fortification)|rampart]] be identified. The guards were stationed in nearby ''castra'' and watchtowers usually built immediately on the Rhine. The ''limes'' was served by a well-developed military road. Each camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area, because the Rhine not only formed the border but was also the most important transport and trade route in the region. In the first section, between the camps of ''[[Rigomagus]]'' (Remagen) and ''[[Castra Bonnensia|Bonna]]'' (Bonn), there were only a few camps. In the second, middle, section between ''Bonna'' and ''[[Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum]]'' (Nijmegen), there were considerably more. Here there were also larger legion camps; with one exception, all were cavalry barracks. The landscape of the third section between ''Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum'' and ''Mare Germanicum'' (the North Sea) was characterised by numerous small streams and boggy marshland. Consequently, in this area there was only one cavalry camp. Border security here consisted mainly of tightly packed, relatively small cohort forts.

The occupying troops, ''Exercitus Germaniae Inferioris'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve comprised three legions stationed in ''[[Castra Bonnensia|Bonna]]/''Bonn, ''[[Novaesium]]/''Neuss, ''[[Vetera]]/''Xanten and ''[[Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum|Noviomagus]]/''Nijmegen. The control and surveillance of the waters of the North Sea, the Rhine estuary and the Lower Rhine was the responsibility of the ''[[Classis Germanica]]'' whose headquarters was in ''[[Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium]]''/Cologne. Legions, auxilia and fleet units were commanded by the respective provincial governor. From the 3rd century the ''[[Limitanei|ripenses]]'' (river guards), ''[[comitatenses]]'', and ''liburnaria'' were under the command of the ''[[Dux Belgicae secundae]]''.
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=== Upper Germania and Rhaetia ===
{{Main|Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes|
Wetterau Limes|
Main Limes|
Neckar-Odenwald Limes|
Alblimes|
Lautertal Limes}}
[[File:Limes2.png|thumb|Map of the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes]]

This ''limes'' existed from the 1st to 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:

* ''[[Germania Superior]]''
* ''[[Rhaetia]]''

It lay on the territory of the present German states of [[Rhineland-Palatinate]], [[Hesse]], [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Bavaria]]. To the north, it bordered those parts of the Roman province of ''[[Rhaetia]]'' that lay north of the [[Danube]] and guarded the eastern border of that part of ''[[Germania Superior]]'' that lay east of the Rhine. In Upper Germania the border defences initially consisted only of a post road. From about 162/63 AD, the Romans constructed a defensive barrier with watchtowers and signal towers, [[palisade]]s, ditches and earthworks. On one short section of the Rhaetian Limes, a solid stone wall was erected. In its final stages, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes was about 550 kilometres long and ran from [[Rheinbrohl]], in the county of [[Neuwied (district)|Neuwied]] in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, as far as [[Hienheim]] on the Danube. Between the villages of [[Osterburken]] and [[Welzheim]], the ''limes'' ran for 81 kilometres almost in a straight line southwards.<ref name = "M.J.T. Lewis (2001), 242, 245">M.J.T. Lewis: ''Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-521-79297-5}}, pp. 242 245.</ref> In the scholarly literature, this unusual section is considered as evidence that this type of boundary wall had never been used for defensive purposes.

The land of ''[[Agri Decumates]]'' that was guarded by this ''limes'' had to be vacated by the Romans in 260–285 AD. They moved their bases back to the banks of the Rhine and Danube, which were much easier to defend militarily. The exact route of the ''limes'' along the border between Upper Germania and Raetia has not been fully explored. In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, the Rhaetian Limes was reorganized and divided into three sections. The northern border of ''Rhaetia'' formed the ''pars superior'' (upper part), the western border was the ''pars media'' (central part) with the fortified town of [[Kempten|Cambodunum]] and bases from ''[[Vemania]]'' ([[Isny im Allgäu]]) to ''Cassilacum'' ([[Memmingen]]); the ''pars inferior'' (lower part) was the section between ''Castra Regina'' ([[Regensburg]]) and ''Batavis'' ([[Passau]]).

