Editing Leptis Magna

{{Short description|Ancient city in modern Libya}}
{{Infobox ancient site
 |name = Leptis Magna
 |native_name = 
 |alternate_name = ''Lepcis Magna, Neapolis, Lpqy''
 |image = [[File:Leptis Magna (29) (8288918733).jpg|250px]]
 |alt = Arch of Septimus Severus
 |caption = 
 |map_type = Libya
 |map_alt = 
 |relief=yes
 |coordinates = {{coord|32|38|21|N|14|17|26|E|display=inline,title}}
 |location = [[Khoms, Libya|Khoms]], [[Libya]]
 |region = [[Tripolitania]]
 |type = Settlement
 |part_of = 
 |length = 
 |width = 
 |area = 
 |height = 
 |builder = 
 |material = 
 |built =  1000 BC<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archiqoo.com/locations/leptis_magna.php | title=Leptis Magna &#124; Archiqoo }}</ref>
 |abandoned = 7th c. AD
 |epochs = [[Iron Age]] to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]
 |cultures = [[Carthage|Carthaginian]]<br/>[[Roman Empire|Roman]] 
 |dependency_of = 
 |occupants = 
 |event = 
 |excavations = 
 |archaeologists = 
 |condition = 
 |ownership = 
 |management = 
 |public_access = 
 |website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
 |notes = 
| designation1          = WHS
| designation1_offname  = Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna
| designation1_date     = 1982 <small>([[World Heritage Committee#Sessions|6th session]])</small>
| designation1_number   = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/183 183]
| designation1_criteria = i, ii, iii
| designation1_type     = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Africa|North Africa]]
}}

'''Leptis''' or '''Lepcis Magna''', also known by [[#Names|other names]] in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], was a prominent city of the [[Carthaginian Empire]] and [[Roman Libya]] at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda in the [[Mediterranean]].

Established as a [[Punic people|Punic]] settlement prior to 500 BC,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Gates |first=Charles |title=Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-83057-4 |edition=2nd |location=London |pages=406}}</ref> the city experienced significant expansion under Roman Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] ({{reign|193|211}}), who was born in the city. The [[Legio III Augusta|3rd Augustan Legion]] was stationed here to defend the city against [[Berbers|Berber]] incursions. After the legion's dissolution under {{nowrap|[[Gordian III]]}} in 238, the city was increasingly open to raids in the later part of the 3rd century. [[Diocletian]] reinstated the city as provincial capital, and it grew again in prosperity until it fell to the [[Vandals]] in 439. It was reincorporated into the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Empire]] in 533 but continued to be plagued by Berber raids and never recovered its former importance. It fell to the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim invasion]] in {{c.|647}} and was subsequently abandoned.

After being abandoned, the city was remarkably preserved as it lay buried beneath layers of sand dunes. In the 1920s, the city was unearthed by Italian archaeologists during [[Italian Libya|Italy's occupation of Libya]].<ref name=":0" /> Its ruins are within present-day [[Khoms, Libya|Khoms]], [[Libya]], {{convert|130|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]. They are among the best-preserved Roman sites in the Mediterranean.

{{anchor|Name|Etymology}}

==Names==
The [[Punic language|Punic]] name of the settlement was written {{sc|lpq}} ({{langx|xpu|𐤋𐤐𐤒}}) or {{sc|lpqy}} ({{lang|xpu|𐤋𐤐𐤒𐤉}}).{{sfnp|Ghaki|2015|p=67}}{{sfnp|Brogan|Wilson|2012}}{{sfnp|Head|1911}} This has been tentatively connected to the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[triliteral root|root]] (present in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) {{sc|lfq}}, meaning "to build" or "to piece together", presumably in reference to the construction of the city.{{sfnp|Lipiński|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&pg=PA345 345]}}

