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{{Short description|Country in North Africa}} {{Other uses|Libya (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} <!----> {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}{{Use British English|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = State of Libya{{ref label|unnote|a|}} | common_name = Libya | native_name = {{Unbulleted list|{{native name|ar|دولة ليبيا|italics=off}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{transliteration|ar| Dawlat Lībiyā}}}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Libya.svg | image_coat = Seal of the Government of National Unity (Libya).svg | symbol = | symbol_type = [[National Emblem of Libya|Seal]] | national_anthem = {{lang|ar|ليبيا، ليبيا، ليبيا}}<br />"[[Libya, Libya, Libya]]"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center">[[File:Libya, Libya, Libya instrumental.ogg]]</div> | image_map = Libya (centered orthographic projection).svg | map_width = 220px | map_caption = {{Legend|#336830|Location of Libya}} | image_map2 = | map2_width = 250px | capital = [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Libya |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/ |encyclopedia=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=19 August 2024|date=7 August 2024|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya|url-status=live}}</ref><!--"Libya is a recent construction, cemented into a single state by Italian occupiers in the 1930s. Tensions between the [[regions]] of Tripolitania in the west, Cyrenaica in the east, and Fezzan to the south are ever-present. To those is added Tripoli now being under the control of Libyan Dawn, with the newly elected government decamping to the city of Tobruk in Cyrenaica. Some in Cyrenaica think separation is the answer, noting that the region contains two-thirds of the oil of Libya, which holds the largest reserves in Africa. The government itself is determined to reconnect with the rest of the country, but it lacks the armed forces to take back Tripoli, making de-facto partition the present reality." [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/29/-sp-briefing-war-in-libya] --- even through the current NATO-backed government is in Tobruk, a partition may lead to new countries with the aforementioned roman names, so leave this as Tripoli--> <br /> {{Coord|32|52|N|13|11|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Arabic]]{{ref label|arabicnote|b|}} | languages_type = Local vernacular | languages = [[Libyan Arabic]] | languages2_type = | languages2 = | ethnic_groups = {{Tree list}} * 92% [[Arabs]] * 5% [[Berbers]] * 3% Others {{Tree list/end}} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite book |last=Yakan |first=Mohamad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |title=Almanac of African Peoples and Nations |date=2017-11-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-28930-6 |pages=62 |language=en |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501042016/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 1999 | religion = {{Tree list}} * 96.6% [[Islam in Libya|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]]) * 2.7% [[Christianity in Libya|Christianity]] * 0.7% others {{Tree list/end}} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref name="CIA" /> | demonym = [[Demographics of Libya|Libyan]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] republic under a [[provisional government]] | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Libya|Chairman]] of the [[Presidential Council (Libya)|Presidential Council]] | leader_name1 = [[Mohamed al-Menfi]] | leader_title2 = [[Presidential Council (Libya)|Vice Chairman of the Presidential Council]] | leader_name2 = [[Musa Al-Koni]] | leader_title3 = [[List of heads of government of Libya|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh]]{{efn|Disputed with [[Osama Hammad]], head of the [[Government of National Stability]], which is recognized by the [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] as the acting Prime Minister of Libya.}} | leader_title4 = [[House of Representatives (Libya)|Speaker of the House of Representatives]] | leader_name4 = [[Aguila Saleh Issa]] | legislature = [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[Italian Libya|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Italy]] | established_event1 = Independence declared | established_date1 = 10 February 1947 | established_event2 = [[Kingdom of Libya|Kingdom established]] | established_date2 = 24 December 1951 | established_event3 = [[1969 Libyan coup d'état|Coup d'état by Muammar Gaddafi]] | established_date3 = 1 September 1969 | established_event4 = [[Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya]] | established_date4 = 2 March 1977 | established_event5 = [[First Libyan Civil War]] | established_date5 = 17 February 2011 | established_event6 = [[2011 military intervention in Libya|NATO intervention in Libya]] | established_date6 = 19 March 2011 | established_event7 = [[Second Libyan Civil War|End of Second Libyan Civil War]] | established_date7 = 23 October 2020 | area_km2 = 1,759,541 | area_rank = 16th | area_sq_mi = 679,359 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 7,361,263<ref name="CIA" /> | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_estimate_rank = 103rd | population_density_km2 = 4.184 | population_density_sq_mi = 10.836 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->| population_density_rank = 218th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $183.39 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | GDP_PPP_rank = 79th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $26,928<ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 68th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $48.22 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.LY">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/LBY |title=IMF DataMapper, 2024 Edition. (Libya) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | GDP_nominal_rank = 93rd | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $6,987<ref name="IMFWEO.LY"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 93rd | Gini = <!--number only--> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.721 | HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. --> | HDI_change = decrease | HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 115th | currency = [[Libyan dinar]] | currency_code = LYD | time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] | utc_offset = +2 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Libya|+218]] | cctld = [[.ly]]<br />ليبيا. | footnote_a = {{note|unnote}} United Nations note concerning official name: "Following the adoption by the General Assembly of resolution 66/1, the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations formally notified the United Nations of a Declaration by the National Transitional Council of 3 August changing the official name of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to 'Libya' and changing Libya's national flag." | footnote_b = {{note|arabicnote}} The [[official language]] is simply identified as "[[Standard Arabic|Arabic]]" ([[Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration|Constitutional Declaration]], article 1). | footnote_c = {{note|indepnote}} The UK and France held a [[Condominium (international law)|joint condominium]] over Libya through the [[United Nations Trusteeship Council]]. | today = }} '''Libya''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Libya.ogg|ˈ|l|ɪ|b|i|ə}} {{respell|LIB|ee|ə}}; {{langx|ar|ليبيا|Lībiyā}}, {{IPA|ar|liː.bi.jaː|pron}}, <small>[[Libyan Arabic]]:</small> {{IPA|[ˈliːb.jæ]|}}. All [[Arabic dialects|spoken dialects]] have only two [[syllables]] and it's normally pronounced as such.}} officially the '''State of Libya''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|دولة ليبيا|Dawlat Lībiyā}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/member-states/index.html#gotoL |title=Member States |publisher=United Nations |access-date=13 February 2021 |quote=On 22 December 2017, the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations formally notified the United Nations that the government is changing the official name of Libya to 'State of Libya.' |archive-date=29 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629041240/https://www.un.org/en/member-states/index.html#gotoL |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-5000500.htm |title=Publications Office – Interinstitutional style guide – Annex A5 – List of countries, territories and currencies |publisher=Europa (web portal) |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805170859/http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-5000500.htm |archive-date=5 August 2013 }}</ref><ref name="CIA" />}} is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]]. It borders the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, [[Egypt]] to [[Egypt–Libya border|the east]], [[Sudan]] to [[Libya–Sudan border|the southeast]], [[Chad]] to [[Chad–Libya border|the south]], [[Niger]] to [[Libya–Niger border|the southwest]], [[Algeria]] to [[Algeria–Libya border|the west]], and [[Tunisia]] to [[Libya–Tunisia border|the northwest]]. With an area of almost {{convert|700,000|sqmi|e6km2|abbr=unit|order=flip}}, it is the 4th-largest country in [[Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], and the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|16th-largest in the world]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook (3) Pop., Rate of Pop. Increase, Surface Area & Density |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040712/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Libya claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of [[Ghat, Libya|Ghat]].<ref name="CIA" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Libya-Algeria |work=Sovereign Limits |url=https://sovereignlimits.com/boundaries/algeria-libya-land |access-date=1 April 2024 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928171603/https://sovereignlimits.com/boundaries/algeria-libya-land |url-status=live }}</ref> The largest city and capital is [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], which is located in northwestern Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html |title=Libya Demographics Profile 2014 |website=Indexmundi.com |date=30 June 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084546/http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> Libya has been inhabited by [[Berber people|Berbers]] since the late [[Bronze Age]] as descendants from [[Iberomaurusian]] and [[Capsian]] cultures. In classical antiquity, the [[Phoenicia]]ns established city-states and trading posts in western Libya, while several [[Cyrenaica|Greek cities]] were established in the East. Parts of Libya were variously ruled by [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginians]], [[Numidia]]ns, [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]], and [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Greeks]] before the entire region becoming a part of the [[Roman Empire]]. Libya was an [[Early centers of Christianity|early centre of Christianity]]. After the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]] until the 7th century when [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|invasions]] brought [[Islam]] to the region. From then on, centuries of [[Arab migration to the Maghreb]] shifted the demographic scope of Libya in favour of [[Arabs]]. In the 16th century, the [[Spanish Empire]] and the [[Knights of St John]] occupied [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] until [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule [[Ottoman Tripolitania|began in 1551]]. Libya was involved in the [[Barbary Wars]] of the 18th and 19th centuries. Ottoman rule continued until the [[Italo-Turkish War]], which resulted in [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] occupying Libya and establishing two colonies, [[Italian Tripolitania]] and [[Italian Cyrenaica]], later unified in the [[Italian Libya]] colony from 1934 to 1943.<ref>J. Desanges, "The proto-Berbers", pp. 236–245, especially p. 237, in ''General History of Africa, vol. II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa'' (UNESCO 1990).</ref> During [[World War II]], Libya was an area of warfare in the [[North African Campaign]]. The [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian population]] then went into decline and Libya became independent as a [[Kingdom of Libya|kingdom]] in 1951. A [[Nonviolent revolution|bloodless]] [[1969 Libyan coup d'état|military coup in 1969]], initiated by a coalition led by Colonel [[Muammar Gaddafi]], overthrew [[Idris of Libya|King Idris I]] and created a [[republic]]. Gaddafi was often described by critics as a [[dictator]], and was one of the world's longest serving non-royal leaders. He [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi|ruled]] for 42 years until being overthrown and [[Death of Muammar Gaddafi|killed]] in the [[First Libyan Civil War|2011 civil war]], which was part of the wider [[Arab Spring]], with authority transferred to the [[National Transitional Council]] then to the elected [[General National Congress]]. Since 2011, Libya has been involved in a [[Libyan crisis (2011–present)|political and humanitarian crisis]], and by 2014, two rival authorities claimed to govern Libya, which led to a [[Second Libyan Civil War|second civil war]], with parts of Libya split between the Tobruk and Tripoli-based governments as well as various tribal and [[Islamism|Islamist]] militias. The two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire in 2020, and a [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|unity government]] took authority to plan for democratic elections, though political rivalries continue to delay this.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-11 |title=Libya — a tale of two governments, again |url=https://arab.news/yrqr2 |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref><ref name="rival">{{cite news |date=25 August 2014 |title=Rival second Libyan assembly chooses own PM as chaos spreads |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-idUSKBN0GP0NZ20140826 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120247/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/26/us-libya-security-idUSKBN0GP0NZ20140826 |archive-date=26 August 2014 |access-date=25 August 2014 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Chris Stephen |title=Libyan parliament takes refuge in Greek car ferry |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404142244/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |archive-date=4 April 2016 |access-date=1 April 2016 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=7 August 2015 |title=Peace talks between Libyan factions to take place in Geneva |url=http://www.sunherald.com/2015/08/07/6355978/peace-talks-between-libyan-factions.html |access-date=7 August 2015 |work=Sun Herald}}{{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 September 1969 |title=1969: Bloodless coup in Libya |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3911000/3911587.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720121138/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3911000/3911587.stm |archive-date=20 July 2011 |access-date=25 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kafala |first=Tarik |date=20 October 2011 |title=Gaddafi's quixotic and brutal rule |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12532929 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424085047/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12532929 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=6 August 2015 |title=Libyan government offensive in Benghazi stalls as Islamists dig in |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-benghazi-insight-idUSKCN0QB0FK20150806 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809065318/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/06/us-libya-security-benghazi-insight-idUSKCN0QB0FK20150806 |archive-date=9 August 2015 |access-date=7 August 2015 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=24 October 2020 |title=Libyan Civil War: Two warring factions sign 'permanent' ceasefire |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/libyan-civil-war-two-warring-factions-sign-permanent-ceasefire-1983297 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415014337/https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/news/libyan-civil-war-two-warring-factions-sign-permanent-ceasefire-1983297 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=5 March 2021 |website=The Daily Star}}</ref> In March 2022, the [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] ceased recognising the [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|Government of National Unity]] and proclaimed an alternative government, the [[Government of National Stability]] (GNS). Both governments have been functioning simultaneously since then, which has led to dual power in Libya. The international community continues to recognise the unity government as the legitimate government of the country. Libya is a developing country ranking 92nd by HDI, the highest score in mainland Africa, and has the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|10th-largest proven oil reserves]] in the world. Libya has the highest level of greenhouse gas emissions per person in Africa, but has made little progress toward developing climate commitments. Libya is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], and [[OPEC]]. The country's official religion is [[Islam in Libya|Islam]], with 96.6% of the Libyan population being [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]].<ref name="CIA" /> The official language of Libya is [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], with vernacular [[Libyan Arabic]] being spoken most widely. The majority of Libya's population is [[Arabs|Arab]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IOKAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA6-PA144 |title=Britannica Student Encyclopaedia |date=2014-05-01 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. |isbn=978-1-62513-172-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1980–2004 |url=http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/2004/FileZ/XL/T33.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711143657/http://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/interactive/2004/FileZ/XL/T33.HTM |archive-date=11 July 2012 |access-date=5 February 2013 |publisher=OPEC}}</ref> == Etymology == {{anchor|Etymology}}<!-- linked -->{{further|Ancient Libya|Libu}} [[File:Archaeological Site of Sabratha-108976.jpg|thumb|left|Archaeological site of [[Sabratha]], Libya]] The origin of the name "Libya" first appeared in an inscription of [[Ramesses II]], written as ''[[wikt:rbw|rbw]]'' in hieroglyphic. The name derives from a generalized identity given to a large confederacy of ancient east "Libyan" [[Berbers]], [[North African]] people(s) and tribes who lived around the lush regions of [[Cyrenaica]] and [[Marmarica]]. An army of 40,000 men<ref name="3.8 MERENPTAH (1236-1230 BC)">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Peter |title=HSC Ancient History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhs2_vi4Yc0C&q=King+meryey&pg=PA72 |year=2006 |publisher=Pascal Press |isbn=9781741251784 |access-date=26 May 2020 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531052740/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhs2_vi4Yc0C&q=King+meryey&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }}</ref> and a confederacy of tribes known as "Great Chiefs of the [[Libu]]" were led by King [[Meryey]] who fought a war against [[pharaoh]] [[Merneptah]] in year 5 (1208 BCE). This conflict was mentioned in the [[Great Karnak Inscription]] in the western delta during the 5th and 6th years of his reign and resulted in a defeat for Meryey. According to the [[Great Karnak Inscription]], the military alliance comprised the [[Meshwesh]], the [[Lukka]], and the "Sea Peoples" known as the [[Ekwesh]], [[Sea Peoples|Teresh]], [[Shekelesh]], and the [[Sherden]]. The Great Karnak Inscription reads: {{Blockquote|"... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen — Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh. Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children — leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire."}} The name "Libya" was brought back into use in 1903 by Italian geographer Federico Minutilli. It was intended to supplant terms applied to [[Ottoman Tripolitania]], the coastal region of what is today Libya, having been ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1911 as the Eyalet of Tripolitania.<ref name="be177">"Bibliografia della Libia"; [[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 177.</ref> Libya gained independence in 1951 as the [[Kingdom of Libya|United Libyan Kingdom]] ({{lang|ar|المملكة الليبية المتحدة}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah al-Muttaḥidah}}''), changing its name to the Kingdom of Libya ({{lang|ar|المملكة الليبية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlakah al-Lībiyyah}}''), literally "Libyan Kingdom", in 1963.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) "Independent Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321121614/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |date=21 March 2022 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved 14 July 2006.</ref> Following a coup d'état led by [[Muammar Gaddafi]] in 1969, the name of the state was changed to the Libyan Arab Republic ({{lang|ar|الجمهورية العربية الليبية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Jumhūriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah}}''). The official name was "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya" from 1977 to 1986 ({{lang|ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية}}), and "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya"<ref name="name">{{cite web |url=http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=9093369&fid=3769&c=libya |title=Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Libya |work=Geographical Names |access-date=1 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118153704/http://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=9093369&fid=3769&c=libya |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> ({{lang|ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية العظمى}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485614&fid=3784&c=libya |title=الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية: Libya |work=Geographical Names |access-date=26 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724133149/http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485614&fid=3784&c=libya |archive-date=24 July 2014 }}</ref> ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Jamāhīriyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Lībiyyah ash-Sha'biyyah al-Ishtirākiyyah al-'Udmá}}'' <small>{{Audio|Al-Jamahiriyyah al-Arabiyyah al-Libiyyah ash-shabiyyah al-Ishtirakiyyah al-Udhma.ogg|listen}}</small>) from 1986 to 2011. The [[National Transitional Council]], established in 2011, referred to the state as simply "Libya". The UN formally recognized the country as "Libya" in September 2011<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unterm.un.org |title=United Nations interoffice memorandum dated 16 September 2011 from Desmond Parker, Chief of Protocol, to Shaaban M. Shaaban, Under-Secretary-General for General Assembly and Conference Management, attaching memorandum from Stadler Trengove, Senior Legal Officer |publisher=[[United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database|United Nations]] |date=16 September 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122071953/http://unterm.un.org/ |archive-date=22 January 2013 }}</ref> based on a request from the Permanent Mission of Libya citing the [[Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration]] of 3 August 2011. In November 2011, the [[ISO 3166-1]] was altered to reflect the new country name "Libya" in English, ''"Libye (la)"'' in French.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-11_name_change_for_libya.pdf |access-date=13 December 2011 |date=8 November 2011 |title=ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-11: Name change for Libya |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117170551/http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-11_name_change_for_libya.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 }}</ref> In December 2017 the Permanent Mission of Libya to the United Nations informed the United Nations that the country's official name was henceforth the "State of Libya"; "Libya" remained the official short form, and the country continued to be listed under "L" in alphabetical lists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unterm.un.org/UNTERM/Display/Record/UNHQ/NA/fd428e58-b85e-4d39-81a8-896368359dd5 |access-date=5 January 2018 |title="State of Libya" in UNTERM (United Nations terminology database) |publisher=United Nations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105233707/https://unterm.un.org/UNTERM/Display/Record/UNHQ/NA/fd428e58-b85e-4d39-81a8-896368359dd5 |archive-date=5 January 2018 }}</ref> == History == {{Main|History of Libya}} === Ancient Libya === {{main|Ancient Libya|Libu}} [[File:Leptis Magna Arch of Septimus Severus.jpg|thumb|left|[[Leptis Magna]]]] The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by [[Neolithic]] peoples from as early as 8000 BC. The [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] ancestors of the [[Berber people]] are assumed to have spread into the area by the [[Late Bronze Age]]. The earliest known name of such a tribe was the [[Garamantes]], based in [[Germa]]. The [[Phoenicia]]ns were the first to establish trading posts in Libya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html |title=The Histories', Book IV.42–43 |publisher=Fordham University |date=August 1998 |author=Halsall, Paul |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409023843/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html |archive-date=9 April 2013 }}</ref> By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, [[Carthage]], had extended its [[hegemony]] across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as [[Punic]], came into being. In 630 BC, the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] colonized the area around [[Barca (ancient city)|Barca]] in Eastern Libya and founded the city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) |title=Cyrenaica and the Greeks |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120922002705/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) |archive-date=22 September 2012 }}</ref> Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as [[Cyrenaica]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm |title=History of Libya |publisher=The History Files |date=20 October 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128173621/http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}</ref> The area was home to the renowned philosophy school of the [[Cyrenaics]]. In 525 BC the [[Persian people|Persian]] army of [[Cambyses II]] overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. [[Alexander the Great]] ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica. Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]. [[File:Roman emperor Septimius Severus, 200-11; Altes Museum, Berlin (26307681078).jpg|thumb|200px|[[Septimius Severus]], the first Roman emperor native to [[Roman Africa]], was born in Leptis Magna.]] After the fall of [[Carthage]] the Romans did not immediately occupy [[Tripolitania]] (the region around Tripoli), but left it instead under control of the kings of [[Numidia]], until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.<ref name="be202">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 202.</ref> [[Ptolemy Apion]], the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as [[Creta et Cyrenaica|a Roman province]]. As part of the [[Africa Nova]] province, Tripolitania was prosperous,<ref name="be202" /> and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of [[Leptis Magna]], home to the [[Severan dynasty]], was at its height.<ref name="be202" /> On the Eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the Emperor [[Claudius]].<ref name="be417">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 417.</ref> It was heavily devastated during the [[Kitos War]]<ref name="ro364">{{cite book |ref=Rostovtzeff|last=Rostovtzeff|first=Michael|title=Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire|location=Oxford|year=1957|edition=2|publisher=Clarendon|page=364}}</ref> and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], lxviii. 32</ref> Although repopulated by [[Trajan]] with military colonies,<ref name="ro364" /> from then started its decline.<ref name="be417" /> Libya was early to convert to [[Nicene Christianity]] and was the home of [[Pope Victor I]]; however, Libya was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as [[Arianism]] and [[Donatism]]. === Islamic Libya: 647–1556 === {{Main|Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica}} [[File:Awjila (Libia) - The Mosque of Atiq.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Atiq Mosque, Awjila|Atiq Mosque]] in [[Awjila]] is the oldest mosque in the [[Sahara]].]] Under the command of [[Amr ibn al-As]], the [[Rashidun army]] conquered [[Cyrenaica]].<ref name="be278">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 278.</ref> In 647 an army led by [[Abdullah ibn Saad]] took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively.<ref name="be278" /> The [[Fezzan]] was conquered by [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] in 663. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hourani, Albert|year=2002|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0-571-21591-1|page=198}}</ref> For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] [[Caliph of Damascus]] until the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] appointed [[Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab|Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab]] as his governor of [[Ifriqiya]] in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the [[Aghlabid]] dynasty. By the 10th century, the Shiite [[Fatimids]] controlled Western Libya, and ruled the entire region in 972 and appointed [[Bologhine ibn Ziri]] as governor.<ref name="be202" /> Ibn Ziri's Berber [[Zirid dynasty]] ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognized the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Banu Hilal]] to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.<ref name="be202" /> Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the [[Banu Khazrun]] broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the [[Normans of Sicily]].<ref name="be203">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 203.</ref> For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]], the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] rulers and insurgents of the [[Banu Ghaniya]]. Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of the Tunisian [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsid Kingdom]]<ref name="be203" /> independent from the Almohads. In the 14th century, the [[Banu Thabit]] dynasty ruled Tripolitania before reverting to direct Hafsid control. By the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. After Abbasid control was weakened, Cyrenaica was under Egypt-based states such as the [[Tulunids]], [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidids]], Ayyubids, and [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] before Ottoman conquest in 1517. [[Fezzan]] acquired independence under Awlad Muhammad dynasty after [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Kanem]] rule. Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577. === Ottoman Tripolitania: 1556–1911 === {{Main|Ottoman Tripolitania}} [[File:Capture of Tripoli by the Ottomans 1551.jpg|thumb|The [[Siege of Tripoli (1551)|siege of Tripoli]] in 1551 allowed the [[Ottoman Navy|Ottomans]] to capture the city from the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of St. John]].]] After a successful invasion of Tripoli by [[Habsburg Spain]] in 1510,<ref name="be203" /> and its handover to the [[Knights of St. John]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] admiral [[Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)|Sinan Pasha]] took control of Libya in 1551.<ref name="be203" /> His successor [[Turgut Reis]] was named the [[Bey]] of Tripoli and later [[Pasha of Tripoli]] in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a ''[[pasha]]'' appointed directly by the ''[[sultan]]'' in [[Constantinople]]/[[Istanbul]]. In the 1580s, the rulers of [[Fezzan]] gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in [[Cyrenaica]], a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.<ref name="be417" /> European [[Barbary slave trade|slaves]] and large numbers of enslaved Blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, [[Turgut Reis]] enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]], some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoppen |first1=Alison |title=The fortification of Malta by the Order of St. John, 1530–1798 |date=1979 |publisher=Scottish Academic Press |page=25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Robert C. Davis|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2012|date=5 December 2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4}}{{page needed|date=October 2016}}</ref> In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of [[janissaries]].<ref name="be203" /> In 1611 the ''[[dey]]s'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania. The two most important Deys were [[Mehmed Saqizli]] (r. 1631–49) and [[Osman Saqizli]] (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.<ref name="be204">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 204.</ref> The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.<ref name="be204" /> [[File:La città di Tripoli, capitale del regno dello stesso nome sulla costa di Barbaria, nell'Africa, 1766 – BEIC IE8943210.jpg|thumb|left|A view of Tripoli, {{Circa|1766}}]] Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer [[Ahmed Karamanli]].<ref name="be204" /> The [[Karamanli dynasty|Karamanlis]] ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli. The [[1793–95 Tripolitanian civil war]] occurred in those years. In 1793, Turkish officer [[Trabluslu Ali Pasha|Ali Pasha]] deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. Hamet's brother [[Yusuf Karamanli|Yusuf]] (r. 1795–1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence. In 1816, Yusuf ordered the [[Al-Jawazi massacre|massacre of the al-Jawazi tribe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2016 |title=Libyan tribe demands to prosecute Turkey for the massacres committed against its people, similar to that of the Armenians |url=https://horizonweekly.ca/en/93451-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221233911/https://horizonweekly.ca/en/93451-2/ |archive-date=2019-12-21 |website=Horizon}}</ref> [[File:Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat.jpg|thumb|U.S. naval officer [[Stephen Decatur]] boarding a Tripolitan gunboat during the [[First Barbary War]], 1804]] In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]]. By 1819, the various treaties of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons. Civil war soon resulted.<ref name="be205">[[#Bertarelli|Bertarelli]], p. 205.</ref> Ottoman Sultan [[Mahmud II]] sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.<ref name="be205"/> Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.<ref name="be205" /> The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted to Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce. === Italian colonization and Allied occupation (1911–1951) === {{Main|Italian Tripolitania|Italian Cyrenaica|Italian Libya}} {{see also|Italian colonization of Libya}} [[File:Omar Mukhtar 13.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|[[Omar Mukhtar]] was a prominent leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against Italian colonization.]] After the [[Italo-Turkish War]] (1911–1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |title=Timeline: Libya |work=BBC News |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023080030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |archive-date=23 October 2011 }}</ref> From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as [[Italian North Africa]]. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, [[Italian Cyrenaica]] and [[Italian Tripolitania]], run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46562/Libya |title=Libya |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430102144/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya |archive-date=30 April 2013 }}</ref> [[Omar Mukhtar]] rose to prominence as a [[Libyan resistance movement|resistance leader]] against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1398437.stm Libya profile – Timeline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816010152/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13755445 |date=16 August 2012 }}, ''[[BBC News]]'' Africa, 1 November 2011</ref> His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later [[Idris of Libya|King Idris I]]), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The so-called "[[pacification of Libya]]" by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309|title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing|last=Mann|first=Michael|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521538541|page=309|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132840/https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ilan Pappé]] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in [[Italian concentration camps in Libya]])."<ref>[[Ilan Pappé]], ''The Modern Middle East''. Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-21409-2}}, p. 26.</ref> [[File:Cartolina Giovanni Pastorelli.jpg|thumb|Italian propaganda postcard depicting the [[Italian invasion of Libya]] in 1911]] In 1934, Italy combined [[Cyrenaica]], [[Tripolitania]] and [[Fezzan]] and adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nanjira |first1=Daniel Don |title=African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century |date=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-37982-6 |page=207 |language=en}}</ref> The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometres of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages. In June 1940, [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italy entered World War II]]. Libya became the setting for the hard-fought [[North African Campaign]] that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its [[Afrika Korps|German ally]] in 1943. From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under [[Allied occupation of Libya|Allied occupation]]. The British military [[British Military Administration (Libya)|administered]] the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French [[French Fezzan|administered]] the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in [[Cairo]] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|1947 peace treaty]] with the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tecola W. Hagos |url=http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm |title=Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation And Conclusion |publisher=Ethiopia Tecola Hagos |date=20 November 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207051037/http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm |archive-date= 7 December 2012 }}</ref> === Independent Kingdom (1951–1969) === {{main|Kingdom of Libya|}} [[File:IdrisI3.jpg|thumb|[[King Idris]] of Libya|223x223px]] A national assembly crafted a constitution that established a [[monarchy]] and extended an offer for the throne to [[Idris of Libya|Sayyid Idris]], the [[Emir of Cyrenaica]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=The Kingdom of Libya is Established |work=History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/kingdom-libya-established |access-date=2024-07-05}}</ref> Sayyid Idris held the esteemed position as the leader of the influential [[Senusiyya|Senussi religious brotherhood]], which was founded by his grandfather in the preceding century as a response to Western influence in the [[Arab world]].<ref name=":5" /> This devout Islamic movement garnered significant support from the [[Bedouin|desert Bedouin]] and became a major political force in Libya. During the declining years of the [[Ottoman Empire]], it effectively governed the Libyan interior.<ref name=":5" /> Born in an oasis in [[Cyrenaica]] in 1890, Sayyid Idris assumed leadership of the Senussi at a young age. He spent a considerable period of exile in [[Egypt]] under Italian rule and returned to Libya after the [[Axis powers]] were ousted in 1943.<ref name=":5" /> On December 24, 1951, as King Idris I, he addressed the nation via radio from [[Benghazi]].<ref name=":5" /> On November 21, 1949, the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2021-03-15 |title=Libya country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13754897 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506173721/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13754897 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |access-date=2021-03-15 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. By December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the [[United Kingdom of Libya]], a constitutional and hereditary [[monarchy]] under King [[Idris I of Libya|Idris]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Schiller |first=Jon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ-VAkIdiX0C&pg=PA161 |title=Internet View of the Arabic World |date=29 November 2009 |publisher=CreateSpace |isbn=9781439263266 |page=161 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320153024/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ-VAkIdiX0C&pg=PA161 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the new kingdom faced challenging prospects.<ref name=":5" /> It lacked significant industry and agricultural resources.<ref name=":5" /> The kingdom's primary exports consisted of hides, wool, horses, and ostrich feathers.<ref name=":5" /> Despite having one of the lowest income per capita figures globally, it also suffered from one of the highest illiteracy rates.<ref name=":5" /> King Idris I, already in his sixties, had no direct heir to succeed him.<ref name=":5" /> His cousin, whom he had married in 1932, reportedly experienced numerous miscarriages, and their son, born in 1953, tragically died shortly after birth.<ref name=":5" /> Crown Prince Rida, Idris's brother, was the designated heir, but the royal family was riddled with incessant disputes.<ref name=":5" /> King Idris's devout Muslim piety, which solidified his support among the [[Bedouin|Bedouin population]], clashed with the modernizing and urban intellectual currents in Libya.<ref name=":5" /> To address the rivalry between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, Benghazi and Tripoli alternated as the capital every two years. The swift emergence of a large number of bureaucrats resulted in a costly royal government.<ref name=":5" /> The discovery of significant [[oil reserves]] in 1959 and the subsequent income from [[petroleum]] sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state.<ref name=":4" /> Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> This discontent continued to mount with the rise of [[Nasserism]] and [[Arab nationalism]] throughout North Africa and the [[Middle East]], that inspire many anti-royal coups across the Arab world.<ref name=":4" /> === Republic of Libya under Gaddafi (1969–2011) === {{Main|History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi}} On 1 September 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by [[Muammar Gaddafi]] launched a [[1969 Libyan coup d'état|coup d'état against King Idris]], which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution.<ref name="SalakLibya">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |title=Rediscovering Libya |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923175457/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |archive-date=23 September 2011 }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Gaddafi was referred to as the "[[Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution|Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution]]" in government statements and the official Libyan press.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm |title=Libya – History |publisher=US Department of State's Background Notes |date=15 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604185313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> He began dominating history and politics of Libya for the next four decades.<ref name=":6" /> Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970 all Italian-owned assets were expropriated and the 12,000-strong [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian community]] was [[1970 expulsion of Italians from Libya|expelled]] from Libya alongside the smaller community of [[History of the Jews in Libya|Italian Libyan Jews]].<ref name=":6" /> The day became a [[Public holiday|national holiday]] known as "[[Day of Revenge]]";<ref name=":6">Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books. p. 72</ref> it was later renamed the "Day of Friendship" because of improvement in [[Italy–Libya relations]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zoubir |first1=Yahia H. |title=Libya and Europe: Economic Realism at the Rescue of the Qaddafi Authoritarian Regime |journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies |date=2009 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=401–415 [403, 411] |doi=10.1080/14782800903339354|s2cid=153625134 }}</ref> [[File:Gaddafi 1972.jpg|left|thumb|246x246px|[[Muammar Gaddafi]], leader of Libya ({{reign|1969|2011}})]] Libya's increase in prosperity was accompanied by increased internal political repression, and political dissent was made illegal under Law 75 of 1973.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Widespread surveillance of the population was carried out through Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees.<ref name="Gaddafiunrepentant">{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-Gaddafi-unrepentant|title=Libya and the U.S.: Gaddafi Unrepentant|journal=[[Middle East Quarterly]]|author=Eljahmi, Mohamed|year=2006|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110302065908/http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-Gaddafi-unrepentant|archive-date=2 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="GlobalEdge">{{cite web| url=http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/libya/history/| title=Libya: History| publisher=/globaledge.msu.edu (via [[Michigan State University]])| access-date=14 August 2011| url-status=live| archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110814125349/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/libya/history/| archive-date=14 August 2011| df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/africa/libya.html|title=Comparative Criminology – Libya|access-date=24 July 2011|publisher=Crime and Society|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807181001/http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/africa/libya.html|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> Gaddafi also wanted to ease the strict social restrictions imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the [[Revolutionary Women's Formation]] to encourage reform.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and wage parity.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of girls under the age of sixteen and making the woman's consent a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.<ref>Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books</ref> On 25 October 1975, a coup attempt was launched by a group of 20 military officers, mostly from the city of [[Misrata]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wzPrqBI8kC&pg=PA69|title=La Libye révolutionnaire|last=Banégas|first=Richard|date=1 January 2012|publisher=KARTHALA Editions|isbn=9782811106720|page=69|language=fr|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320153024/https://books.google.com/books?id=n1wzPrqBI8kC&pg=PA69|archive-date=20 March 2018}}</ref> This resulted in the arrest and executions of the coup plotters.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA506|title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World|last=Krieger|first=Joel|date=2 August 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195117394|page=506|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629195326/http://books.google.com/books?id=2wd30pXJxpYC|archive-date=29 June 2014}}</ref> In March 1977, Libya officially became the "Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya".<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Gaddafi officially passed power to the [[General People's Committee]]s and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wynne-Jones|first=Jonathan|title=Libyan minister claims Gaddafi is powerless and the ceasefire is 'solid'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=22 October 2011|date=19 March 2011|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029122048/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|archive-date=29 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The new ''jamahiriya'' (Arab for "republic") governance structure he established was officially referred to as "[[direct democracy]]".<ref>{{cite news|last=Robbins|first=James|title=Eyewitness: Dialogue in the desert|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6425873.stm|access-date=22 October 2011|date=7 March 2007|work=BBC News}}</ref> Gaddafi, in his vision of democratic government and [[political philosophy]], published ''[[The Green Book (Gaddafi)|The Green Book]]'' in 1975. His short book inscribed a representative mix of utopian socialism and Arab nationalism with a streak of [[Bedouin]] supremacy.[[File:F-4J of VF-74 with Libyan MiG-23 over Gulf of Sidra 1981.jpg|thumb|F-4J of VF-74 with Libyan MiG-23 over Gulf of Sidra in 1981]]In February 1977, Libya started delivering military supplies to [[Goukouni Oueddei]] and the [[People's Armed Forces]] in Chad.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The [[Chadian–Libyan War]] began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an [[Toyota war|invasion]].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Later that same year, Libya and [[Egypt]] fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the [[Egyptian–Libyan War]].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Both nations agreed to a [[ceasefire]] under the mediation of the Algerian president [[Houari Boumédiène]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |title=Egypt Libya War 1977 |publisher=Onwar.com |access-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085920/http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |archive-date=24 March 2012 }}</ref> Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives in the country's support for [[Idi Amin]]'s [[Uganda]] in its [[Uganda–Tanzania War|war against Tanzania]].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030301031212/http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |archive-date=1 March 2003 |title=A Rogue Returns |publisher=AIJAC |date=February 2003}}</ref> On 2 March 1977, Libya officially became Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.<ref>{{cite web |title=ICL - Libya - Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People |url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ly01000_.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201125/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ly01000_.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref> Libya adopted its plain green national flag on 19 November 1977.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> The country had the only plain-coloured flag in the world until 2011, when Libya adopted its current flag.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|title=African Countries by GDP Per Capita > GDP Per Capita (most recent) by Country|access-date=24 July 2011|website=nationmaster.