The defending troops, ''Exercitus Germaniae superioris'' and ''Exercitus Raeticus'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts. From the 2nd century, the strategic reserve was formed from three legions stationed in ''[[Roman Mogontiacum|Mogontiacum]]/''[[Mainz]], ''[[Argentorate]]/''Strasbourg and ''[[Castra Regina]]''/Regensburg. The monitoring of the Upper Rhine was the responsibility of the ''[[Classis Germanica]]''; that of the Rhaetic Danube came under the ''[[Classis Pannonia]]'', whose headquarters was in ''[[Aquincum]]''/Budapest. Legions and auxilia cohorts were under the command of the governor. From the 3rd century the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian border troops (''comitatenses, [[limitanei|repenses]]'', and ''liburnaria''), were commanded by three generals:

* ''[[Dux Raetiae]]''
* ''[[Dux Mogontiacensis]]''
* ''[[Comes tractus Argentoratensis]]''
{{clear}}

=== Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) ===
{{Main|Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes}}
[[File:Historische Karte CH Rome 1.png|thumb|Location of the Roman camps on the Rhine-Lake Constance line and in the hinterland provinces of ''Maxima Sequanorum'' and ''Raetia I'', 3rd century AD]]

This ''limes'' existed from the 3rd to the 5th centuries AD and guarded the provinces of:

* ''[[Germania Superior]]''
* ''[[Rhaetia]]''

It lies on the territory of present-day Germany, [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]]. As early as the period 15 BC to about 70 AD, the border between Rome and Germania ran mostly along the line of the late antique Danube-Iller-Rhine Limes (DIRL) before the Romans advanced further north into the ''[[Agri decumates]]''. Because of troop withdrawals and massive barbarian invasions, the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes were abandoned in the late 3rd century and the Roman forces pulled the border back to the banks of the three rivers. Especially around the year 300, the Emperor [[Diocletian]] had new fortifications built directly on the river banks or on major roads in the hinterland here. Around 370 AD, the line of fortifications was considerably strengthened under the Emperor [[Valentinian I]] to counter the [[Alemanni]], who were steadily advancing southwards. By contrast with the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes, the DIRL primarily fulfilled defensive purposes; its camps had much stronger and higher walls than their High Imperial predecessors. Furthermore, they had in most cases been built to conform to the local topography. This meant that they could not be built in the classical 'pack of cards' shape. Between them a dense chain of watchtowers and signal towers were constructed to provide an additional security measure (''[[burgus|burgi]]'').

Flotillas of patrol boats were stationed on the large lakes in this region.

* [[Lake Constance]]: ''Numerus Barcariorum'' (HQ at ''Brigantium''/Bregenz)
* [[Lake Neuchâtel]]: ''Classis Barcariorum'' (HQ at ''Eburodunum''/[[Yverdon]]).

''Comitatenses'', ''ripenses'', and ''liburnaria'' in this section of the limes were under the command of four generals:

* ''[[Dux Raetiae]]''
* ''[[Dux provinciae Sequanicae]]''
* ''[[Comes tractus Argentoratensis]]''
* ''[[Dux Germaniae primae]]''
{{clear}}

=== Noricum ===
[[File:Limes3.png|thumb|Map of the Norican Limes]]

This section of the ''limes'' existed from the 1st to the 5th century AD and guarded part of the Roman province of ''[[Noricum]]''.

It is on the soil of the present-day Austrian states of [[Upper Austria|Upper]] and [[Lower Austria]]. It ran   along the [[Danube]] from Passau/''Boiodurum'' to Zeiselmauer/''Cannabiaca''. This is also a ''ripa'' (river border), which was guarded by a loose chain of cohort forts. The main road on the Norican Limes was the [[South Danube Road|''via iuxta amnem Danuvium'']]. The initially simple wood and earth structures were systematically converted under Emperor [[Hadrian (emperor)|Hadrian]] into stone encampments. During the 4th century, they were brought once more up to date and massively reinforced. Between the camps, in strategic places or good points of observation, were watchtowers or signal towers and, in the Late Antiquity, [[burgus|''burgi'']]. In the middle section, between the camps of ''[[Castra Favianis|Favianis]]'' and ''[[Castra Melk|Melk]]'', watchtowers were built only sporadically. Here the narrow valley of the [[Wachau]], with its densely forested escarpments, made access to the riverbank more difficult, providing some defensive function. Every camp had its own river port or landing stage and a storage area because the Danube was not only a border zone, but also the most important transport and trade route in the region. Over time civilian settlements or ''[[vicus|vici]]'' were established immediately next to the camps. In the immediate hinterland of the ''limes'', walled towns or ''[[municipium|municipia]]'' were founded – for example, ''[[Aelium Cetium]]'' or ''[[Ovilava]]'' (Wels). They were the administrative or commercial centres of the region. In late antiquity, the Norican area was divided into two parts (''pars inferior'' and ''pars superior'').<ref name="ND occ.: XXXIV">ND occ.: XXXIV</ref> It is probable that a second, defensive line was created to the rear (''Castrum [[Locus Felicis]]'').