This name was [[hellenization|hellenized]] as ''Léptis'' ({{langx|grc|Λέπτις}}),{{sfn|Strabo, ''Geography''|loc=[http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-eng2:17.3.18 §17.3.18]}} also known as ''Léptis Megálē'' ({{lang|grc|Λέπτις μεγάλη}}, "Greater Leptis") distinguishing it from the [[Leptis Parva|"Lesser Leptis"]] closer to [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] in modern-day [[Tunisia]]. It was also known by the Greeks as ''Neápolis'' ({{lang|grc|Νεάπολις}}, "New Town"). The [[latinization of names|latinization]] of these names was Lepcis or Leptis Magna ("Greater Leptis"), which also appeared as the "Leptimagnese City" ({{langx|la|Leptimagnensis Civitas}}). The Latin demonym was "Leptitan" ({{lang|la|Leptitanus}}). It was also known as ''Ulpia{{nbsp}}Traiana'' as a Roman colony,{{sfnp|Head|1911}} after Emperor [[Trajan]] of the [[Ulpia gens]]. Its Italian name is ''Lepti{{nbsp}}Maggiore'', and in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] it is named ''Labdah'' ({{lang|ar|لَبْدَة}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485615&fid=3783&c=libya |title=لَبْدَة, Libya |date=30 June 2006 |agency=National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523201747/https://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=6485615&fid=3783&c=libya |archive-date=2020-05-23 |via=Geographic.org}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica|336898|Leptis Magna}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:LY-Leptis Magna.png|thumb|right|260px|Map of Leptis Magna]]

===Punics===
The [[Punic people|Punic]] city was founded in the second half of the 7th century{{nbsp}}BC. Little is known about Leptis during this time, but it appears to have been powerful enough to repel [[Dorieus]]'s attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby around 515{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp|Brogan|Wilson|2012}} Like most Punic settlements, Leptis became part of the [[Carthaginian Empire]] and fell under [[Roman Republic|Rome]]'s control with [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]]'s defeat in the [[Punic Wars]]. Leptis remained highly independent for a period after about 111{{nbsp}}BC.

===Roman Republic===
The [[Roman Republic]] sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore [[Punic language|Punic]] inscriptions but images of [[Hercules]] and [[Dionysus]].{{sfnp|Head|1911}} Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.{{sfnp|Bullo|2002|pp=167–171}} The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, where many olive-presses have been excavated. By 46{{nbsp}}BC, its [[olive oil]] production was of such an extent that the city was able to provide three million pounds of oil annually to [[Julius Caesar]] as tax.{{sfnp|Brogan|Wilson|2012}}

===Roman Empire===

Kenneth D. Matthews Jr. writes:{{sfnp|Matthews|1957|p=37}}
{{Blockquote|During the reign of [[Augustus]], Leptis Magna was classified as a ''[[Free city (classical antiquity)|civitas libera et immunis]]'', or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two ''[[suphetes]]'' at the head of its government, with the ''mhzm'', similar to the Roman ''[[aediles]]'', as minor magistrates. In addition there were such sacred officials as the ''ʾaddir ʾararim'' or ''praefectus sacrorum'', the ''nēquim ēlīm'', and probably a sacred college of fifteen members.}}

[[Image:Forum leptis magna.JPG|thumb|The Severan Forum]]
[[File:Arch of Septimius Severus, Leptis Magna12.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arch of Septimius Severus (Leptis Magna)|Arch of Septimius Severus]]]]
Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor [[Tiberius]], when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. It soon became one of the leading cities of Roman Africa and a major trading post. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration. During the reign of [[Nero]], an [[Roman amphitheatre|amphitheater]] was constructed. The settlement was elevated to ''[[municipium]]'' in AD 64 or 65 and to ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]'' under [[Trajan]] ({{reign|98|117}}). The first known [[Diocese of Leptis Magna|bishop of Leptis Magna]] was a certain priest called [[Pope Victor I|Victor]] who became pope in 189.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bongmba |first1=Elias Kifon |title=Routledge Companion to Christianity in Africa |date=22 December 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-50584-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSxACwAAQBAJ |access-date=29 April 2024 |language=en |chapter=Christianity in North Africa}}</ref>

Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD{{nbsp}}193, as the hometown of emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Septimius favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and [[Alexandria]]. In AD{{nbsp}}205, he and the imperial family visited the city and bestowed great honors. Among the changes that Severus introduced were the creation of a magnificent new [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] and the rebuilding of the docks. The natural harbor had a tendency to silt up, but the Severan changes made this worse, and the eastern wharves are extremely well preserved, since they were scarcely used.