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716042352/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> while the [[Human Development Index]] became the highest in Africa and greater than that of [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="dailynews">{{cite news|last=Azad |first=Sher |title=Gaddafi and the media |url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp |work=Daily News |location=Colombo |access-date=22 October 2011 |date=22 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025194842/http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp |archive-date=25 October 2011 }}</ref> This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya [[List of sovereign states by public debt|debt-free]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe: Reason Wafavarova – Reverence for Hatred of Democracy |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html |newspaper=The Herald |location=Harare |access-date=23 October 2011 |date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107010212/http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html |archive-date=7 November 2011 }}</ref> The [[Great Manmade River]] was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.<ref name="dailynews" /> In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shimatsu|first=Yoichi|title=Villain or Hero? Desert Lion Perishes, Leaving West Explosive Legacy|url=http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|publisher=[[New America Media]]|access-date=23 October 2011|date=21 October 2011|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022231158/http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|archive-date=22 October 2011}}</ref> Much of Libya's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of paramilitaries and terrorist groups around the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |title=Endgame in Tripoli |date=24 February 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307152055/http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |archive-date=7 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Libya: the struggle for survival|author=Geoffrey Leslie Simons|author-link=Geoff Simons|page=281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=St. John |first=Ronald Bruce |title=Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi |journal=Contemporary Review |date=1 December 1992 |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110511121558/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> An [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|American airstrike]] led by then US president [[Ronald Reagan]] intended to kill Gaddafi failed in 1986.<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> Libya was finally put under sanctions by the United Nations after the [[Lockerbie bombing|bombing]] of a commercial flight at [[Lockerbie]] in 1988 killed 270 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://terrorism.about.com/od/originshistory/p/PanAmBombing.htm |title=Pan Am Flight 103 Bombing – 1988 Lockerbie Bombing Led to Libyan Convictions |publisher=Terrorism.about.com |access-date=8 July 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402075740/http://terrorism.about.com/od/originshistory/p/PanAmBombing.htm |archive-date=2 April 2012 }}</ref> In the 1990s, the government's rule was threatened by militant Islamism and an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Gaddafi.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"> * {{cite book |last=Martínez |first=Luis |title=The Libyan Paradox |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-70021-4 |page=71}} * {{cite book |last=Cordesman |first=Anthony H. |title=A Tragedy of Arms – Military and Security Developments in the Maghreb |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-96936-3 |page=2}}</ref> The government responded with repressive measures.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> Riots and Islamic activisim were crushed by [[Revolutionary Guard Corps]].<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> Nevertheless, [[Cyrenaica]] between 1995 and 1998 was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops.<ref name="Martínez 2007 71"/> In 2003, Gaddafi announced that all of his regime's [[Libya and weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]] were disassembled, and that Libya was transitioning toward [[nuclear power]].<ref name="GlobalEdge" /> === First Libyan Civil War and the fall of Gaddafi (2011) === {{Main|First Libyan Civil War|2011 military intervention in Libya}} [[File:Ambassador Cretz Stands by Fist Crushing a U.S. Fighter Plane Sculpture.jpg|thumb|[[List of ambassadors of the United States to Libya|U.S. Ambassador]] [[Gene A. Cretz|Cretz]] Stands by Fist Crushing a US Fighter Plane Sculpture which was captured after the [[2011 Battle of Tripoli|fall of Tripoli]]]] The first civil war came during the [[Arab Spring]] movements which overturned the rulers of [[Tunisia]] and [[Egypt]]. Libya first experienced protests against Gaddafi's regime on 15 February 2011, with a full-scale revolt beginning on [[Revolution Day|17 February]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |title=Live Blog – Libya |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=23 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223072304/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |archive-date=23 February 2011 }}</ref> Libya's authoritarian regime led by Muammar Gaddafi put up much more of a resistance compared to the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia. While overthrowing the regimes in Egypt and Tunisia was a relatively quick process, Gaddafi's campaign posed significant stalls on the uprising in Libya.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|url=http://oskicat.berkeley.edu/record=b18588098~S1|title=The Arab awakening: America and the transformation of the Middle East|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Brookings Institution|isbn=9780815722267|editor-last=Pollack|editor-first=Kenneth M.|location=Washington, DC|access-date=20 November 2016|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005825/http://oskicat.berkeley.edu/record=b18588098~S1|url-status=live}}</ref> The first announcement of a competing political authority appeared online and declared the [[Interim Transitional National Council]] as an alternative government. One of Gaddafi's senior advisors responded by posting a tweet, wherein he resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=Democracy's Fourth Wave?: Digital Media and the Arab Spring|last=Hussain1 Howard2|first=Muzammil M.1Philip N.2|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-993697-7|location=New York|page=23}}</ref> By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. On 27 February 2011, the [[National Transitional Council]] was established to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. On 10 March 2011, the United States and many other nations recognised the council headed by [[Mahmoud Jibril]] as acting prime minister and as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people and withdrawing the recognition of Gaddafi's regime.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | title =The Council"International Recognition | publisher =National Transitional Council (Libya) | date =1 March 2011 | access-date =23 October 2011 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110926043358/http://www.ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | archive-date =26 September 2011 | df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |title=Libya: France recognises rebels as government |work=BBC News |date=10 March 2011 |access-date=23 October 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023041256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |archive-date=23 October 2011 }}</ref> [[File:Green square protests in Tripoli, Libya.jpg|thumb|A protest against the anti-Gaddafi supporters in Tripoli]] Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in [[Tripolitania|Western Libya]] and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the ''de facto'' centre of the uprising.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |title=Qaddafi Forces Batter Rebels in Strategic Refinery Town |work=The New York Times |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=9 March 2011 |first1=Kareem |last1=Fahim |first2=David D. |last2=Kirkpatrick |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506221756/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |archive-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref> The town of [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], {{convert|48|km}} from Tripoli, was bombarded by [[Libyan Air Force (1951–2011)|air force planes]] and army tanks and seized by [[Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|Jamahiriya troops]], "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict."<ref>The Independent, 9 March 2011 P.4</ref> Organizations of the United Nations, including [[United Nations Secretary General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |title=Ban Ki-moon blasts Gaddafi; calls situation dangerous |work=Hindustan Times |location=New Delhi |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227021434/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |archive-date=27 February 2011 }}</ref> and the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]], condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |title=Some backbone at the U.N. |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303053657/http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |archive-date=3 March 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |agency=Sofia News Agency |title=Libya Expelled from UN Human Rights Council |date=2 March 2011 |access-date=2 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511093052/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|Resolution 1973]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jan/28/hillary-clinton-undercut-on-libya-war-by-pentagon-/print/ |title=Exclusive: Secret tapes undermine Hillary Clinton on Libyan war |author=Jeffrey Scott Shapiro |author2=Kelly Riddell |work=The Washington Times |date=28 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217010203/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jan/28/hillary-clinton-undercut-on-libya-war-by-pentagon-/print/ |archive-date=17 February 2015 }}</ref> with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions including Russia, China, India, Brazil and Germany. The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a [[no-fly zone]] and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya.<ref>{{cite press release |url= https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808 |title= Security Council authorizes 'all necessary measures' to protect civilians in Libya |publisher= United Nations |date= 17 March 2011 |access-date= 30 March 2011 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184921/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808 |archive-date= 3 May 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> On 19 March, the first act of NATO allies to secure the no-fly zone began by destroying Libyan air defenses when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a [[reconnaissance]] mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.<ref name="libyrate1">{{cite news |author=Marcus, Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |title=French military jets open fire in Libya |work=BBC News |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320125209/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |archive-date=20 March 2011 }}</ref> In the weeks that followed, US American forces were in the forefront of NATO operations against Libya. More than 8,000 US personnel in warships and aircraft were deployed in the area. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, 716 of them in Tripoli and 492 in [[Brega]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/may/22/nato-libya-data-journalism-operations-country/ |title=NATO operations in Libya |publisher=The Guardian, London, 22 May 2011 |access-date=25 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624233946/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/may/22/nato-libya-data-journalism-operations-country |archive-date=24 June 2014 |date=22 May 2011 }}</ref> The US air offensive included flights of B-2 Stealth bombers, each bomber armed with sixteen 2000-pound bombs, flying out of and returning to their base in Missouri in the continental United States.<ref>Tirpak, John {{cite web |url=http://www.airforcemag.com/magazinearchive/pages/2011/july%202011/0711libya.aspx |title=Bombers Over Libya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608065130/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2011/July%202011/0711libya.aspx |archive-date=8 June 2014 }} Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Vol. 94, No. 7, July 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2014</ref> The support provided by the NATO air forces contributed to the ultimate success of the revolution.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/11/the-hidden-story-of-airpower-in-libya-and-what-it-means-for-syria/ |title=The hidden story of airpower in Libya (and what it means for Syria) |magazine=Foreign Policy |date=11 February 2013 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065752/http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/02/11/the-hidden-story-of-airpower-in-libya-and-what-it-means-for-syria/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> By 22 August 2011, [[National Liberation Army (Libya)|rebel fighters]] had entered Tripoli and occupied [[Martyrs' Square, Tripoli|Green Square]],<ref name="Richburg">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/libyan-rebels-converging-on-tripoli/2011/08/21/gIQAbF3RUJ_story.html |title=Gaddafi's rule crumbling as rebels enter heart of Tripoli |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Keith B. |last=Richburg |date=22 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123234819/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/libyan-rebels-converging-on-tripoli/2011/08/21/gIQAbF3RUJ_story.html |archive-date=23 January 2012 }}</ref> which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed since 17 February 2011. On 20 October 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising came to an end in the city of [[Sirte]]. The [[Battle of Sirte (2011)|Battle of Sirte]] was both the last decisive battle and the last one in general of the [[First Libyan Civil War]] where Gaddafi was captured and killed by [[NATO]]-backed forces on 20 October 2011. Sirte was the last Gaddafi loyalist stronghold and his place of birth. The defeat of [[loyalist]] forces was celebrated on 23 October 2011, three days after the fall of Sirte. At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |title=Libyan estimate: At least 30,000 died in the war |author=Laub, Karin |agency=Associated Press |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=8 September 2011 |access-date=25 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104210601/http://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref> In addition, the [[National Transitional Council]] estimated 50,000 wounded.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/oct/26/libya-war-saving-lives-catastrophic-failure|title=If the Libyan war was about saving lives, it was a catastrophic failure {{!}} Seumas Milne|last=Milne|first=Seumas|date=26 October 2011|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 November 2017|issn=0261-3077|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132158/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/oct/26/libya-war-saving-lives-catastrophic-failure|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> === Interwar period and the Second Libyan Civil War (2011–2020) === {{Main|Aftermath of the First Libyan Civil War|Second Libyan Civil War}} [[File:Libyan Civil War.svg|thumb|Areas of control in the [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|Civil War]], updated 11 June 2020: <br />[[File:Location dot red.svg|11px]] [[House of Representatives (Libya)|Tobruk-led Government]] <br />[[File:Location dot lime.svg|11px]] [[Government of National Accord]] <br />[[File:Location dot blue.svg|11px]] Petroleum Facilities Guard <br />[[File:Location dot yellow.svg|11px]] [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] tribes <br />[[File:Location dot orange.svg|11px]] Local forces ]] Following the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities and tribes, while the central government had been weak and unable to effectively exert its authority over the country. Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24985595 | work=BBC News | title=Armed militias still on the streets in Libya | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230053135/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24985595 | archive-date=30 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 7 July 2012, Libyans held their first parliamentary elections since the end of the former regime. On 8 August, the [[National Transitional Council]] officially handed power over to the wholly-elected [[General National Congress]], which was then tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new [[Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration|Libyan Constitution]] to be approved in a general [[Next Libyan referendum|referendum]].<ref name="Esam-8-Aug">{{cite news |url=https://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |title=Libya's transitional rulers hand over power |author=Esam Mohamed |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=8 August 2012 |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |access-date=8 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208121751/http://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |archive-date=8 December 2012 }}</ref> On 25 August 2012, in what Reuters reported as "the most blatant sectarian attack" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a [[Sufism|Sufi]] mosque with graves in the centre of the Libyan capital [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]. It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zargoun |first=Taha |title=Fighters bulldoze Sufi mosque in central Tripoli |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-islamists-idUSBRE87O08Y20120825 |work=Reuters |date=25 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023061116/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/25/us-libya-islamists-idUSBRE87O08Y20120825 |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> Numerous acts of vandalism and destruction of heritage were carried out by suspected Islamist militias, including the removal of the Nude Gazelle Statue and the destruction and desecration of World War II-era British grave sites near Benghazi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Libya's Italian-era gazelle statue disappears in Tripoli|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29898279|access-date=19 August 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828143907/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29898279|archive-date=28 August 2016|date=4 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated|title=British war graves in Libya desecrated by Islamist militants|first=Chris|last=Stephen|date=4 March 2012|website=The Guardian|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-date=13 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313014511/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated|url-status=live}}</ref> Many other cases of heritage vandalism were reported to be carried out by Islamist-related radical militias and mobs that either destroyed, robbed, or looted a number of historic sites. [[File:LE Eithne Operation Triton.jpg|thumb|left|Libya has emerged as a major transit point for [[European migrant crisis|people trying to reach Europe]].]]On 11 September 2012, Islamist militants mounted an [[2012 Benghazi attack|attack on the American diplomatic compound in Benghazi]],<ref>{{cite web|title=2012 Benghazi attacks {{!}} History, Facts, & Information {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/2012-Benghazi-attacks|access-date=2022-01-30|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=30 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130100319/https://www.britannica.com/event/2012-Benghazi-attacks|url-status=live}}</ref> killing the US ambassador to Libya, [[J. Christopher Stevens]], and three others. The incident generated outrage in the United States and Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/12/world/africa/libya-consulate-attack-scene/|publisher=CNN|title=4 hours of fire and chaos: How the Benghazi attack unfolded|date=12 September 2012|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221061213/http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/12/world/africa/libya-consulate-attack-scene/|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect [[Mustafa A. G. Abushagur|Mustafa A.G. Abushagur]] was ousted after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |author=Grant, George |title=Congress dismisses Abushagur |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/congress-dismisses-abushagur |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806163230/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/congress-dismisses-abushagur/ |archive-date=6 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Zaptia, Sami |title=Abushagur announces a smaller emergency cabinet |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/abushagur-announces-a-smaller-emergency-cabinet |work=Libya Herald |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809042311/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/07/abushagur-announces-a-smaller-emergency-cabinet/ |archive-date=9 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Libyan Prime Minister Mustafa Abu Shagur to stand down |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136 |date=7 October 2012 |work=BBC News |access-date=7 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007180429/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136 |archive-date=7 October 2012 }}</ref> On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer [[Ali Zeidan]] as prime minister-designate.<ref>{{cite news |author=Grant, George |title=Ali Zidan elected prime minister |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/14/ali-zidan-elected-prime-minister/ |date=14 October 2012 |access-date=14 October 2012 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929211229/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/10/14/ali-zidan-elected-prime-minister/ |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> Zeidan was sworn in after his cabinet was approved by the GNC.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya congress approves new PM's proposed government |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-government-idUSBRE89U18O20121031 |work=Reuters |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=31 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103022542/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/31/us-libya-government-idUSBRE89U18O20121031 |archive-date=3 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Zapita, Sami |title=Zeidan government sworn in |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/11/14/zeidan-government-sworn-in/ |date=14 November 2012 |access-date=3 June 2013 |work=Libya Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806023849/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/11/14/zeidan-government-sworn-in/ |archive-date=6 August 2013 }}</ref> On 11 March 2014, after having been ousted by the GNC for his inability to halt a rogue oil shipment,<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html|author=Kirkpatrick, David D |title=U.S. Navy SEALs Take Control of Diverted Oil Tanker |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 March 2014 |access-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321041136/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html?_r=0 |archive-date=21 March 2014 }}</ref> Prime Minister Zeidan stepped down, and was replaced by Prime Minister [[Abdullah al-Thani]].<ref>{{cite news |date=12 March 2014 |title=Libya ex-PM Zeidan 'leaves country despite travel ban' |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979 |access-date=16 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315025552/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979 |archive-date=15 March 2014 }}</ref> The [[Second Libyan Civil War|Second Civil War]] began in May 2014 following fighting between rival parliaments with tribal militias and [[jihad]]ist groups soon taking advantage of the power vacuum. Most notably, radical Islamist fighters seized [[Derna, Libya|Derna]] in 2014 and [[Sirte]] in 2015 in the name of the [[Islamic State]]. In February 2015, neighbouring Egypt [[February 2015 Egyptian airstrikes in Libya|launched airstrikes]] against IS in support of the Tobruk government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/21/world/middleeast/militants-claiming-isis-ties-say-they-carried-out-libya-bombings.html|work=The New York Times|title=Ties to Islamic State Cited by Group in Libya Attacks|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|first=David|last=Kirkpatrick|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221014458/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/21/world/middleeast/militants-claiming-isis-ties-say-they-carried-out-libya-bombings.html?_r=0|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/02/20/islamic-state-libya/23728623/|work=USA Today|title=How strong is the Islamic State in Libya?|last=Dean|first=Laura|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222193744/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/02/20/islamic-state-libya/23728623/|archive-date=22 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11426019/Isil-loyalists-claim-responsibility-for-car-bombs-in-Libya-killing-at-least-40-people.html|title=Isil loyalists claim responsibility for car bombs in Libya, killing at least 40 people|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Louisa|last=Loveluck|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221050052/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11426019/Isil-loyalists-claim-responsibility-for-car-bombs-in-Libya-killing-at-least-40-people.html|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> In June 2014, [[2014 Libyan parliamentary election|elections were held]] to the [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]], a new legislative body intended to take over from the [[General National Congress]]. The elections were marred by violence and low turnout, with voting stations closed in some areas.