The occupying troops, ''Exercitus Noricus'', consisted mostly of auxilia cohorts and a legion stationed in ''[[Lauriacum]]/''Enns acted as the strategic reserve. The surveillance and security of the Danube and its tributaries were the responsibility of the ''[[Classis Pannonia]]''. Units of the legions, naval and auxiliary forces were commanded by the respective governors. In late antiquity – according to ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'' – four newly established flotillas undertook this task. From the 3rd century, the Norian ''comitatenses'', ''ripenses'' and ''liburnari'' were under the command of two generals:

* ''[[Comes Illyrici]]''
* ''[[Dux Pannoniae Primae et Norici Ripensis]]''
{{clear}}

=== Pannonia ===
[[File:Limes4.png|thumb|Map of the Pannonian Limes with its perimeter defences]]

This stretch of ''limes'' was in use from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD and helped to guard the provinces of:

* ''Pannonia inferior''
* ''Pannonia''

The [[Pannonian Limes]] is situated on the territory of present-day Austria, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]]. Although this section of the frontier was relatively well protected by the Danube river border or ''Ripa'', the Roman military presence here was always exceptionally strong (three military camps in Pannonia, but only one in Lower Pannonia) because especially after the abandonment of ''[[Roman Dacia]]'' in the late 3rd century, the pressure of migrant peoples from the east on this section of the ''limes'' intensified. The tributaries emptying into the Danube offered cheap transport routes, but also made good approach routes for invaders and raiders. The military camps were therefore built by the most important fords or confluences and road termini. The legion- and auxilia camps were mainly located in the immediate vicinity of the riverbank. The initial wood and earth structures, were systematically converted under Emperor [[Hadrian (emperor)|Hadrian]] into stone barracks and, in the 4th century, redesigned and massively strengthened in order to match new strategic requirements. The gaps between the camps were closed by a chain of watchtowers or signal towers. In late Roman times huge [[Limes Pannonicus|inland camps]] were built and towns in the hinterland were fortified to create a second line of defence. In addition, at vulnerable points, units of the Danube fleet were stationed. In the time of Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] the first mention is made in Pannonia of stone watchtowers (''[[burgus|burgi]]'', panelled towers and fortlets (''praesidia''). In late antiquity, the Pannonian military district was divided into two parts (''pars inferior'' and ''pars superior'').<ref name="ND occ.: XXXIV"/> Advance defences were provided by bridgehead camps (e.g. ''Castra [[Contra Aquincum]]'' or ''[[Celemantia]]'') and military stations on main transport routes in the ''[[Barbaricum]]'' (e.g. near Musov).
{{clear}}

=== Lower Danube === 
{{Main|Trajan's Wall|Limes Moesiae|Limes Transalutanus}}

== In Africa ==
[[File:Septimius Severus' African conquests1.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Limes Africanus under [[Septimius Severus]] (the frontier of Roman Africa (dark tan) in the late 2nd century AD: Septimius Severus expanded the Limes Tripolitanus dramatically (medium tan), even briefly holding a military presence (light tan) in the [[Garamantes|Garamantian]] capital Garama in 203)]]

At the greatest extent of the Roman Empire, the southern border lay along the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East (see [[History of the Romans in Arabia]]) and the Sahara in [[North Africa]], which represented a natural barrier against expansion. The Empire controlled the Mediterranean shores and the mountain ranges further inland. The Romans attempted twice to occupy the [[Siwa Oasis]] and finally used Siwa as a place of banishment. However Romans controlled the [[Nile]] many miles into Africa up to the modern border between Egypt and Sudan.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

In Africa Romans controlled the area north of the Sahara, from the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, with many sections of limes ([[Limes Tripolitanus]], Limes Numidiae, etc.).<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17124/17124-h/images/africaseptentrionalis.jpg Map of Roman Africa]</ref>

The ''Fossatum Africae'' ("African ditch") of at least 750&nbsp;km controlled the southern borders of the Empire and had many similarities of construction to [[Hadrian's Wall]].