Leptis prospered through [[trans-Saharan trade]] in various valuable goods, including [[ivory]], wild animals for the [[gladiator]]ial arena, gold dust, [[Carbuncle (gemstone)|carbuncle]], precious woods like [[ebony]], and [[ostrich]] feathers.<ref name=":0" />

Leptis overextended itself during this period.  During the [[Crisis of the Third Century|Crisis of the 3rd Century]], when trade declined precipitously, Leptis Magna's importance also fell into a decline, and by the middle of the 4th century, even before it was completely devastated by the [[365 Crete earthquake|365 tsunami]], large parts of the city had been abandoned.  [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] recounts that the crisis was worsened by a corrupt Roman governor named Romanus, who demanded bribes to protect the city during a major tribal raid.  The ruined city could not pay these and complained to the emperor [[Valentinian I]].  Romanus then bribed people at court and arranged for the Leptan envoys to be punished "for bringing false accusations".  It enjoyed a minor renaissance beginning in the reign of the emperor [[Theodosius I]].

===Vandal Kingdom===
In 439, Leptis Magna and the rest of the cities of [[Tripolitania]] fell under the control of the [[Vandals]] when their king, [[Gaiseric]], captured Carthage from the Romans and made it his capital. Unfortunately for the future of Leptis Magna, Gaiseric ordered the city's walls demolished so as to dissuade its people from rebelling against Vandal rule. The people of Leptis and the Vandals both paid a heavy price for this in AD{{nbsp}}523 when a group of Berber raiders sacked the city.

===Byzantine Empire===
[[Belisarius]], general of Emperor [[Justinian I]], recaptured Leptis Magna in the name of the Roman Empire ten years later, and [[Vandalic War|in 533–4]] it was re-incorporated into the empire. Leptis became a provincial capital of the Eastern Empire, but never recovered from the destruction wreaked upon it by the Berbers. In 544, under the prefecture of Sergius, the city came under intensified attack of Berber tribes, and after some successes, Sergius was reduced to retreating into the city, with the  [[Leuathae]] tribal confederation camped outside the gate demanding payments. Sergius admitted eighty deputies into the city to present their demands, but when Sergius moved to leave the conference he was detained by the robe by one deputy and crowded by others. This provoked an officer of the prefect's guard to kill the deputy laying hands on the prefect, which resulted in a general massacre. The Berbers reacted with an all-out attack and Sergius was eventually forced to abandon Leptis and retreat to Carthage.{{sfnp|Beechey|Beechey|1828|pp=54–56}}

===Islamic conquest===
By the 6th century, the city was fully Christianized.{{sfnp|Mommsen|1909|loc=Chapter XIII. The African Provinces}}{{Failed verification|date=August 2020}} During the decade 565–578 AD, Christian missionaries from Leptis Magna even began to move once more among the Berber tribes as far south as the [[Fezzan]] in the Libyan desert and converted the [[Garamantes]].{{sfnp|Prevost|2007|pp=462–463}} Numerous new churches were built in the 6th century,{{sfn|''Livius.org''|loc=[https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis-magna/photos/lepcis-magna-byzantine-church/ Photos: Lepcis Magna, Byzantine Church]}} but the city continued to decline, and by the time of the [[Islamic conquest of the Maghreb|Arab conquest]] around 647 the city was mostly abandoned except for a Byzantine garrison force and a population of less than 1,000 inhabitants. By the 10th century, the city of [[Al-Khums]] had fully absorbed it.{{sfnp|Bullo|2002|pp=185–188}}

===Excavation===
Today, the site of Leptis Magna is the site of some of the most impressive ruins of the Roman period.