<ref name="Jawad">{{cite news|last=Jawad|first=Rana|date=26 June 2014|title=Libyan elections: Low turnout marks bid to end political crisis|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-28005801|publisher=BBC|access-date=22 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812093413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-28005801|archive-date=12 August 2014}}</ref> Secularists and liberals did well in the elections, to the consternation of Islamist lawmakers in the GNC, who reconvened and declared a continuing mandate for the GNC, refusing to recognise the new House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/former-libyan-parliament-reconvenes-elects-islamist-premier|title=Former Libyan parliament reconvenes, elects Islamist premier|agency=Al Akhbar English|date=25 August 2014|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826121713/http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/former-libyan-parliament-reconvenes-elects-islamist-premier|archive-date=26 August 2014}}</ref> Armed supporters of the General National Congress occupied Tripoli, forcing the newly elected parliament to flee to [[Tobruk]].<ref name="WPost Aug. 24">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-denies-intervening-in-libya/2014/08/24/88b364ee-2b7d-11e4-be9e-60cc44c01e7f_story.html|title=Libya's Islamist militias claim control of capital|newspaper=The Washington Post|agency=Associated Press|date=24 August 2014|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825135414/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-denies-intervening-in-libya/2014/08/24/88b364ee-2b7d-11e4-be9e-60cc44c01e7f_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 August 2014}}</ref><ref name="guardian-20140909">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |title=Libyan parliament takes refuge in Greek car ferry |author=Chris Stephen |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 September 2014 |access-date=24 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916072346/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/libyan-parliament-refuge-greek-car-ferry |archive-date=16 September 2014 }}</ref> [[File:General Haftar (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Khalifa Haftar]], the head of the [[Libyan National Army]], one of the main factions in the [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|2014 civil war]]]] In January 2015, meetings were held with the aim to find a peaceful agreement between the rival parties in Libya. The so-called Geneva-Ghadames talks were supposed to bring the GNC and the Tobruk government together at one table to find a solution of the internal conflict. However, the GNC actually never participated, a sign that internal division not only affected the "Tobruk Camp", but also the "Tripoli Camp". Meanwhile, terrorism within Libya steadily increased, also affecting neighbouring countries. The [[Bardo National Museum attack|terrorist attack against the Bardo Museum]] in [[Tunisia]] on 18 March 2015 was reportedly carried out by two Libyan-trained militants.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fanack|title=Terrorism Increases in Libya as Politicians Talk|url=https://chronicle.fanack.com/libya/history-past-to-present/terrorism-increases-in-libya/|website=Fanack.com|date=22 April 2015|access-date=13 May 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518082502/https://chronicle.fanack.com/libya/history-past-to-present/terrorism-increases-in-libya/|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> During 2015 an extended series of diplomatic meetings and peace negotiations were supported by the United Nations, as conducted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Spanish diplomat [[Bernardino León]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Fadel Senna |url=https://news.yahoo.com/photos/bernardino-leon-special-representative-head-united-nations-support-photo-200131803.html |title=Bernardino Leon, Special Representative and Head of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya, delivers a speech during UN-brokered talks in Skhirat, Morocco, on August 28, 2015 | View photo – Yahoo News |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=2 September 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 }}{{dead link|date=July 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2015/01/27/video-remarks-by-srsg-bernardino-leon-on-talks/ |title=Video: Remarks by SRSG Bernardino Leon on Talks |access-date=9 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122322/http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2015/01/27/video-remarks-by-srsg-bernardino-leon-on-talks/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |date=27 January 2015 }}</ref> UN support for the SRSG-led process of dialogue carried on in addition to the usual work of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/LYProgramme.aspx |title=OHCHR in Libya |website=Ohchr.org |date=17 September 2012 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424053019/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/MENARegion/Pages/LYProgramme.aspx |archive-date=24 April 2016 }}</ref> In July 2015 SRSG Leon reported to the UN Security Council on the progress of the negotiations, which at that point had just achieved a political agreement on 11 July setting out "a comprehensive framework... includ[ing] guiding principles... institutions and decision-making mechanisms to guide the transition until the adoption of a permanent constitution." Talks, negotiations and dialogue continued on during mid-2015 at various international locations, culminating at Skhirat in Morocco in early September.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/undpa/speeches-statements/15072015/libya |title=15 July 2015, Security Council briefing on the situation in Libya, Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Libya Bernardino Leon | Department of Political Affairs |publisher=United Nations |date=15 July 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023061451/http://www.un.org/undpa/speeches-statements/15072015/libya |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Miles |first=Tom |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-talks-idUSKCN0R428N20150905 |title=U.N. sees Libya talks entering final mile, eyes Sept. 20 deal |work=Reuters |date=4 September 2015 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023060912/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/05/us-libya-security-talks-idUSKCN0R428N20150905 |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> Also in 2015, as part of the ongoing support from the international community, the UN Human Rights Council requested a report about the Libyan situation<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/HRC/28/L.7/Rev.1 |title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604074058/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2FHRC%2F28%2FL.7%2FRev.1 |archive-date=4 June 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15771&LangID=E |title=Human Rights Council adopts eight resolutions and closes twenty-eighth session |website=Ohchr.org |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424055015/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15771&LangID=E |archive-date=24 April 2016 }}</ref> and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, [[Zeid bin Ra'ad|Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein]], established an investigative body (OIOL) to report on human rights and rebuilding the Libyan justice system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/OIOL.aspx |title=OHCHR Investigation on Libya |website=Ohchr.org |date=1 January 2014 |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401234723/http://ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/OIOL.aspx |archive-date=1 April 2016 }}</ref> Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for [[2015 European migrant crisis|people trying to reach Europe]]. Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many of them from Libya.<ref>{{cite news |title=African migrants fear for future as Italy struggles with surge in arrivals |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-migrants-africa/african-migrants-fear-for-future-as-italy-struggles-with-surge-in-arrivals-idUSKBN1A30QD |work=Reuters |date=18 July 2017 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402002627/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-migrants-africa/african-migrants-fear-for-future-as-italy-struggles-with-surge-in-arrivals-idUSKBN1A30QD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What will Italy's new government mean for migrants? |url=https://www.thelocal.it/20180521/what-will-italys-new-government-mean-for-migrants |newspaper=The Local Italy |date=21 May 2018 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401231010/https://www.thelocal.it/20180521/what-will-italys-new-government-mean-for-migrants |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2018 Libya's rival leaders agreed to hold parliamentary and presidential elections following a meeting in Paris.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/libya-rival-leaders-agree-hold-elections-december-180529082326218.html|title=Libya's rival leaders agree to hold elections in December|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=1 July 2018|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918003214/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/libya-rival-leaders-agree-hold-elections-december-180529082326218.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2019, [[Khalifa Haftar]] launched [[Western Libya campaign|Operation Flood of Dignity]], in an offensive by the [[Libyan National Army]] aimed to seize Western territories from the [[Government of National Accord]] (GNA).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48000672|title=Clashes erupt south of Libyan capital|date=20 April 2019|access-date=20 April 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526211007/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48000672|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2019, forces allied to Libya's UN-recognized Government of National Accord successfully captured Gharyan, a strategic town where military commander Khalifa Haftar and his fighters were based. According to a spokesman for GNA forces, Mustafa al-Mejii, dozens of LNA fighters under Haftar were killed, while at least 18 were taken prisoner.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2019/06/27/libya-gna-forces-capture-gharyan-haftar-lna/|title=Libya government forces capture key town from Haftar's fighters|access-date=27 June 2019|work=The Defense Post|date=27 June 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205614/https://www.thedefensepost.com/2019/06/27/libya-gna-forces-capture-gharyan-haftar-lna/|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2020, UN-backed government of [[Fayez al-Sarraj|Fayez Al-Sarraj]] commenced Operation Peace Storm. The government initiated the bid in response to the state of assaults carried by [[Field Marshal]] [[Khalifa Haftar|Haftar]]'s [[Libyan National Army|LNA]]. "We are a legitimate, civilian government that respects its obligations to the international community, but is committed primarily to its people and has an obligation to protect its citizens," Sarraj said in line with his decision.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theunionjournal.com/sarraj-announces-launch-of-operation-peace-storm-in-response-to-haftar-attacks-middle-east-monitor/|title=Sarraj announces launch of Operation Peace Storm in response to Haftar attacks|access-date=27 March 2020|website=The Union Journal|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623112331/https://www.theunionjournal.com/sarraj-announces-launch-of-operation-peace-storm-in-response-to-haftar-attacks-middle-east-monitor/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 28 August 2020, the ''[[BBC]] Africa Eye'' and ''BBC Arabic Documentaries'' revealed that a drone operated by the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE) killed 26 young cadets at a military academy in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], on 4 January. Most of the cadets were teenagers and none of them were armed. The Chinese-made drone [[CAIG Wing Loong II|Wing Loong II]] fired Blue Arrow 7 missile, which was operated from UAE-run Al-Khadim Libyan air base. In February, these drones stationed in Libya were moved to an air base near [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]] in the western Egyptian desert.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53917791|title=UAE implicated in lethal drone strike in Libya|work=BBC News|date=28 August 2020|access-date=28 August 2020|archive-date=11 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090852/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53917791|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' probed and discovered the blatant violation of [[United Nations|UN]] arms embargo by the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Turkey]] on 7 October 2020. As per the reporting, both the nations sent large-scale military cargo planes to Libya in support of their respective parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/07/turkey-and-uae-openly-flouting-un-arms-embargo-to-fuel-war-in-libya|title=Turkey and UAE openly flouting UN arms embargo to fuel war in Libya|access-date=7 October 2020|website=The Guardian|date=7 October 2020|archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627094735/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/07/turkey-and-uae-openly-flouting-un-arms-embargo-to-fuel-war-in-libya|url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 October 2020, [[Libyan peace process|a permanent ceasefire]] was signed to end the war.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |last2=McDowall |first2=Angus |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Gareth |editor2-last=Maclean |editor2-first=William |title=Warring Libya rivals sign truce but tough political talks ahead |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ceasefire/warring-libya-rivals-sign-truce-but-tough-political-talks-ahead-idUSKBN2781BD?il=0 |access-date=21 April 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203235018/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ceasefire/warring-libya-rivals-sign-truce-but-tough-political-talks-ahead-idUSKBN2781BD?il=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Post-civil war years (2020–present) === {{Main|Libyan Crisis (2011–present)}} {{Expand section|date=December 2021}} In December 2021, the [[2022 Libyan presidential election|country's first presidential election]] was scheduled, but was delayed to June 2022<ref>{{cite web|title=Why Libya's election got postponed: A quick guide|work=Al Jazeera|date=23 December 2021|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/23/why-libya-election-got-postponed|access-date=April 28, 2022|archive-date=28 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428143759/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/23/why-libya-election-got-postponed|url-status=live}}</ref> and later postponed further. [[Fathi Bashagha]] was appointed prime minister by the parliament in February 2022 to lead a transitional administration, but standing prime minister [[Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh]] refused to hand over power as of April 2022. In protest against the Dbeibah government, tribal leaders from the desert town of [[Ubari]] shut down the [[El Sharara oil field]], Libya's largest oil field, on 18 April 2022. The shut down threatened to cause oil shortages domestically in Libya, and preclude the state-run National Oil Corp. from exploiting the high oil prices on the international market resulting from the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Magdy |first1=Samy |title=Libya's largest oil field closed as turmoil intensifies |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/libyas-largest-oil-field-closed-turmoil-intensifies-84146310 |access-date=18 April 2022 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419011048/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/libyas-largest-oil-field-closed-turmoil-intensifies-84146310 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 July, the [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] was burned down by protesters.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-02 |title=Libya protesters storm parliament building in Tobruk |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62018882 |access-date=2022-07-04 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704191615/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62018882 |url-status=live }}</ref> On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to [[Derna dam collapses|dam failure]]s generated by [[Storm Daniel]] devastated the port city of [[Derna, Libya|Derna]], killing more than 5,900 and possibly as many as 24,000.<ref name="ALMONITOR">{{cite news|title=A year on, rebuilding Libya's flood-hit Derna plagued by politics|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/09/year-rebuilding-libyas-flood-hit-derna-plagued-politics|publisher=[[Al-Monitor]]|date=7 September 2024|access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref> The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history.<ref name="October 3 update">{{cite web |last1=Ndebele |first1=Lenin |title=A storm caused devastation in Libya, but politics may be its biggest problem in the aftermath |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/a-storm-caused-devastation-in-libya-but-politics-may-be-its-biggest-problem-in-the-aftermath-20231003 |publisher=News24 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004014657/https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/a-storm-caused-devastation-in-libya-but-politics-may-be-its-biggest-problem-in-the-aftermath-20231003 |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2024, the [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|Government of National Unity]] would instate a morality police to crack-down on "weird haircuts", enforce “modest” clothing, and require male guardians for women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Libyan Government reinstates morality police|url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/fears-religious-freedom-libya-proposes-new-morality-police|access-date=2024-11-12 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en-US}}</ref> == Geography == {{Main|Geography of Libya|Wildlife of Libya|Climate change in Libya}} [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LBY present.svg|thumb|Libya map of Köppen climate classification|left]] Libya extends over {{convert|1759540|km2|sqmi|0}}, making it the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|16th-largest nation in the world by size]]. Libya is bounded to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the west by [[Tunisia]] and [[Algeria]], the southwest by [[Niger]], the south by [[Chad]], the southeast by [[Sudan]], and the east by [[Egypt]], as well as maritime borders with [[Greece]], [[Italy]] and [[Malta]] to the north. Libya lies between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[34th parallel north|34°N]], and longitudes [[9th meridian east|9°]] and [[26th meridian east|26°E]]. Libya comprises three historical regions: [[Tripolitania]], [[Fezzan]], and [[Cyrenaica]]. At {{convert|1770|km|mi|0}}, Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya Background|url=http://www.educationlibya.org/country_profile.htm|publisher=Education Libya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040426000721/http://www.educationlibya.org/country_profile.htm|archive-date=26 April 2004|date=30 March 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |title=Field Listings – Coastlines |work=The World Factbook |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716042040/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the [[Libyan Sea]]. The climate is mostly extremely dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder [[Mediterranean climate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southtravels.com/africa/libya/weather.html |title=Weather and Climate in Libya |publisher=Southtravels.com |access-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605125808/http://www.southtravels.com/africa/libya/weather.html |archive-date=5 June 2013 }}</ref> Six ecoregions lie within Libya's borders: [[Saharan halophytics]], [[Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe]], [[Mediterranean woodlands and forests]], [[North Saharan steppe and woodlands]], [[Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands]], and [[West Saharan montane xeric woodlands]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|display-authors=1|year=2017|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|pages=534–545|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|issn=0006-3568|last16=Hayes|first40=Jonathan|first43=Roeland|last43=Kindt|first42=Yara|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first41=Heinz|last41=Klöser|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last39=Ghazanfar|first38=Annette|last38=Patzelt|first37=Anthony G.|last37=Miller|first36=Othman A.|last44=Lillesø|last45=van Breugel|first35=José C.|last15=Barber|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|first49=Muhammad|first45=Paulo|last49=Saleem|first48=Khalaf F.|last48=Al-Shammari|first47=Maianna|last47=Voge|first46=Lars|last46=Graudal|last36=Llewellyn|last35=Brito|first16=Randy|last21=Price|last24=Suckling|first23=Don|last23=Weeden|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last22=Baillie|first21=Lori|first20=Wes|last25=Davis|last20=Sechrest|first19=Eileen|last19=Crist|first18=Vance|last18=Martin|first17=Cyril|last17=Kormos|first24=Kierán|first25=Crystal|first34=Lilian|first30=Peter|last34=Pintea|first33=Nadia|last33=de Souza|first32=Alexandra|last32=Tyukavina|first31=Svetlana|last31=Turubanova|last30=Potapov|last26=Sizer|first29=Tanya|last29=Birch|first28=David|last28=Thau|first15=Charles Victor|last27=Moore|first26=Nigel|first27=Rebecca|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden [[sirocco]] (known in Libya as the ''gibli''). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also [[dust storm]]s and [[Dust storm|sandstorms]]. [[Oasis|Oases]] can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are [[Ghadames]] and [[Kufra]].<ref name="WorldCulturalHeritage">{{cite web|title=Old Town of Ghadames (1986) Libyan Arab Jamahirya|url=http://heindorffhus.motivsamler.dk/worldheritage/frame-LibyaGhadames.htm|website=World Cultural Heritage|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810022226/http://heindorffhus.motivsamler.dk/worldheritage/frame-LibyaGhadames.htm|archive-date=10 August 2016 |date=20 July 2006}}</ref> Libya is highly vulnerable to the effects of [[climate change]] and underprepared to deal with them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=University of Notre Dame |date=2022 |title=ND-GAIN Country Index |url=https://gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/rankings/ |access-date=5 March 2025 |website=Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web |last1=UNDP |last2=UNICEF |last3=IOM UN Migration |last4=COP 27 |date=October 2022 |title=UN Climate Change Fact Sheet: Libya |url=https://libya.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl931/files/documents/UN%20Climate%20Change%20Factsheet%20Libya.pdf}}</ref> The effects of [[climate change in Libya]], such as [[desertification]], sea level rise, flooding, and irregular weather patterns are already noticeable and are expected to increase.<ref name=":42" /> These pose significant threats to Libya's agriculture, food and water security and economic development and sustainability.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UNDP |title=Libya: Environment and Climate Change |url=https://www.undp.org/libya/environment-and-climate-change |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal |title=Libya |url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/libya |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org |language=en}}</ref> Libya was a pioneer state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected area. The fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime favoured intense [[poaching]]: "Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbidden. But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which one can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time. We are also witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally practice hunting. They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season. More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them. The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not," explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://orientxxi.info/magazine/le-maghreb-prend-conscience-du-declin-de-sa-biodiversite,4034 |title=Le Maghreb prend conscience du déclin de sa biodiversité |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415011801/https://orientxxi.info/magazine/le-maghreb-prend-conscience-du-declin-de-sa-biodiversite,4034 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Libyan Desert === [[File:Libyan Dessert.jpg|thumb|Libya is a predominantly desert country. Over 95% of the land area is covered in desert.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-26 |title=Libya |url=https://reports.unocha.org/en/country/libya/card/2r82XSjHkw/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=reports.unocha.org |language=en |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405202255/http://reports.unocha.org/en/country/libya/card/2r82XSjHkw/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] [[File:Water Stress, Top Countries (2020).svg|thumb|Libya is the fourth-most water-stressed country in the world.]] The [[Libyan Desert]], which covers most of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> In places, decades may pass without seeing any rainfall at all, and even in the [[highland (geography)|highlands]] rainfall seldom happens, once every 5–10 years. At [[Jebel Uweinat|Uweinat]], {{As of|2006|lc=y}} the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.