There are similar, but shorter, ''fossatae'' in other parts of North Africa. Between the Matmata and Tabaga ranges in modern [[Tunisia]] there is a ''fossatum'' which was duplicated during World War II.<ref>Baradez (1949) p. 146.</ref> There also appears to be a 20&nbsp;km ''fossatum'' at [[Bou Regreg]], in [[Morocco]], although this would not have been within the scope of the proclamation of the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'' because at that time the province was not in Africa, administratively speaking.<ref>Baradez (1949) p. 114.</ref>

In the south of [[Mauritania Tingitana]] the frontier in the third century lay just north of [[Casablanca]] near Sala and stretched to [[Volubilis]].

[[Septimius Severus]] expanded the "Limes Tripolitanus" dramatically, even briefly holding a military presence in the Garamantian capital Garama in 203 AD. Much of the initial campaigning success was achieved by [[Quintus Anicius Faustus]], the legate of [[Legio III Augusta]].

Following his African conquests, the Roman Empire may have reached its greatest extent during the reign of [[Septimius Severus]],<ref name="kennedy">[[David L. Kennedy]], Derrick Riley (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 ''Rome's Desert Frontiers'', page 13], [[Routledge]]</ref><ref name="spek">[[R.J. van der Spek]], Lukas De Blois (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PDV8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 ''An Introduction to the Ancient World'', page 272], [[Routledge]]</ref> under whom the empire encompassed an area of 2 million square miles<ref name="kennedy"/> ({{convert|2.0|mi2|km2|2|disp=number}} million [[square kilometer]]s).

=== Fossatum Africae ===
{{Main|Fossatum Africae}}
[[File:Fossatum.png|300px|thumb|Black lines indicating the approximate path of the 4 sections of the ''Fossatum Africae'']]

'''''Fossatum Africae''''' ("African ditch") is a linear defensive structure (''limes'') that extended over 750&nbsp;km or more<ref>This figure depends very much on the way it is measured over the intervals where the Fossatum was not constructed or has disappeared, and includes a significant section which may not be a ''fossatum''.</ref> in [[North Africa|northern Africa]] constructed during the [[Roman Empire]] to defend and control the southern borders of the Empire in the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman province of Africa]]. It is considered to have many similarities of construction to [[Hadrian's Wall]] at the northern border of the Empire in Britain.
Generally the Fossatum consists of a ditch and earth embankments on either side using the material from the ditch. Sometimes the embankments are supplemented by dry stone walls on one or both sides; rarely, there are stone walls without a ditch. The width of the Fossatum is generally 3–6 m but in exceptional cases may be as much as 20 m. Wherever possible, it or its highest wall is constructed on the [[counterscarp]].
Excavations near [[Gemellae]] showed the depth there to be 2–3 m, with a width of 1 m at the bottom widening to 2–3 m at the top.<ref>Baradez (1949) p. 93.</ref>

The Fossatum is accompanied by many small watchtowers and numerous forts, often built within sight of one another.