[[File:Leptis Magna ruins, Virginia Water (1) (geograph 3935706).jpg|thumb|Leptis Magna ruins, in the [[United Kingdom]], by the [[Virginia Water Lake]]]]
Part of an ancient temple was brought from Leptis Magna to the British Museum in 1816 and installed at the [[Fort Belvedere, Surrey|Fort Belvedere]] royal residence in England in 1826. It now lies in part of [[Windsor Great Park]].{{sfn|''The Atlantic'', 10 January 2018}} The ruins are located between the south shore of [[Virginia Water]] and Blacknest Road close to the junction with the [[A30 road|A30]] London Road and [[Wentworth Estate|Wentworth Drive]].
[[Image:Leptis Magna Theatre.jpg|thumb|The Roman theatre]]
When Italians conquered [[Italian Libya]] in the early 20th century, they dedicated huge efforts to the rediscovery of Leptis Magna. In the early 1930s, Italian archeological research was able to show again the buried remains of nearly all the city.{{sfnp|Musso|2010}}{{Page needed|date=August 2020}} A 4th to 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC necropolis was found under the [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatre]].

In June 2005, it was revealed that archaeologists from the [[University of Hamburg]] had been working along the coast of Libya when they uncovered a 30 [[Foot (length)|ft]] length of five colorful [[mosaic]]s created during the 1st or 2nd century. The mosaics show with exceptional clarity depictions of a warrior in combat with a deer, four young men wrestling a wild bull to the ground, and a gladiator resting in a state of fatigue and staring at his slain opponent.  The mosaics decorated the walls of a cold plunge pool in a ''balneae'' within a [[Roman villa]] at Wadi Lebda in Leptis Magna. The gladiator mosaic is noted by scholars as one of the finest examples of representational mosaic art ever seen—a "masterpiece comparable in quality with the [[Alexander Mosaic]] in [[Pompeii]]."  The mosaics were originally discovered in the year 2000 but were kept secret in order to avoid looting. They are currently on display in the [[Leptis Magna Museum]].{{sfn|''The Times'', 13 June 2005}}

There were reports that Leptis Magna was used as a cover for tanks and military vehicles by pro-Gaddafi forces during the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|First Libyan Civil War]] in 2011.{{sfn|''The Times'', 14 June 2011}} When asked if the historic site could be targeted in an airstrike, [[NATO]] refused to rule out the possibility of such an action, saying that it had not been able to confirm the rebels' report that weapons were being hidden at the location.{{sfn|CNN, 14 June 2011}} Shortly after the war, Libyan archaeologist Hafed Walda reported that Leptis Magna, along with nearby Rasaimergib Fort and the western [[Tripolis (region of Africa)|Tripolis]] of [[Sabratha]], had "so far seen no visible loss" from either fighting on the ground or [[2011 military intervention in Libya|bombings conducted by international forces]].{{sfn|AP, 4 November 2011}}

In the midst of the [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|Second Libyan Civil War]] and the disappearance of governmental and international support for the site, people living in the area organized to voluntarily protect and maintain Leptis Magna.{{sfn|AFP, 23 December 2016}}{{sfn|Reuters, 28 November 2017}}