<ref name="Libdesert">{{cite web |url=http://www.fjexpeditions.com/frameset/florafauna.htm |author=András Zboray |title=Flora and Fauna of the Libyan Desert |publisher=Fliegel Jezerniczky Expeditions |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208062321/http://www.fjexpeditions.com/frameset/florafauna.htm |archive-date=8 December 2012 }}</ref> Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme; on 13 September 1922, the town of [['Aziziya]], which is located southwest of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], recorded an air temperature of {{convert|58|°C|°F|1}}, considered to be a world record.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.extremescience.com/hottest.htm |title=How Hot is Hot? |publisher=Extreme Science |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202020747/http://www.extremescience.com/hottest.htm |archive-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Death_Valley">{{cite web|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |access-date=15 January 2013 |year=2012 |work=World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=Arizona State University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archive-date= 4 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name=El_Azizia>{{cite journal|last=El Fadli|first=KI|title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58 °C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|date=September 2012|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|volume=94|issue=2|page=199|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2013BAMS...94..199E|doi-access=free|issn=0003-0007 }}</ref> In September 2012, however, the world record figure of 58 °C was determined to be invalid by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].<ref name="Death_Valley"/><ref name=El_Azizia/><ref>{{cite news |last=Westcott |first=Tom |title=Libya loses 'world's hottest place' record |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/09/15/libya-loses-worlds-hottest-place-record/ |work=Libya Herald |date=15 September 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820231702/http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/09/15/libya-loses-worlds-hottest-place-record/ |archive-date=20 August 2013 }}</ref> There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and [[Kufra]].<ref name="Libdesert" /> Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of [[plateau]]s and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders. Slightly further to the south are the [[massif]]s of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu. These [[granite]] mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the [[Aïr Mountains]]. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west.<ref name="Libdesert" /> The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive [[aquifer]] underneath much of Libya. The water in the [[Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]] pre-dates the last [[Ice age]]s and the Sahara Desert itself.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_562.html |title=Fossil Water in Libya |publisher=NASA |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218110002/http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_562.html |archive-date=18 February 2013 }}</ref> This area also contains the [[Arkenu structures]], which were once thought to be two impact craters.<ref name="CigoliniOthers2012a">Cigolini, C, C Laiolo, and M Rossetti (2012) ''Endogenous and nonimpact origin of the Arkenu circular structures (al-Kufrah basin-SE Libya)'' Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 47(11):1772–1788.</ref> == Politics and elections == {{Main|Politics of Libya|Elections in Libya}} [[File:Palazzo Reale di Tripoli.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Palace of Tripoli]]—headquarters of [[King Idris]]]] [[File:Muammar al-Gaddafi 1-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gaddafi]] was the leader of Libya until [[Libyan civil war (2011)|2011 Civil War]].]] The politics of Libya has been in a tumultuous state since the start of the [[Arab Spring]] and the NATO intervention related [[Libyan Crisis (2011–present)|Libyan Crisis]] in 2011. The crisis resulted in the collapse of the [[Libyan Arab Jamahiriya]] and the [[killing of Muammar Gaddafi]], amidst the [[First Libyan Civil War]] and 2011 [[2011 military intervention in Libya|foreign military intervention]].<ref>{{cite web|date=10 February 2021|title=Libya mired in chaos 10 years after Arab Spring|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210210-libya-mired-in-chaos-10-years-after-arab-spring|access-date=14 February 2022|work=[[France 24]]|archive-date=10 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210065147/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210210-libya-mired-in-chaos-10-years-after-arab-spring|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=19 October 2021|title=10 years since Kadhafi death, stability still eludes Libya|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211019-10-years-since-kadhafi-death-stability-still-eludes-libya|access-date=14 February 2022|work=[[France 24]]|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019034550/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211019-10-years-since-kadhafi-death-stability-still-eludes-libya|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=7 May 2021|title=Feature: Libyans struggling in poverty, chaos 10 years after NATO intervention|work=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-05/07/c_139928992.htm|access-date=14 February 2022|archive-date=14 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214012909/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-05/07/c_139928992.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The crisis was deepened by [[Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)|factional violence]] in the [[Aftermath of the First Libyan Civil War|aftermath of the First Civil War]], resulting in the outbreak of the [[Second Libyan Civil War]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya's Second Civil War: How did it come to this?|url=http://www.conflict-news.com/libyas-second-civil-war-how-did-it-come-to-this/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320232806/http://www.conflict-news.com/libyas-second-civil-war-how-did-it-come-to-this/|archive-date=20 March 2015|access-date=22 March 2015|work=Conflict News}}{{cite web|author=National Post View|date=24 February 2015|title=National Post View: Stabilizing Libya may be the best way to keep Europe safe|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2015/02/24/national-post-view-stabilizing-libya-may-be-the-best-way-to-keep-europe-safe/|access-date=22 March 2015|work=National Post|archive-date=17 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317183803/http://news.nationalpost.com/2015/02/24/national-post-view-stabilizing-libya-may-be-the-best-way-to-keep-europe-safe/|url-status=live}}</ref> The control over the country is currently split between the [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] (HoR) in [[Tobruk]] and the [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|Government of National Unity]] (GNU) in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and their respective supporters, as well as various [[:Category:Jihadist groups in Libya|jihadist groups]] and [[Ethnic groups in Libya|tribal elements]] controlling different parts of the country.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pelham|first=Nicolas|date=February 2015|title=Libya Against Itself|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/feb/19/libya-against-itself/|magazine=The New York Review of Books|access-date=18 February 2015|archive-date=14 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014045423/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/feb/19/libya-against-itself/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Fadel, L. [https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/08/26/343444450/libyas-crisis-a-shattered-airport-two-parliaments-many-factions "Libya's Crisis: A Shattered Airport, Two Parliaments, Many Factions".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426075812/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/08/26/343444450/libyas-crisis-a-shattered-airport-two-parliaments-many-factions|date=2015-04-26}}</ref> The former legislature was the [[General National Congress]], which had 200 seats.<ref name="cialegbr">{{cite web|title=Legislative Branch|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|work=The World Factbook|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021137/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|archive-date=11 October 2017}}</ref> The [[General National Congress (2014)]], a largely unrecognised rival parliament based in the ''de jure'' capital of Tripoli, claims to be a legal continuation of the GNC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-parliaments-idUSKBN0GP18S20140825|work=Reuters|title=Libya's ex-parliament reconvenes, appoints Omar al-Hasi as PM|date=25 August 2014|access-date=4 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112343/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/25/us-libya-security-parliaments-idUSKBN0GP18S20140825|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/28/egypt-reiterates-support-libyas-legitimate-institutions-amid-deepening-crisis/|work=Daily News Egypt|title=Egypt reiterates support for 'Libya's legitimate institutions' amid deepening crisis|date=28 December 2014|access-date=4 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408061506/http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/28/egypt-reiterates-support-libyas-legitimate-institutions-amid-deepening-crisis/|archive-date=8 April 2015}}</ref> On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in [[Libyan General National Congress election, 2012|parliamentary elections]], the first free elections in almost 40 years.<ref name="rfi-elections" /> Around thirty women were elected to become members of parliament.<ref name="rfi-elections">{{cite web|title=Encouraging Libyan women to play a greater role in politics|url=http://www.english.rfi.fr/middle-east/20130204-encouraging-Libyan-women-play-greater-role-politics|publisher=Radio France Internationale|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501060424/http://www.english.rfi.fr/middle-east/20130204-encouraging-Libyan-women-play-greater-role-politics|archive-date=1 May 2013|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Early results of the vote showed the [[National Forces Alliance]], led by former interim prime minister [[Mahmoud Jibril]], as front runner.<ref>{{cite news |author=Stephen, Chris |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/10/muslim-brotherhood-expectations-libyan-election |title=Muslim Brotherhood fell 'below expectations' in Libyan elections |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109195509/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/10/muslim-brotherhood-expectations-libyan-election |archive-date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> The [[Justice and Construction Party]], affiliated with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], has done less well in Libya than similar parties in [[Egypt]] and [[Tunisia]].<ref name="econ-knack" /> It won 17 out of 80 seats that were contested by parties; about 60 independents had joined its caucus by 2013.<ref name="econ-knack">{{cite news |title=The knack of organisation |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21569418-muslim-brotherhood-looks-likely-make-further-gains-knack |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |date=12 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108062656/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21569418-muslim-brotherhood-looks-likely-make-further-gains-knack |archive-date=8 January 2018 }}</ref> As of January 2013, there was mounting public pressure on the National Congress to set up a constitution-drafting body. Congress had not yet decided whether the members of the body would be elected or appointed.<ref>{{cite press release |title=In Libya, New Government Has Expressed Determination to Tackle Major Internal Problems, Including Precarious Security Situation, Security Council Told |date=29 January 2013 |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sc10902.doc.htm |publisher=United Nations |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212231408/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sc10902.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]]. The new legislature allocated 30 seats for women, would have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties), and allowed Libyans of other nationalities to run for office.<ref name="lh30march">{{cite news|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|title=Congress votes to replace itself with new House of Representatives|work=Libya Herald|date=30 March 2014|access-date=1 April 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140331000000/http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|archive-date=31 March 2014}}</ref> Following the 2012 elections, [[Freedom House]] improved Libya's rating from Not Free to Partly Free and considered the country an [[electoral democracy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/libya|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203094555/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/libya|archive-date=3 February 2013|date=9 January 2013}}</ref> Gaddafi merged civil and [[sharia courts]] in 1973. As of 2013, civil courts employed sharia judges in regular [[Court of appeal|courts of appeal]] as specialists in sharia appellate cases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/libya.htm |title=Libya |publisher=Law.emory.edu |access-date=18 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212203803/http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/libya.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 }}</ref> Laws regarding [[Sharia#Personal_status_and_child_marriage|personal status]] are derived from Islamic law as of 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Libya Gender Equality Profile |url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Libya-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |publisher=Unicef |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502222708/http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Libya-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> At a meeting of the [[European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs]] on 2 December 2014, UN Special Representative [[Bernardino León]] described Libya as a non-state.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/12/03/Libya-has-moved-from-dictatorship-to-no-state-U-N-envoy.html|agency=Al Arabiya News|title=Libya moved from dictatorship to non-state: U.N. envoy|date=2 December 2014|access-date=4 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216202853/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/12/03/Libya-has-moved-from-dictatorship-to-no-state-U-N-envoy.html|archive-date=16 December 2014}}</ref> An agreement to form a [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|national unity government]] was signed on 17 December 2015.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |author=Kingsley, Patrick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/libyan-politicians-sign-un-peace-deal-unify-rival-governments |title=Libyan politicians sign UN peace deal to unify rival governments |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217161008/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/libyan-politicians-sign-un-peace-deal-unify-rival-governments |archive-date=17 December 2015 }}</ref> Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member [[Presidency Council (Libya)|Presidency Council]] and a seventeen-member interim [[Government of National Accord]] would be formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years.<ref name="theguardian.com" /> The [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] would continue to exist as a legislature, and an advisory body called the [[State Council (Libya)|State Council]] would have members nominated by the [[General National Congress (2014)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2015/12/25/Libyan-deal-on-course-but-who-is-on-board-.html |title=Libyan deal on course, but who is on board? |date=25 December 2015 |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128175153/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/views/news/middle-east/2015/12/25/Libyan-deal-on-course-but-who-is-on-board-.html |archive-date=28 January 2016 }}</ref> The formation of an interim unity government was announced on 5 February 2021, after its members were elected by the [[Libyan Political Dialogue Forum]] (LPDF).<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=UN-led Libya forum selects new interim government|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/5/libyas-factions-head-into-runoff-on-interim-government|access-date=2021-02-05|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220235724/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/5/libyas-factions-head-into-runoff-on-interim-government|url-status=live}}</ref> Seventy-four members of the LPDF cast ballots for four-member slates, which would fill positions including prime minister and the head of the Presidential Council.<ref name=":0" /> After no slates reached a 60% vote threshold, the two leading groups competed in a run-off election.<ref name=":0" /> [[Mohamed al-Menfi]], a former ambassador to [[Greece]], became head of the Presidential Council.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2021-02-05|title=Libya crisis: Vote to unite splintered nation|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55955228|access-date=2021-02-05|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415002202/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55955228|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the LPDF confirmed that [[Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh]], a businessman, would be the transitional prime minister.<ref name=":1" /> All of the candidates who ran in the election, including the members of the winning slate, promised to appoint women to 30% of all senior government positions.<ref name=":1" /> The politicians elected to lead the interim government initially agreed not to stand in the national elections scheduled for 24 December 2021.<ref name=":1" /> However, Dbeibeh announced his candidacy for president despite the ban in November 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=Interim leader Abdul Hamid Dbeibah to run for Libyan presidency|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/22/interim-leader-dbeibah-to-run-for-libyan-elections|access-date=2021-12-19|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123000252/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/22/interim-leader-dbeibah-to-run-for-libyan-elections|url-status=live}}</ref> The appeals court in Tripoli rejected appeals for his disqualification and allowed Dbeibeh back on the candidates' list, along with a number of other previously disqualified candidates, for the election originally scheduled for December 24.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tripoli Appeals Court reinstates Dbeibah as presidential candidate {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/tripoli-appeals-court-reinstates-dbeibah-presidential-candidate|access-date=2021-12-19|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=2 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202020058/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/tripoli-appeals-court-reinstates-dbeibah-presidential-candidate|url-status=dead}}</ref> Even more controversially, the court also reinstated [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], a son of the former dictator, as a presidential candidate.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libyan court reinstates Saif Gaddafi as presidential candidate|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/2/libya-court-reinstates-gaddafis-son-as-presidential-candidate|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=24 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924121309/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/2/libya-court-reinstates-gaddafis-son-as-presidential-candidate|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi back in Libya presidential election race {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/saif-al-islam-gaddafi-back-libya-presidential-election-race|access-date=2021-12-21|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206091010/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/saif-al-islam-gaddafi-back-libya-presidential-election-race|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 22 December 2021, Libya's Election Commission called for the postponement of the election until 24 January 2022.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-12-22|title=Libya elections: Delay called for in presidential poll|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59755677|access-date=2021-12-23|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702180744/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59755677|url-status=live}}</ref> Earlier, a parliamentary commission said it would be "impossible" to hold the election on 24 December 2021.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|date=2021-12-21|title=Fears of Libya violence as UN races to manage election postponement|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/21/fears-of-libya-violence-as-un-races-to-manage-election-postponement|access-date=2021-12-23|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404011702/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/21/fears-of-libya-violence-as-un-races-to-manage-election-postponement|url-status=live}}</ref> The UN called on Libya's interim leaders to "expeditiously address all legal and political obstacles to hold elections, including finalising the list of presidential candidates".<ref name="ReferenceA" /> However, at the last minute, the election was postponed indefinitely and the international community agreed to continue its support and recognition of the interim government headed by Dbeibeh.<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-12-26|title=UK's ambassador drawn into Libyan political crisis after elections called off|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/26/uk-accused-defending-corruption-libya-election-tweet|access-date=2021-12-28|website=the Guardian|language=en|archive-date=24 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824120544/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/26/uk-accused-defending-corruption-libya-election-tweet|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-12-27|title=Libyan parliament delays next move amid election chaos|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/libyan-parliament-debates-election-chaos-2021-12-27/|access-date=2021-12-28|archive-date=3 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403234715/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/libyan-parliament-debates-election-chaos-2021-12-27/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to new election rules, a new prime minister has 21 days to form a cabinet that must be endorsed by the various governing bodies within Libya.<ref name=":1" /> After this cabinet is agreed upon, the unity government will replace all "parallel authorities" within Libya, including the Government of National Accord in Tripoli and the administration led by General Haftar.<ref name=":1" /> === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Libya}} Libya's foreign policies have fluctuated since 1951. As a kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance and was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day [[Arab League]]), of which it became a member in 1953.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |title=Independent Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120922002614/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0036) |archive-date=22 September 2012 }}</ref> The government was also friendly towards Western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, [[French Fifth Republic|France]], [[First Italian Republic|Italy]], and [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]], and established full diplomatic relations with the [[Soviet Union]] in 1955.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zoubir|first=Yahia|year=2009|title=Libya and Europe: Economic Realism at the Rescue of the Qaddafi Authoritarian Regime|journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=401–415|doi=10.1080/14782800903339354|s2cid=153625134}}</ref> Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a conservative course at home.