{{Location map many
| Northern England
| caption     = UNESCO World Heritage sites in Northern England: 1–2 = [[Hadrian's Wall]], 3 = [[Aesica]] aqueduct, 4 = [[Corstopitum]]
| label1      = 1
| link1       = Hadrian's Wall
| coordinates1= {{coord|54|57|8|N|3|12|54|W}}
| label2      = 2
| link2       = Hadrian's Wall
| coordinates2=  {{coord|54|59|17|N|1|31|57|W}}
| label3      = 3
| link3       = Aesica
| coordinates3= {{coord|55|0|5|N|2|27|6|W}}
| label4      = 4
| link4       = Corstopitum
| coordinates4= {{coord|54|58|47|N|2|2|8|W}}
}}
{{Location map many
| Scotland
| caption     = UNESCO World Heritage sites in Scotland: 1–2 = [[Antonine Wall]], from [[Old Kilpatrick]] to [[Bo'ness]]
| label1      = 1
| link1       = Old Kilpatrick
| coordinates1= {{coord|55|55|30|N|4|27|32|W}}
| label2      = 2
| link2       = Bo'ness
| coordinates2= {{coord|56|00|39|N|3|36|27|W}}56° 00′ 39″ nord, 3° 36′ 27″ ouest
}}
{{Location map many
| Germany
| caption     = UNESCO World Heritage sites in Germany: 1–2 = [[Limes Germanicus]], from [[Rheinbrohl]] to [[Eining]]
| label1      = 1
| link1       = Rheinbrohl
| coordinates1= {{coord|50|29|42|N|7|20|05|E}}
| label2      = 2
| link2       = Eining
| coordinates2= {{coord|48|51|15|N|11|46|15|E}}
}}

== In Asia == 
{{main|Limes Arabicus}} 
The Limes Arabicus was the frontier of the Roman province of [[Arabia Petraea]], facing the desert. It runs from the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to northern Syria, for about 1,500 kilometers (930&nbsp;mi) at its greatest extent

==Post-Roman ''limites''==
The ''[[Limes Saxoniae]]'' in [[Holstein]] was established in 810 AD, long after the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]].  [[Charlemagne]] considered his empire (later called the [[Carolingian Empire]]) as the true successor to the Roman Empire and called himself "Emperor of the Romans".  Official edicts were issued in Latin, which affected the naming of the Empire's frontier as well.

==In fiction==
*The novel series ''Romanike'' is set at the ''Limes Germanicus'' in the decades until the first assault of Germanic peoples in 161 AD.<ref>[http://www.corpus-sacrum.de ''The Romanike series'', Codex Regius (2006–2014)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806015742/http://corpus-sacrum.de/ |date=2016-08-06 }}</ref>
*''Roman Wall: A Novel'', by Winifred Bryher is set in 265 during the Limesfall.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bryher |first1=Winifred |title=Roman Wall: A Novel |date=1954 |publisher=Pantheon |isbn=978-0394443249 }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="265px" heights="300px">
File:Ostkastell Welzheim.jpg|Reconstructed east gate of the fort at [[Welzheim]], Germany
File:Holzwachturm am rätischen Limes (Rekonstruktion) - Wp12 77.jpg|Reconstructed wooden tower nearby [[Rainau]], Germany
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Roman military frontiers and fortifications]] 
* [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] – structures of similar scale and function, built by various dynasties in China
* [[Sasanian defense lines]] – the borders of the Neo-Persian Empire
* [[Limitanei]] – soldiers on the late Roman and early Byzantine ''limites''
* [[March (territory)|March (territorial entity)]] – medieval European borderlands
* [[The Pale]] – the English-controlled strip of Ireland

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{clear}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Limes (frontier)}}
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/430/ Frontiers of the Roman Empire: UNESCO Official Website]
* [http://www.limesstrasse.de/ Official website of the ''Verein Deutsche Limes-Straße'' (in German)]
* [http://www.antikefan.de/themen/militaer/roemer/anlagen.html antikefan.de] (in German), German antiquarian site with maps
* [http://vici.org/selectview.php?center=50.520889,8.725101&zoom=7 Vici.org]{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Interactive map with the ''limes'' and other Roman castles and sites
* [https://www.livius.org/li-ln/limes/limes.html Livius.org: Limes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320120326/https://www.livius.org/li-ln/limes/limes.html |date=2015-03-20 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160104205211/http://www.antikefan.de/themen/militaer/roemer/anlagen.html Antikefan: Roman Limes] (German)
* [http://www.derlimes.at/ Derlimes.at Official website of the Limes group in Austria) (in German, Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin)]
* [http://temi.repubblica.it/limes/ Limes, Italian Review of Geopolitics] (Italian)
* [http://www.saalburgmuseum.de/english/sb_en_home.html Official website of the Saalburg, the only fully reconstructed Limes fort (in German, English, French)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030133118/http://www.saalburgmuseum.de/english/sb_en_home.html |date=2019-10-30 }}

{{World Heritage Sites in Germany}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|54.9926|N|2.6010|W|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:Roman frontiers]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications]]