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get7.cgi?directory=Fall00/&filename=Abadi.htm |title=Pragmatism and Rhetoric in Libya's Policy Toward Israel |author=Abadi, Jacob |publisher=The Journal of Conflict Studies: Volume XX Number 1 Fall 2000, University of New Brunswick |year=2000 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330001903/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get7.cgi?directory=Fall00%2F&filename=Abadi.htm |archive-date=30 March 2012 }}</ref> After the 1969 [[coup d'état]], [[Muammar Gaddafi]] closed American and British bases and partly [[Nationalization|nationalized]] foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to [[Westernization]] and [[political liberalism]], including [[History of Uganda (1971–79)|Ugandan]] president [[Idi Amin]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Idi Amin speaks: an annotated selection of his speeches|author1=Idi Amin |author2=Benoni Turyahikayo-Rugyema |year=1998|publisher=African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison |isbn=978-0-942615-38-8}}</ref> [[Central African Empire|Central African]] emperor [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]],<ref name="stanik23">{{Cite book|title=El Dorado Canyon: Reagan's undeclared war with Qaddafi|author=Joseph T. Stanik|year=2003|publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-55750-983-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/eldoradocanyonre00stan}}</ref><ref name="leedavis16">{{Cite book |title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya |url=https://archive.org/details/qaddafiterrorism00davi |url-access=registration |author=Lee Davis, Brian |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/qaddafiterrorism00davi/page/16 16]|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9780275933029 }}</ref> [[Derg|Ethiopian]] strongman [[Haile Mariam Mengistu]],<ref name="leedavis16" /> Liberian president [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]],<ref name="economistfall">{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341 |title= How the mighty are falling |access-date= 17 July 2007 |date= 5 July 2007 |newspaper= The Economist |location= London |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071012003829/http://economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9441341 |archive-date= 12 October 2007 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> and [[Serbia and Montenegro/History|Yugoslav]] president [[Slobodan Milošević]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alb-net.com/kcc/102699.htm |title=Gaddafi Given Yugoslavia's Top Medal By Milosevic |date=26 October 1999 |agency=Reuters |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515031023/http://www.alb-net.com/kcc/102699.htm |archive-date=15 May 2011 }}</ref> {{multiple image |total_width=450 |image1=Mutassim_Gadaffi_Hillary_Clinton.jpg |caption1=Libyan National Security Advisor [[Mutassim Gaddafi]] and US Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]], April 2009 |image2=Secretary Kerry, UK Foreign Secretary Hague Hold News Conference With Libyan Prime Minister Ziedan (11035773394).jpg |caption2=UK Foreign Secretary [[William Hague]] with Libyan Prime Minister [[Ali Zeidan]] and US Secretary of State [[John Kerry]], November 2013}} Relations with the West were strained for most of Gaddafi's rule,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/7967820/Yvonne-Fletcher-killer-may-be-brought-to-justice.html |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Gordon |last=Rayner |title=Yvonne Fletcher killer may be brought to justice |date=28 August 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831015645/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/7967820/Yvonne-Fletcher-killer-may-be-brought-to-justice.html |archive-date=31 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated183">{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Lee Davis, Brian |page=183}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Proclamation 4907 – Imports of Petroleum |publisher= US Office of the Federal Register |date= 10 March 1982 |url= http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082a.htm |author= President Ronald Reagan |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080306063835/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082a.htm |archive-date= 6 March 2008 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> with incidents including the killing of [[City of London Police|London]] policewoman [[Yvonne Fletcher]], the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|bombing]] of a [[West Berlin]] nightclub frequented by US servicemen, and the bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103]] leading to UN sanctions in the 1990s; by the late 2000s, the United States and other Western powers had normalised relations with Libya.<ref name="SalakLibya" /> Gaddafi's decision to abandon the pursuit of [[weapons of mass destruction]] after the [[Iraq War]] saw [[History of Iraq under Ba'athist rule|Iraqi dictator]] [[Saddam Hussein]] overthrown and put on trial led to Libya being hailed as a success for Western [[soft power]] initiatives in the [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/3566545.stm |title=Blair hails new Libyan relations |work=BBC News |date=25 March 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307231343/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/3566545.stm |archive-date=7 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Marcus |first=Jonathan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4774305.stm |title=Washington's Libyan fairy tale |work=BBC News |date=15 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116095214/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4774305.stm |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/23/opinion/why-libya-gave-up-on-the-bomb.html |title=Why Libya Gave Up on the Bomb |work=The New York Times |date=23 January 2004 |access-date=24 February 2011 |first=Flynt |last=Leverett |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401183534/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/23/opinion/why-libya-gave-up-on-the-bomb.html |archive-date=1 April 2011 }}</ref> In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the [[trans-Saharan slave trade]].<ref name="France 24 2010">{{cite web | title=Gaddafi warns Sudan secession would be dangerous for Africa | website=France 24 | date=10 Oct 2010 | url=https://www.france24.com/en/20101010-muammar-gaddafi-sudan-secession-danger-africa-libya | access-date=25 Jun 2021 | archive-date=28 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628090731/https://www.france24.com/en/20101010-muammar-gaddafi-sudan-secession-danger-africa-libya | url-status=live }}</ref> Libya is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Libyan authorities rejected European Union's plans aimed at stopping [[Immigration to Europe|migration from Libya]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya rejects EU plans for migrant centers on its territory |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-libya/libya-rejects-eu-plans-for-migrant-centers-on-its-territory-idUSKBN1KA0X3 |work=Reuters |date=20 July 2018 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=29 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829212223/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-libya/libya-rejects-eu-plans-for-migrant-centers-on-its-territory-idUSKBN1KA0X3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Libyan authorities oppose EU migrant plans |url=https://euobserver.com/migration/136837 |work=EUobserver |date=8 February 2017 |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205253/https://euobserver.com/migration/136837 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, Libya signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |url-status=live }}</ref> === Military === {{main|Libyan Armed Forces}} {{Update|date=April 2016}} Libya's [[Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|previous national army]] was defeated in the [[First Libyan Civil War]] and disbanded. The [[Tobruk]]-based [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]], which claims to be the legitimate government of Libya, has attempted to reestablish a military known as the [[Libyan National Army]]. Led by [[Khalifa Haftar]], it controls much of eastern Libya.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/qa-libya-180909072236031.html|title=Q&A: What's next for Libya?|last=Allahoum|first=Ramy|date=9 September 2018|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=9 September 2018|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803092154/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/qa-libya-180909072236031.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had joined its ranks.<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |title=In Libya, the Captors Have Become the Captive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/magazine/in-libya-the-captors-have-become-the-captive.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=24 May 2012 |date=13 May 2012 |first=Robert F. |last=Worth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524082413/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/magazine/in-libya-the-captors-have-become-the-captive.html |archive-date=24 May 2012 }}</ref> The internationally-recognised [[Government of National Accord]] established in 2015 had [[Libyan Army|its own army]] that replaced the LNA, consisting largely of undisciplined and disorganised militia groups. As of November 2012, it was deemed to be still in the embryonic stage of development.<ref>{{cite news |title=US-backed force in Libya face challenges |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/13/libya-middleeast |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=13 November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227171955/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/13/libya-middleeast |archive-date=27 December 2016 }}</ref> President [[Mohammed Magariaf]] promised that empowering the army and police force was the government's biggest priority in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libyans lament their missing army |date=19 October 2012 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/2012101979848968.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124223045/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/2012101979848968.html |archive-date=24 January 2013 }}</ref> President Megarif also ordered that all of the country's militias to come under government authority or disband.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya orders 'illegitimate' militias to disband |url=https://news.yahoo.com/libya-orders-illegitimate-militias-disband-145952723.html |date=23 September 2012 |agency=Associated Press |author1=Mohamed, Esam |author2=Alfitory, Osama |publisher=Yahoo! News |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305144339/http://news.yahoo.com/libya-orders-illegitimate-militias-disband-145952723.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> Militias had refused to be integrated into a central security force by February 2013.<ref name="hangover">{{cite news |title=The party and the hangover |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21572243-country-still-struggling-move-ahead-party-and-hangover |newspaper=The Economist |location=London |access-date=21 February 2013 |date=23 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222164235/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21572243-country-still-struggling-move-ahead-party-and-hangover |archive-date=22 February 2013 }}</ref> Many of the militias were disciplined, but the most powerful of them answered only to the executive councils of various Libyan cities.<ref name="hangover"/> The militias made up the so-called [[Libya Shield Force]], a parallel national force, which operated at the request, rather than at the order, of the defence ministry.<ref name="hangover"/> === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Subdivisions of Libya|Districts of Libya|Baladiyat of Libya}} [[File:Libya, administrative divisions - Nmbrs - colored.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Districts of Libya since 2007]] Historically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), [[Tripolitania]] in the northwest, [[Cyrenaica|Barka]] (Cyrenaica) in the east, and [[Fezzan]] in the southwest. The conquest by Italy in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] united them into a single political unit. Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts ([[Shabiyat]]): {{columns-list|colwidth=30em |# [[Nuqat al Khams]] # [[Zawiya District|Zawiya]] # [[Jafara]] # [[Tripoli District, Libya|Tripoli]] # [[Murqub District|Murqub]] # [[Misrata District|Misrata]] # [[Sirte District|Sirte]] # [[Benghazi District|Benghazi]] # [[Marj District|Marj]] # [[Jabal al Akhdar]] # [[Derna District|Derna]] # [[Tobruk District|Tobruk]] # [[Nalut District|Nalut]] # [[Jabal al Gharbi District|Jabal al Gharbi]] # [[Wadi al Shatii District|Wadi al Shatii]] # [[Jufra District|Jufra]] # [[Al Wahat District|Al Wahat]] # [[Ghat District|Ghat]] # [[Wadi al Hayaa District|Wadi al Hayaa]] # [[Sabha District|Sabha]] # [[Murzuq District|Murzuq]] # [[Kufra District|Kufra]] }} In 2022, 18 provinces were declared by the Libyan Government of National Unity ([https://web.archive.org/web/20220302150300/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/news/libyan-government-divides-country-18-provinces Libyan Observer]): the eastern coast, Jabal Al-Akhdar, Al-Hizam, Benghazi, Al-Wahat, Al-Kufra, Al-Khaleej, Al-Margab, Tripoli, Al-Jafara, Al-Zawiya, West Coast, Gheryan, Zintan, Nalut, Sabha, Al-Wadi, and Murzuq Basin. === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Libya}} According to [[Human Rights Watch]] annual report 2016, journalists are still being targeted by the armed groups in Libya. The organization added that Libya ranked very low in the 2015 [[Press Freedom Index]], 154th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/libya|title=Libya|chapter=Libya: Events of 2015 |date=11 January 2016|publisher=Human Rights Watch|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216122230/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/libya|archive-date=16 December 2016}}</ref> For the 2021 Press Freedom Index its score dropped to 165th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=2021 World Press Freedom Index|url=https://rsf.org/en/index|publisher=[[Reporters Sans Frontieres]]|access-date=28 April 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427230843/https://rsf.org/en/ranking|url-status=live}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in Libya|Homosexuality]] is illegal in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=16 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |archive-date=11 November 2016 }}</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Libya}} [[File:GDP per capita development in Libya.svg|thumb|Change in per capita GDP of Libya, 1950–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.]] The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the [[Petroleum industry|oil sector]], which account for over half of GDP and 97% of exports.<ref name=star-oil /> Libya holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa and is an important contributor to the global supply of light, [[sweet crude]].<ref name=eia-libya>{{cite web|title=Libya – Analysis|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=LY|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209221421/http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=LY|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> During 2010, when oil averaged at $80 a barrel, oil production accounted for 54% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PETR.RT.ZS?locations=LY|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130151035/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PETR.RT.ZS?locations=LY|url-status=dead|title=Oil rents (% of GDP) - Libya | Data|archivedate=30 January 2018|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Apart from petroleum, the other natural resources are natural gas and [[gypsum]].<ref name=opec-libya/> The [[International Monetary Fund]] estimated Libya's real GDP growth at 122% in 2012 and 16.7% in 2013, after a 60% plunge in 2011.<ref name="star-oil">{{cite news |title=Oil production boosts Libya economy, instability hampers reconstruction |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Middle-East/2012/Oct-20/192086-oil-production-boosts-libya-economy-instability-hampers-reconstruction.ashx |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209165315/http://dailystar.com.lb/Business/Middle-East/2012/Oct-20/192086-oil-production-boosts-libya-economy-instability-hampers-reconstruction.ashx |archive-date=9 February 2013 }}</ref> In 2023 Libya emitted around 23.77 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, about 0.17% of the world's total emissions. However, the nation ranked as the 21st highest emitter per capita globally and the highest in Africa, at just over 13 tonnes per person.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Jones |first1=Matthew W. |title=National contributions to climate change due to historical emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide |date=2024-11-13 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/14054503 |access-date=2025-03-05 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.14054503 |last2=Peters |first2=Glen P. |last3=Gasser |first3=Thomas |last4=Andrew |first4=Robbie M. |last5=Schwingshackl |first5=Clemens |last6=Gütschow |first6=Johannes |last7=Houghton |first7=Richard A. |last8=Friedlingstein |first8=Pierre |last9=Pongratz |first9=Julia}}</ref> Libya was slow to join climate efforts, signing the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) in 2016 and the [[Paris Agreement|Paris Climate Agreement]] in 2021.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=UNICEF |date=September 2022 |title=UNICEF Libya Water Scarcity and Climate Change: an analysis on WASH enabling environment in Libya |url=https://www.unicef.org/mena/documents/unicef-libya-water-scarcity-and-climate-change-analysis-wash-enabling-environment-libya |access-date=November 14, 2024 |website=UNICEF Middle East and North Africa}}</ref> However, as of 2024, Libya has not ratified the Paris Agreement and submitted its [[Nationally determined contribution|Nationally Determined Contributions]] (NDCs), and has made little progress toward the development of [[climate change adaptation]] plans.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Climate Vulnerability in Libya: Building Resilience Through Local Empowerment |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/06/libya-climate-vulnerability-adaptation-periphery?lang=en |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Environment and Climate Change |url=https://www.undp.org/libya/environment-and-climate-change |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=UNDP |language=en}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] defines Libya as an 'Upper Middle Income Economy', along with only seven other African countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income |title=Upper Middle Income Economies |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524215837/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20421402~pagePK%3A64133150~piPK%3A64133175~theSitePK%3A239419%2C00.html |archive-date=24 May 2008 }}</ref> Substantial revenues from the energy sector, coupled with a small population, give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa. Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered a conservative course at home.<ref name=opec-libya/> This allowed the [[Libyan Arab Jamahiriya]] state to provide an extensive level of [[social security]], particularly in the fields of housing and education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/E.1990.5.Add.26.En?OpenDocument |title=Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Report |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914071759/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/E.1990.5.Add.26.En?OpenDocument |archive-date=14 September 2013 }}</ref> [[File:Bouri NC 41 DP4 platform.jpg|left|thumb|An [[oil platform]] off the Libyan coast]] Libya faces many structural problems including a lack of institutions, weak governance, and chronic [[structural unemployment]].<ref name=imf-survey>{{cite web |title=Libya on Recovery Path but Faces Long Rebuilding Effort |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/car041612a.htm |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] |year=2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205112847/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/CAR041612A.htm |archive-date=5 February 2013 }}</ref> The economy displays a lack of economic diversification and significant reliance on immigrant labour.<ref name=ilo-libya/> Libya has traditionally relied on unsustainably high levels of public sector hiring to create employment.<ref name=african-outlook/> In the mid-2000s, the government employed about 70% of all national employees.<ref name=ilo-libya>{{cite web |title=Libya |url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/afpro/cairo/countries/libya.htm |publisher=[[International Labour Organization]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224044414/http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/afpro/cairo/countries/libya.htm |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}</ref> Unemployment rose from 8% in 2008 to 21% in 2009, according to the census figures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE52106820090302 |title=Libya's Jobless Rate at 20.7 Percent |agency=Reuters Africa |date=2 March 2009 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020102458/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE52106820090302 |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> According to an [[Arab League]] report, based on data from 2010, unemployment for women stands at 18% while for the figure for men is 21%, making Libya the only Arab country where there are more unemployed men than women.<ref>{{cite web|title=More men unemployed than women in Libya: report|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/18/201511.html|publisher=Al Arabiya|date=18 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502214611/http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/18/201511.html|archive-date=2 May 2012|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> Libya has high levels of social inequality, high rates of youth unemployment and regional economic disparities.<ref name=african-outlook>{{cite web |title=Libya |url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/libya/ |publisher=African Economic Outlook |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326041650/http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/libya/ |archive-date=26 March 2013 }}</ref> Water supply is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf |title=Safe Drinking Water |publisher=WHO/UNIADF Joint Monitoring Programme |year=2000 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040550/http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> [[File:Libyan pivot irrigation 460142568 02e969004a o.jpg|thumb|[[Pivot irrigation]] in [[Kufra]], southeast Libya, 2008]] Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Libya, which includes [[Cairo-Dakar Highway]] and [[Tripoli-Cape Town Highway]]. These routes have further contributed in the economic development of Libya. Libya imports up to 90% of its cereal consumption requirements, and imports of wheat in 2012/13 was estimated at 1 million tonnes.<ref name="fao giews"/> The 2012 wheat production was estimated at 200,000 tonnes.<ref name="fao giews"/> The government hopes to increase food production to 800,000 tonnes of cereals by 2020.<ref name="fao giews"/> However, natural and environmental conditions limit Libya's agricultural production potential.<ref name="fao giews">{{cite web|title=Country Brief on Libya|url=http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=LBY|publisher=FAO Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111081055/http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=LBY|archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Before 1958, agriculture was the country's main source of revenue, making up about 30% of GDP. With the discovery of oil in 1958, the size of the agriculture sector declined rapidly, accounting for less than 5% GDP by 2005.<ref name=voa-olive>{{cite web|title=Olive Oil – Libya's Other Oil Economy|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/olive_oil_libyas_other_oil_economy/1120507.html|publisher=VOA News|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806102942/http://www.voanews.com/content/olive_oil_libyas_other_oil_economy/1120507.html|archive-date=6 August 2012|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> The country joined [[OPEC]] in 1962.<ref name=opec-libya>{{cite web|title=Libya facts and figures|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/166.htm|publisher=OPEC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519225427/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/166.htm|archive-date=19 May 2014}}</ref> Libya is not a [[WTO]] member, but negotiations for its accession started in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya – Trade|url=http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/countries/libya/|publisher=European Commission|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213194016/http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/countries/libya/|archive-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its [[GDP per capita]] was higher than some developed countries.<ref>''Philips' Modern School Atlas'', 1987, 1983 GNP per capita figures are quoted in a list.</ref> [[File:Libya location map-oil & gas 2011-en.svg|thumb|Oil is the major natural resource of Libya, with [[Oil reserves in Libya|estimated reserves of 43.6 billion barrels]].<ref>[http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/06/11/libya "In a pure coincidence, Gaddafi impeded U.S. oil interests before the war"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727073822/http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2011/06/11/libya |date=27 July 2011 }}, Glenn Greenwald. Salon. 11 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011</ref>]] In the early 2000s officials of the Jamahiriya era carried out economic reforms to reintegrate Libya into the global economy.<ref name="CIA" /> [[International sanctions|UN sanctions]] were lifted in September 2003, and Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Other steps have included applying for membership of the [[World Trade Organization]], reducing [[Subsidy|subsidies]], and announcing plans for [[privatization]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3929727.stm|publisher=BBC|date=27 July 2004|title=WTO go-ahead for Libya talks|access-date=21 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617000545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3929727.stm|archive-date=17 June 2013}}</ref> Authorities privatized more than 100 government owned companies after 2003 in industries including oil refining, tourism and real estate, of which 29 were 100% foreign owned.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohn |first=Carolyn |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE56N02L20090724 |title=Libya expects nearly $2 bln in new FDI |agency=Reuters Africa |date=24 July 2009 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020102503/http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE56N02L20090724 |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> Many international oil companies returned to the country, including oil giants [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] and [[ExxonMobil]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shell returns to Libya with gas exploration pact|url=http://www.oilandgasnewsworldwide.com/News.asp?Article=16404|publisher=Oil & Gas News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050513162749/http://www.oilandgasnewsworldwide.com/News.asp?Article=16404|archive-date=13 May 2005|date= 9–15 May 2005}}</ref> After sanctions were lifted there was a gradual increase of air traffic, and by 2005 there were 1.5 million yearly air travellers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jawad |first=Rana |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5030998.stm |title=Libyan aviation ready for take-off |work=BBC News |date=31 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410012030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5030998.stm |archive-date=10 April 2013 }}</ref> Libya had long been a notoriously difficult country for Western tourists to visit due to stringent visa requirements.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Bangs |author2=Ammar Mabrouk Eltaye |title=Libya sees thriving tourism industry ahead |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna5210117 |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924003329/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/5210117 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], the second-eldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, was involved in a [[green development]] project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which sought to bring tourism to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and to preserve [[Classical Greece|Greek]] ruins in the area.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Green Resort Is Planned to Preserve Ruins and Coastal Waters|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/science/16liby.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=16 October 2007|first=Elisabeth|last=Rosenthal|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227172005/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/16/science/16liby.html|archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> In August 2011, it was estimated that it would take at least 10 years to rebuild Libya's infrastructure. Even before the 2011 war, Libya's infrastructure was in a poor state due to "utter neglect" by Gaddafi's administration, according to the NTC.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14684547 |title=Libyan sovereign wealth fund 'missing $2.9bn' |work=BBC News |date=26 August 2011 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118232128/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14684547 |archive-date=18 January 2013 }}</ref> By October 2012, the economy had recovered from the 2011 conflict, with oil production returning to near normal levels.<ref name="star-oil" /> Oil production was more than 1.6 million barrels per day before the war. By October 2012, the average oil production has surpassed 1.4 million bpd.<ref name="star-oil" /> The resumption of production was made possible due to the quick return of major Western companies, like [[TotalEnergies]], [[Eni]], [[Repsol]], [[Wintershall]] and [[Occidental Petroleum|Occidental]].<ref name="star-oil" /> In 2016, an announcement from the company said the company aims 900,000 barrel per day in the next year. Oil production has fallen from 1.6 million barrel per day to 900,000 in four years of war.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/libya-militias-battle-for-control-of-oil-ports|title=As The Power Struggle Endures, Libya Eyes 900,000 Bpd Oil Output|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209041257/http://www.thenational.ae/world/middle-east/libya-militias-battle-for-control-of-oil-ports|archive-date=9 December 2016}}</ref> The [[Great Man-Made River]] is the world's largest [[irrigation]] project.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx Guinness World Records 2008 Book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024138/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/2008/default.aspx |date=24 September 2015 }}. {{ISBN|978-1-904994-18-3}}</ref> The project utilizes a pipeline system that pumps [[fossil water]] from the [[Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]] from down south in Libya to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi. The water provides 70% of all freshwater used in Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world|title=The Eighth Wonder of the World?|author=Moutaz Ali|year=2017|website=Quantara.de|access-date=18 July 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219152751/https://en.qantara.de/content/libyas-great-man-made-river-irrigation-project-the-eighth-wonder-of-the-world|url-status=live}}</ref> During the second Libyan civil war, lasting from 2014 to 2020, the water infrastructure suffered neglect and occasional breakdowns.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-water-insight-idUSKCN1TX0KQ In battle for Libya's oil, water becomes a casualty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718185516/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-water-insight-idUSKCN1TX0KQ |date=18 July 2021 }}. ''Reuters''. 2 July 2019.</ref> By 2017, 60% of the Libyan population were [[Malnutrition|malnourished]]. Since then, 1.3 million people are waiting for emergency humanitarian aid, out of a total population of 7.1 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lvsl.fr/les-sequelles-de-lintervention-de-lotan-en-libye/ |title=Libye : Les terribles séquelles de l'intervention de l'OTAN |date=11 November 2019 |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421200502/https://lvsl.fr/les-sequelles-de-lintervention-de-lotan-en-libye/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2024, Libya is actively promoting business development and encouraging both domestic and foreign investment. This strategic initiative is aimed at securing long-term economic stability and prosperity for Libya by diversifying its economic foundation. Embracing green industries like renewable energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, and eco-tourism holds the potential to generate fresh employment prospects across a spectrum of sectors, thereby addressing unemployment challenges, particularly among the youth demographic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Expert in Design a green investment framework for Libya (H/F) |url=https://expertise-france.gestmax.fr/10947/1/expert-in-design-a-green-investment-framework-for-libya-h-f |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=expertise-france.gestmax.fr |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327063526/https://expertise-france.gestmax.fr/10947/1/expert-in-design-a-green-investment-framework-for-libya-h-f |url-status=live }}</ref> == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Libya}} [[File:Libya_ethnic.svg|thumb|305x305px|Ethnic composition of the Libyan population in 1974 (CIA map): {{legend|#D4B56E|[[Arabs|Arab]] and [[Arab-Berber]]}} {{legend|#FF951E|[[Berber people|Berber]]}} {{legend|#D66DFF|[[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]}} {{legend|#B6FF70|[[Toubou people|Toubou]]}} {{legend|#c8c8c8|Uninhabited}}]] Libya is a large country with a relatively small population concentrated very narrowly along the coast.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zakaria|first=Fareed|title=Gadhafi's brutal regime can't survive|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/02/25/zakaria.libya.gadhafi/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=25 February 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055526/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/02/25/zakaria.libya.gadhafi/index.html|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> Its population density is about {{convert|50|pd/sqkm}} in the two northern regions of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]], but falls to less than {{convert|1|pd/sqkm}} elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live along the coast in less than 10% of the area. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the three largest cities, [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], [[Benghazi]] and [[Misrata]]. Libya has a population of about {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Libya}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} million,{{UN_Population|ref}} 27.7% of whom are under the age of 15.<ref name="spooks">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/ |title=Libya |work=The World Factbook |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1984 the population was 3.6 million, an increase from the 1.54 million reported in 1964.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/libya/ |title=Libya |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826090114/http://countrystudies.us/libya/ |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}</ref> The population of Libya is primarily of [[Arabs|Arab]] ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population of Libya |url=https://fanack.com/libya/population/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226184215/https://fanack.com/libya/population/ |archive-date=2021-02-26 |access-date=2019-06-27 |website=Fanack.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Arabs account for 92% of the population, while [[Berbers]] account for 5%, though other estimates put this percentage at 10%, representing approximately 600,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yakan |first=Mohamad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |title=Almanac of African Peoples and Nations |date=2017-11-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-28930-6 |language=en |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501042016/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_hADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zurutuza |first=Karlos |title=Berbers fear ethnic conflict |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/1/6/libyas-berbers-fear-ethnic-conflict |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129190339/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/1/6/libyas-berbers-fear-ethnic-conflict |url-status=live }}</ref> Among the Berber groups are the minority Berber populations of [[Zuwarah]] and the [[Nafusa Mountains]]. Southern Libya, primarily [[Sebha]], [[Kufra]], [[Ghat, Libya|Ghat]], [[Ghadamis]] and [[Murzuk]], is also inhabited by two other ethnic groups; the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and [[Toubou people|Toubou]]. Libya is one of the world's most [[Tribalism|tribal]] countries. There are about 140 tribes and [[clan]]s in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,747234,00.html |title=Uprising in Libya: 'Survival Hinges on Tribal Solidarity' |newspaper=Der Spiegel |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035601/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,747234,00.html |archive-date=24 May 2012 |date=23 February 2011 }}</ref> Also living in Libya are an estimated 750,000 Egyptian workers, down from more than 2 million prior to the overthrow of [[Muammar Gaddafi]] in 2011.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Nadia |date=2015-02-20 |title=Why Egyptians are risking their lives to work in Libya |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-risk-lives-work-libya |access-date=2023-07-14 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in [[Tower block|apartment blocks]] and other independent housing units, with modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Arab Libyans traditionally lived nomadic [[Bedouin]] lifestyles in tents, they have predominately settled in towns and cities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncrss.com/report3.doc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030403191008/http://www.ncrss.com/report3.doc |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 April 2003 |title=The Family and the work of women, A study in the Libyan Society |author=Al-Hawaat, Ali |publisher=National Center for Research and Scientific Studies of Libya |access-date=5 February 2013 }}</ref> Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|services]], and a small percentage is in agriculture. According to the UNHCR, there were around 8,000 registered refugees, 5,500 unregistered refugees, and 7,000 asylum seekers of various origins in Libya in January 2013. Additionally, 47,000 Libyan nationals were internally displaced and 46,570 were internally displaced returnees.<ref>{{cite web|title=UNHCR Global Appeal 2013 Update|url=http://www.unhcr.org/50a9f82616.html|publisher=UNHCR|access-date=16 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107084239/http://www.unhcr.org/50a9f82616.html|archive-date=7 November 2014}}</ref> === Health === {{main|Health in Libya}} In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Health|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=8|publisher=SESRIC|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023065839/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=8|archive-date=23 October 2014|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> The life expectancy at birth was 74.95 years in 2011, or 72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=7|publisher=SESRIC|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023065748/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=26&cat_code=7|archive-date=23 October 2014|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref> In 2023, the Libyan health ministry announced the launch of the National Strategy for Primary Healthcare 2023–2028 to improve services provided by group clinics and health centres. A unique health number allotted to each citizen will facilitate access to medical records. Before Storm Daniel, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs estimated that around 60,000 people were in need of humanitarian aid in Derna and environs. Since the storm many of the hospitals and primary health facilities in Derna and eastern Libya have been rendered partially or completely nonfunctional.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/rebuilding-libyas-health-care-system |title=Rebuilding Libya's health system |date=7 November 2023 |access-date=2 May 2024 |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502122641/https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/rebuilding-libyas-health-care-system |url-status=live }}</ref> Libya's 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score is <mark>19.2</mark>, which indicates a moderate level of hunger. Libya ranks 83rd out of 127 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html |access-date=2024-12-24 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en}}</ref> === Education === {{Main|Education in Libya}} [[File:Piazza 28 Ottobre, Bengasi.jpg|thumb|Al Manar Royal Palace in central Benghazi – the location of the [[University of Libya]]'s first campus, founded by royal decree in 1955]] Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the [[Tertiary education|tertiary level]].<ref name="Libedu">{{cite web |url=http://www.wes.org/eWENR/04July/Practical.htm |title=Education in Libya |author=Clark, Nick |publisher=World Education News and Reviews, Volume 17, Issue 4 |date=July 2004 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208081721/http://www.wes.org/ewenr/04July/Practical.htm |archive-date=8 February 2013 }}</ref> Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0070) |title=Education of Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235353/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0070) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> and is compulsory up to the [[secondary education|secondary level]]. The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2%.<ref name=unescolit>{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183908/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university – the [[University of Libya]] – was established in Benghazi by royal decree.<ref name="Libedu2">{{cite web|url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Libya.htm |title=Country Higher Education Profiles – Libya |author=El-Hawat, Ali |publisher=International Network for Higher Education in Africa |date=8 January 2013 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605042417/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Libya.htm |archive-date= 5 June 2010 }}</ref> In the 1975–76 academic year the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. {{As of|2004}}, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with another 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector.<ref name="Libedu" /> The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. Since 1975 the number of public universities has grown from two to twelve and since their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes has grown to 84.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=October 2012}}<ref name="Libedu" /> Since 2007 some new private universities such as the [[Libyan International Medical University]] have been established. Although before 2011 a small number of private institutions were given accreditation, the majority of Libya's higher education has always been financed by the public budget. In 1998 the budget allocation for education represented 38.2% of Libya's national budget.<ref name="Libedu2" /> In 2024, the Ministry of Education announced the launch of the Full-Day School Project in which 12 schools in different parts of the country will have longer school days. The project aims to provide 800 hours of instruction per year to 3,300 elementary school students.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://libyaobserver.ly/education/libya-launches-full-day-school-project-first-time#google_vignette |title=Libya Launches Full Day School |access-date=2 May 2024 |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502121104/https://libyaobserver.ly/education/libya-launches-full-day-school-project-first-time#google_vignette |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ethnicity === The original inhabitants of Libya belonged predominantly to [[Berber people|Berber]] ethnic groups; however, the long series of foreign invasions and migrations – particularly by [[Arabs]] – had a profound and lasting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural influence on Libyan demographics. Centuries of large-scale [[Arab migration to the Maghreb]] since the 7th century shifted the demographics of Libya in favour of Arabs. Some [[Turkish people|Turks]] settled in Libya during the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Most of Libya's inhabitants are [[Arabs|Arab]],<ref name=":2" /> with many tracing their ancestry to Bedouin Arab tribes like [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Banu Hilal]], plus Turkish and Berber minorities. The [[Turks in Libya|Turkish minority]] are often called "[[Kouloughlis]]" and are concentrated in and around villages and towns.<ref>{{Cite news |year=2012 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46542/Climate#toc46545 |title=Libya |newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122084039/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46542/Climate#toc46545 |archive-date=22 November 2012 }}</ref> There are some ethnic minorities, such as the Berber [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and the Black African [[Toubou people|Tebou]].<ref name="Dupree 1958 loc=33-44">{{Cite journal |last=Dupree|first=Louis|year=1958|title=The Non-Arab Ethnic Groups of Libya|journal=Middle East Journal|volume=12|issue=1|pages=33–44 }}</ref> Most [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian settlers]], at their height numbering over half a million, left after Italian Libya's independence in 1947. More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred returned in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46562/Italian-colonization |title=Libya – Italian colonization |encyclopedia=Britannica |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805072530/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/46562/Italian-colonization |archive-date=5 August 2011 }}</ref> === Foreign labour === As of 2023 the IOM estimates that approximately 10% of Libya's population (upwards of 700,000 people) constituted foreign labour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya — Migrant Report 46 (January - February 2023)|url=https://dtm.iom.int/reports/libya-migrant-report-46-january-february-2023|website=IOM|date=21 Nov 2023|access-date=21 Nov 2023|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145223/https://dtm.iom.int/reports/libya-migrant-report-46-january-february-2023|archive-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> Prior to the 2011 revolution, official and unofficial figures of migrant labour ranged from 25% to 40% of the population (between 1.5 and 2.4 million people). Historically, Libya hosted millions of low- and high-skilled Egyptian migrants, in particular.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tsourapas|first1=Gerasimos|title=The Politics of Egyptian Migration to Libya|url=http://www.merip.org/mero/mero031715|website=Middle East Research and Information Project|date=17 March 2015|access-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111193445/http://www.merip.org/mero/mero031715|archive-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> It is difficult to estimate the total number of immigrants in Libya because the census figures, official counts and typically more accurate unofficial estimates all differ. In the 2006 census, around 359,540 foreign nationals were resident in Libya out of a population of over 5.5 million (6.35% of the population). Almost half of these were Egyptians, followed by Sudanese and Palestinian immigrants.<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre">{{cite web |url=http://www.migrationpolicycentre.eu/docs/fact_sheets/Factsheet%20Libya.pdf |title=Migration Facts Libya |website=Migrationpolicycentre.eu |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040540/http://www.migrationpolicycentre.eu/docs/fact_sheets/Factsheet%20Libya.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> During the 2011 revolution, 768,362 immigrants fled Libya as calculated by the [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], around 13% of the population at the time, although many more stayed on in the country.<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre"/><ref>{{cite journal|first=Julien|last=Brachet|title=Policing the Desert: The IOM in Libya Beyond War and Peace|journal=Antipode|volume=48|number=2|year=2016|pages=272–292|doi=10.1111/anti.12176|bibcode=2016Antip..48..272B |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3452351}}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> If consular records prior to the revolution are used to estimate the immigrant population, as many as 2 million Egyptian migrants were recorded by the Egyptian embassy in Tripoli in 2009, followed by 87,200 Tunisians, and 68,200 Moroccans by their respective embassies. Turkey recorded the evacuation of 25,000 workers during the 2011 uprising.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-17/top-turkish-ministers-meet-un-backed-libya-government-in-Tripoli |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811184451/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-17/top-turkish-ministers-meet-un-backed-libya-government-in-tripoli |archive-date=11 August 2020 |title=Top Turkish Ministers Meet UN Backed Libyan Government |work=Bloomberg |first1=Mohammed |last1=Abdusamee |first2=Selcan |last2=Hacaoglu |date=17 June 2020}}</ref> The number of Asian migrants before the revolution were just over 100,000 (60,000 Bangladeshis, 20,000 Filipinos, 18,000 Indians, 10,000 Pakistanis, as well as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai and other workers).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3685 |title=Libya, Tunisia: Migrants – Migration News | Migration Dialogue |website=Migration.ucdavis.edu |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305132553/https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3685 |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.libyaherald.com/2021/01/30/20000-filipino-workers-in-libya-126-infected-and-6-died-of-coronavirus-demand-for-delayed-salaries/ |title=Libya Herald, Updated: 2,000 Filipino workers in Libya, 126 infected and 6 died of Coronavirus |website=libyaherald.com |date=30 January 2021 |access-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005452/https://www.libyaherald.com/2021/01/30/20000-filipino-workers-in-libya-126-infected-and-6-died-of-coronavirus-demand-for-delayed-salaries/ }}</ref> This would put the immigrant population at almost 40% before the revolution and is a figure more consistent with government estimates in 2004 which put the regular and irregular migrant numbers at 1.35 to 1.8 million (25–33% of the population at the time).<ref name="EU migrant policy Centre"/> Libya's native population of Arabs-Berbers as well as Arab migrants of various nationalities collectively make up 97% of the population {{As of|2014|lc=y}}. === Languages === {{main|Languages of Libya}} According to the [[CIA]], the official language of Libya is Arabic.<ref name="CIA" /> The local [[Libyan Arabic]] variety is spoken alongside [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. Various [[Berber languages]] are also spoken, including [[Tamasheq language|Tamasheq]], [[Ghadamis]], [[Nafusi]], [[Suknah]] and [[Awjilah (language)|Awjilah]].<ref name="Cfbly">{{cite web|title=Libya|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya/|publisher=CIA|access-date=16 December 2014|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109235257/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/libya|url-status=live}}</ref> The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh ([[Berbers|Berber]] or Tamazight) language to be official in the cities and districts inhabited by the Berbers in Libya.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Tamazight declared official language in Amazigh-peopled districts|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/life/tamazight-declared-official-language-amazigh-peopled-districts|magazine=Life|access-date=22 February 2017|date=22 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317034711/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/life/tamazight-declared-official-language-amazigh-peopled-districts|archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref><!--"The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh (Berber or Tamazight) language as an official language in the cities and districts inhabited by the Amazigh in Libya." --> In addition, [[English language|English]] is widely understood in the major cities,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Importance Of English As A Foreign Language In Libya |url=https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Importance-Of-English-As-A-Foreign/F3Q8JJGAZHBWW |access-date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005502/https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Importance-Of-English-As-A-Foreign/F3Q8JJGAZHBWW |url-status=live }}</ref> while the former colonial language of [[Italian language|Italian]] is also used in commerce and by the remaining Italian population.<ref name="Cfbly"/> === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Libya}} [[File:Ghadames - Grosse Moschee.jpg|thumb|upright=0.95|Mosque in [[Ghadames]], close to the Tunisian and Algerian border]] About 97% of the population in Libya are [[Muslims]], most of whom belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni branch]].<ref name="spooks"/><ref name="Chivvis-2014">{{cite book |last1=Chivvis |first1=Christopher S. |last2=Martini |first2=Jeffrey |title=Libya After Qaddafi: Lessons and Implications for the Future |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PUAkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |access-date=30 December 2018 |date=18 March 2014 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-8489-7 |page=49 |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205252/https://books.google.com/books?id=PUAkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |url-status=live }}</ref> Small numbers of [[Ibadi]] Muslims live in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/minority-muslim-groups |title=Minority Muslim Groups |publisher=Islamopedia Online |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415030122/http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/minority-muslim-groups |archive-date=15 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/16/pakistani-ahmedis-held/ |title=Pakistani Ahmedis Held |newspaper=[[Libya Herald]] |location=Tripoli |date=16 January 2013 |access-date=5 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531182432/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/16/pakistani-ahmedis-held/ |archive-date=31 May 2014 }}</ref> Before the 1930s, the [[Senussi]] Sunni Sufi movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its ''zawaaya'' (lodges) were found in [[Tripolitania]] and [[Fezzan]], but Senussi influence was strongest in [[Cyrenaica]]. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose.<ref name="senussi">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0065) |title=The Sanusis |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235348/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0065) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> This Islamic movement was eventually destroyed by the [[Italo-Turkish War|Italian invasion]]. Gaddafi asserted that he was a devout Muslim, and his government was taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytising on behalf of Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0066) |title=Islam in Revolutionary Libya |publisher=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120921235348/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0066) |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> The [[International Religious Freedom Report]] 2004 noted that "bishops, priests and nuns wear religious dress freely in public and report virtually no discrimination," while also "enjoying good relations with the Government". The report also indicated that members of minority religions said "they do not face harassment by authorities or the Muslim majority on the basis of their religious practices". The [[International Christian Concern]] does not list Libya as a country where there is "persecution or severe discrimination against Christians".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/45f1476611.html |title=Libya: Situation of Muslims who have converted to Christianity; treatment by society and the authorities |publisher=refworld |access-date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=15 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915170317/https://www.refworld.org/docid/45f1476611.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the [[First Libyan Civil War|fall of Gaddafi]], ultra-conservative strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in places. [[Derna, Libya|Derna]] in eastern Libya, historically a hotbed of [[jihad]]ist thought, came under the control of militants aligned with the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/derna-islamic-state-emirate-egypt-s-borders|agency=Egypt Independent|title=Derna: An Islamic State emirate on Egypt's borders|date=15 October 2014|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221072405/http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/derna-islamic-state-emirate-egypt-s-borders|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref> Jihadist elements have also spread to [[Sirte]] and [[Benghazi]], among other areas, as a result of the [[Second Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|Second Libyan Civil War]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-gained-strength-in-libya-by-co-opting-local-jihadists-1424217492|title=Islamic State Gained Strength in Libya by Co-Opting Local Jihadists|date=17 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|work=The Wall Street Journal|first1=Benoît|last1=Faucon|first2=Matt|last2=Bradley|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221032623/http://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-gained-strength-in-libya-by-co-opting-local-jihadists-1424217492|archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/al-qaeda-islamic-police-patrol-libyan-city-contested-isis-302961|work=Newsweek|title=Al-Qaeda 'Islamic Police' on Patrol in Libyan City Contested With ISIS|date=29 January 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|first=Jack|last=Moore|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220011433/http://www.newsweek.com/al-qaeda-islamic-police-patrol-libyan-city-contested-isis-302961|archive-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> Prior to independence, Libya was home to more than 140,000 Christians (mostly of [[Italian settlers in Libya|Italian]] and Maltese ancestry). Many Christian settlers left to Italy or Malta after the independence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenberg|first1=Udi|last2= A. Foster|first2=Elizabeth|title=Decolonization and the Remaking of Christianity|year=2023|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Pennsylvania|isbn=9781512824971|pages=105}}</ref> Small foreign communities of Christians remained. [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox Christianity]], the predominant Christian church of Egypt, is the [[Coptic Orthodox Church in Africa#Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco|largest and most historic Christian denomination in Libya]]. There are about 60,000 Egyptian [[Copt]]s in Libya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/christian-communities |title=Christian Communities |publisher=Islamopedia Online |access-date=1 April 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326235402/http://www.islamopediaonline.org/country-profile/libya/religious-minorities/christian-communities |archive-date=26 March 2016 }}</ref> There are three Coptic Churches in Libya, one in Tripoli, one in Benghazi, and one in Misurata. The Coptic Church has grown in recent years in Libya, due to the growing immigration of [[Copts in Egypt|Egyptian Copts]] to Libya. There are an estimated 40,000 [[Roman Catholic]]s in Libya who are served by two bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in [[Benghazi]] (serving the [[Maltese people|Maltese]] community). There is also a small [[Anglican]] community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli which is part of the [[Anglican Diocese of Egypt]]. People have been arrested on suspicion of being [[Christian missionaries]], as proselytising is illegal.<ref>{{cite news|title=Foreigners held in Libya on suspicion of proselytising|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21488976|work=BBC News|date=16 February 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217024228/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21488976|archive-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> Christians have also faced the threat of violence from radical Islamists in some parts of the country, with a well-publicised video released by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in February 2015 depicting the mass beheading of Christian Copts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/02/17/386986424/isis-beheadings-in-libya-devastate-an-egyptian-village|publisher=NPR|date=17 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|title=ISIS Beheadings in Libya Devastate An Egyptian Village|first=Leila|last=Fadel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219160959/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/02/17/386986424/isis-beheadings-in-libya-devastate-an-egyptian-village|archive-date=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-captured-libya-isis-christians-families-campaign-cairo|work=The Guardian|title='We want our sons back': fears grow for Egyptians missing in Libya|first=Jared|last=Malsin|date=20 February 2015|access-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220165250/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/20/egyptians-captured-libya-isis-christians-families-campaign-cairo|archive-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> Libya was ranked fourth on [[Open Doors]]' 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opendoorsuk.org/persecution/world-watch-list/libya/ |title=Serving Persecuted Christians Worldwide - Libya - Open Doors UK & Ireland |work=Open Doors UK & Ireland |publisher=Opendoorsuk.org |date= |accessdate=2022-06-24 |archive-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624143521/https://www.opendoorsuk.org/persecution/world-watch-list/libya/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html |title=History of the Jewish Community in Libya |publisher=University of California at Berkeley |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425114822/http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/libyajew/LibyanJews/thejews.html |archive-date=25 April 2013 }}</ref> In 1942, the Italian Fascist authorities set up forced labour camps south of Tripoli for the Jews, including [[Giado]] (about 3,000 Jews), [[Gharyan]], Jeren, and Tigrinna. In Giado some 500 Jews died of weakness, hunger, and disease. In 1942, Jews who were not in the concentration camps were heavily restricted in their economic activity and all men between 18 and 45 years were drafted for forced labour. In August 1942, Jews from Tripolitania were interned in [[Sidi Azaz labor camp|a concentration camp at Sidi Azaz]]. In the three years after November 1945, more than 140 Jews were murdered, and hundreds more wounded, in a series of [[pogrom]]s.<ref name="harris">{{cite book|last=Harris|first=David A.|title=In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/intrenches00davi_0|url-access=registration|date=2000|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|isbn=978-0-88125-693-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/intrenches00davi_0/page/149 149]–150}}</ref> By 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libyan independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated. === Largest cities === {{Largest cities of Libya|class=info}} == Culture == {{Main|Culture of Libya}} {{Further|Music of Libya|Libyan literature}} [[File:Temple_of_Zeus_-_Cyrene.jpg|thumb|Temple of Zeus in [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]]]] [[File:Sabratha - Museum mit Funden aus der Römerzeit, Mosaik 05.jpg|thumb|Ancient Roman mosaic in [[Sabratha]]]] [[File:Tripoli September 1st Flags.jpg|thumb|[[1969 Libyan coup d'état|Al-Fatah Revolution day]] decorations in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] 2008]] Many Arabic speaking Libyans consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. This was strengthened by the spread of Pan-Arabism in the mid-20th century, and their reach to power in Libya where they instituted Arabic as the only official language of the state. Under Gaddafi's rule, the teaching and even use of indigenous [[Berber language]] was strictly forbidden.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16289543|title=After Gaddafi, Libya's Amazigh demand recognition|date=23 December 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220232407/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16289543|archive-date=20 December 2016|work=BBC News|last1=Lane|first1=Edwin}}</ref> In addition to banning foreign languages previously taught in academic institutions, leaving entire generations of Libyans with limitations in their comprehension of the English language. Both the spoken Arabic dialects and Berber, still retain words from Italian, that were acquired before and during the ''[[Italian Libya|Libia Italiana]]'' period. Libyans have a heritage in the traditions of the previously nomadic [[Bedouin]] Arabic speakers and sedentary [[Berbers|Berber]] tribes. Most Libyans associate themselves with a particular family name originating from tribal or conquest based heritage.{{cn|date=December 2024}} Reflecting the "nature of giving" ({{langx|ar|الاحسان}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Ihsan}}'', [[Berber languages]]: ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴽⴰⴼ Anakkaf ), amongst the Libyan people as well as the sense of hospitality, recently the state of Libya made it to the top 20 on the world giving index in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cafamerica.org/wgi-2013/ |title=CAF America- a global grantmaking organization |access-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715111213/http://www.cafamerica.org/wgi-2013/ |archive-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> According to CAF, in a typical month, almost three-quarters (72%) of all Libyans helped somebody they did not know – the third highest level across all 135 countries surveyed. There are few theatres or art galleries due to the decades of cultural repression under the Gaddafi regime and lack of infrastructure development under the regime of dictatorship.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya looking at economic diversification|url=http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/nta94862.htm|publisher=Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001209232200/http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/news/nta94862.htm|archive-date=9 December 2000|date=17 September 1999}}</ref> For many years there have been no public theatres, and only very few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of [[folk culture]] is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bangkokcompanies.com/Dance/libya_dance_schools.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515193437/http://www.bangkokcompanies.com/Dance/libya_dance_schools.htm|archive-date=15 May 2007 |title=Libyan Dance Schools in Libya, Dancewear Suppliers, Dancing Organizations, Libyan National Commission for UNESCO, M. A. Oraieth |publisher=Bangkokcompanies.com |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> A large number of [[Television in Libya|Libyan television]] stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics and cultural phenomena. A number of TV stations air various styles of traditional Libyan music.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=August 2012}} [[Tuareg music]] and dance are popular in [[Ghadames]] and the south. Libyan television broadcasts air programs mostly in Arabic though usually have time slots for English and French programs.{{Clarify|pre-text=?|date=August 2012}} A 1996 analysis by the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] found Libya's media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world during the country's dictatorship.<ref name="mediacont">{{cite web |url=http://www.cpj.org/censored/ |title=North Korea Tops CPJ list of '10 Most Censored Countries |publisher=[[Committee to Protect Journalists]] |year=1996 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708231639/http://www.cpj.org/censored |archive-date=8 July 2008 }}</ref> {{As of|2012}} hundreds of TV stations have begun to air due to the collapse of censorship from the old regime and the initiation of "free media". Many Libyans frequent the country's beach and they also visit Libya's archaeological sites—especially [[Leptis Magna]], which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Donkin |first=Mike |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4708179.stm |title=Libya's tourist treasures |work=BBC News |date=23 July 2005 |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410014022/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4708179.stm |archive-date=10 April 2013 }}</ref> The most common form of public transport between cities is the bus, though many people travel by automobile. There are no railway services in Libya, but these are planned for construction in the near future (see [[rail transport in Libya]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.libyanexpress.com/libya-and-russia-viewing-resumption-of-railway-projects/|title=Libya and Russia viewing resumption of railway projects|date=1 October 2018|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205311/https://www.libyanexpress.com/libya-and-russia-viewing-resumption-of-railway-projects/|url-status=live}}</ref> Libya's capital, [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], has many museums and archives. These include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The [[Red Castle Museum]] located in the capital near the coast and right in the city centre, built in consultation with [[UNESCO]], may be the country's most famous.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000857/085703eo.pdf#85688 |title=Museum Architecture: beyond the <> and ... beyond |author=Bouchenaki, Mounir |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=5 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502230451/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000857/085703eo.pdf#85688 |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> === Cuisine === {{main|Libyan cuisine}} [[File:Bazin.jpg|thumb|[[Bazin (bread)|Bazeen]], a communal bread dish]] Libyan cuisine is a mixture of the different [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], Bedouin and traditional Arab culinary influences.<ref>{{cite web|title=Enjoy a taste of Libya's traditional dishes {{!}} The Libya Observer|url=https://www.libyaobserver.ly/culture/enjoy-taste-libya%E2%80%99s-traditional-dishes|access-date=2021-05-25|website=www.libyaobserver.ly|language=en|archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612055238/https://www.libyaobserver.ly/culture/enjoy-taste-libya%E2%80%99s-traditional-dishes|url-status=live}}</ref> Pasta is the staple food in the Western side of Libya, whereas rice is generally the staple food in the east. Common Libyan foods include several variations of red (tomato) sauce based pasta dishes (similar to the Italian [[Arrabbiata sauce|Sugo all'arrabbiata]] dish); rice, usually served with lamb or chicken (typically stewed, fried, grilled, or boiled in-sauce); and [[couscous]], which is steam cooked whilst held over boiling red (tomato) sauce and meat (sometimes also containing courgettes/zucchini and chickpeas), which is typically served along with cucumber slices, lettuce and olives. [[Bazeen]], a dish made from barley flour and served with red tomato sauce, is customarily eaten communally, with several people sharing the same dish, usually by hand. This dish is commonly served at traditional weddings or festivities. [[Asida]] is a sweet version of Bazeen, made from white flour and served with a mix of honey, ghee or butter. Another popular way to serve Asida is with [[Rub (syrup)|rub]] (fresh date syrup) and olive oil. [[Usban]] is animal tripe stitched and stuffed with rice and vegetables cooked in tomato based soup or steamed. [[Chorba|Shurba]] is a red tomato sauce-based soup, usually served with small grains of pasta.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fabricant |first=Florence |date=2006-01-04 |title=In Libya, for Starters, It's the Soup |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/04/dining/arts/in-libya-for-starters-its-the-soup.html |access-date=2022-10-13 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013121422/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/04/dining/arts/in-libya-for-starters-its-the-soup.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A very common snack eaten by Libyans is known as ''khubs bi' tun'', literally meaning "bread with tuna fish", usually served as a baked baguette or pita bread stuffed with tuna fish that has been mixed with [[harissa]] (chili sauce) and olive oil. Many snack vendors prepare these sandwiches and they can be found all over Libya. Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and [[macaroni]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Due to severe lack of infrastructure, many under-developed areas and small towns do not have restaurants and instead food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. Alcohol consumption is illegal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Alcohol poisoning kills 51 in Libya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-21747409 |access-date=6 April 2023 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=11 March 2013 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409061149/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-21747409 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food: [[olive]]s (and [[olive oil]]), [[Date palm|dates]], grains and milk.<ref name="Libyan Food">{{cite web |url=http://www.temehu.com/Libyan-food.htm |title=Libyan Food |publisher=Temehu Tourism Services |date=24 June 2010 |access-date=20 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806045021/http://www.temehu.com/Libyan-food.htm |archive-date=6 August 2011 }}</ref> Grains are roasted, ground, sieved and used for making bread, cakes, soups and bazeen. Dates are harvested, dried and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup or slightly fried and eaten with [[bsisa]] and milk. After eating, Libyans often drink black tea. This is normally repeated a second time (for the second glass of tea), and in the third round of tea, it is served with roasted peanuts or roasted [[almond]]s known as ''shay bi'l-luz'' (mixed with the tea in the same glass).<ref name="Libyan Food" /> === Sport === [[Association football|Football]] is the most popular sport in Libya. The country hosted the [[1982 African Cup of Nations]] and almost qualified for the [[1986 FIFA World Cup]]. The [[Libya national football team|national team]] almost won the 1982 AFCON; they lost to [[Ghana national football team|Ghana]] on penalties 7–6. In 2014, Libya won the African Nations Championship after beating Ghana in the finals. Although the national team has never won a major competition or qualified for a World Cup, there is still lots of passion for the sport and the quality of football is improving.<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya – Political process|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya|access-date=2020-10-05|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=28 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128052452/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya/279574/Housing|url-status=live}}</ref> It also participated in many Summer Olympics, such as the [[2016 Summer Olympics]], the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] and more. Horse racing is also a popular sport in Libya. It is a tradition of many special occasions and holidays.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sports in Libya|url=https://fanack.com/libya/society-media-culture/culture/sports/|access-date=2020-10-05|website=Fanack.com|language=en-US|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919215523/https://fanack.com/libya/society-media-culture/culture/sports/|url-status=live}}</ref> == See also == * [[Outline of Libya]] * [[Index of Libya-related articles]] == Notes == {{Reflist|group=n}} {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == {{CIA World Factbook}}<br />{{StateDept}} == External links == {{Library resources box}} * [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=LY Key Development Forecasts for Libya] from [[International Futures]] === Government === * [https://www.gia.gov.ly/en/gia-en/ Information Portal] – Official Libya Information Portal * [https://gnu.gov.ly/ Government] – official website of Government of National Unity of Libya * [https://pm.gov.ly Prime Minister] – official website of the prime minister of Libya * [https://parliament.ly House of Representatives] – official website of the Libyan House of Representatives * [https://bsc.ly/ Statistics and Census] – official website of Bureau of Statistics and Census === History === * [https://www.embassyoflibyadc.org/5-2 "History"] – Libyan History at Embassy of the State of Libya in Washington === Tourism === * [https://tourism.gov.ly Ministry of Tourism and Handcrafts] – official website of the Ministry of Tourism and Handcrafts === Maps === * {{Wikiatlas}} * {{Osmrelation-inline|192758}} {{Libya topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Related articles | list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries of North Africa}} {{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} {{Arab League}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} }} {{Subject bar|Libya|Africa|Countries|auto=yes|voy=Libya}} {{Authority control}} {{coord|27|17|dim:1500km_type:country_region:LY|format=dms|display=title}} [[Category:Libya| ]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Maghrebi countries]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:Eastern Mediterranean]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1951]] [[Category:1951 establishments in Libya|*]] [[Category:1951 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]]
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