==Climate change==
{{Main|Sea level rise}}
Since they are located on the coast, Leptis Magna ruins are vulnerable to [[sea level rise]]. In 2022, the [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] included them in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by [[flooding]] and [[coastal erosion]] by the end of the century, but only if [[climate change]] followed [[Representative Concentration Pathway#RCP 8.5|RCP 8.5]], which is the scenario of high and continually increasing [[greenhouse gas]] emissions associated with the warming of over 4{{Nbsp}}°C.,<ref>Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 2043–2121</ref> and is no longer considered very likely.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=RCP8.5 is a problematic scenario for near-term emissions|journal=PNAS|date=20 October 2020|volume=117|issue=45|pages=27791–27792|doi=10.1073/pnas.2017124117 |doi-access=free|pmid=33082220 |pmc=7668049|bibcode=2020PNAS..11727791H }}</ref> The other, more plausible scenarios result in lower warming levels and consequently lower sea level rise: yet, sea levels would continue to increase for about 10,000 years under all of them.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf |title=Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=August 2021 |publisher=IPCC |page=TS14 |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Even if the warming is limited to 1.5{{Nbsp}}°C, global sea level rise is still expected to exceed {{convert|2-3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} after 2000 years (and higher warming levels will see larger increases by then), consequently exceeding 2100 levels of sea level rise under RCP 8.5 (~{{convert|0.75|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} with a range of {{convert|0.5-1|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}) well before the year 4000. Thus, it is a matter of time before the Leptis Magna ruins are threatened by rising water levels, unless they can be protected by adaptation efforts such as [[sea wall]]s.<ref>IPCC, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf Summary for Policymakers]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001.</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
Image:Leptis magna pillar.jpg|Some of Leptis Magna yet to be excavated
Image:Leptis Magna - Marktgebäude (macellum).jpg|Market place
Image:Leptis Magna amphitheatre - panoramio.jpg|Amphitheater
Image:Libya_5458_Leptis_Magna_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg|Arch of Septimius Severus
Image:Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna-108958.jpg|Severan Basilica
Image:Leptis Magna view.JPG|View on Leptis Magna from the theater wall
Image:Market Leptis Magna 03.JPG|Measure converter, Market (founded 8 or 9 BC) (Phoenician colony)
Image:Severan Basilica 02.JPG|Decorative columns inside Basilica of Septimius Severus
File:Villa of the Nile Mosaic fishermen.jpg|[[Angling]] in the 1st century CE. Villa of the Nile Mosaic, Leptis Magna, [[Tripoli National Museum]]
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Ancient Rome|Libya}}
* [[Libya in the Roman era]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite news |last=Alberge |first=Dalya |date=13 June 2005 |title=Roman mosaic 'worthy of Botticelli' |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/roman-mosaic-worthy-of-botticelli-glv8xjl32h2 |url-access=subscription |work=The Times |access-date=2020-08-31 |ref={{SfnRef|''The Times'', 13 June 2005}}}}
**{{cite news |last=Alberge |first=Dalya |date=13 June 2005 |title=Roman mosaic "worthy of Botticelli" |url=https://www.romanhideout.com/news/2005/times20050613.asp |newspaper=The Times |via=The Roman Hideout}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beechey |first1=Frederick William |author-link1=Frederick William Beechey |last2=Beechey |first2=Henry William |author-link2=Henry William Beechey |year=1828 |title=Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of Africa, from Tripoly Eastward; in MDCCCXXI and MDCCCXXII. Comprehending an Account of the Greater Syrtis and Cyrenaica; and of the Ancient Cities Composing the Pentapolis |url=https://archive.org/details/b22008275 |location=London |publisher=John Murray |oclc=719432955}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Brogan |first1=Olwen Phillis Frances |author1-link=Olwen Brogan |last2=Wilson |first2=R. J. A. |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Classical Dictionary|The Oxford Classical Dictionary]] |title=Lepcis Magna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA821 |edition=4th |year=2012 |location=Oxford & New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199545568 |page=821}}
* {{cite book |last=Bullo |first=Silvia |year=2002 |title=Provincia Africa. Le città e il territorio dalla caduta di Cartagine a Nerone |trans-title=Province of Africa: The Cities and the Territory from the Fall of Carthage to Nero |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3gQbIhDjkqkC |series=Le Rovine Circolari, 4 |language=it |location=Rome |publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider |isbn=9788882651688}}
* {{cite news |last=Coghlan |first=Tom |date=14 June 2011 |title=Wonder of the Ancient World at risk as Gaddafi uses ruins to hide deadly rockets |url=https://www.thetimes.com/comment/register/article/wonder-of-the-ancient-world-at-risk-as-gaddafi-uses-ruins-to-hide-deadly-rockets-vnn68zp6rsh |url-access=subscription |work=The Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831211845/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wonder-of-the-ancient-world-at-risk-as-gaddafi-uses-ruins-to-hide-deadly-rockets-vnn68zp6rsh |archive-date=2020-08-31 |ref={{SfnRef|''The Times'', 14 June 2011}}}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Cooper |first=Paul |date=10 January 2018 |title=How Ancient Roman Ruins Ended Up 2,000 Miles Away in a British Garden |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/roman-ruins-windsor-castle/550199/ |url-access=limited |magazine=The Atlantic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223094831/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/roman-ruins-windsor-castle/550199/ |archive-date=2019-12-23 |ref={{SfnRef|''The Atlantic'', 10 January 2018}}}}
* {{cite news |last=D'Emilio |first=Frances |date=4 November 2011 |title=Expert: NATO raids spared Libyan antiquities |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-expert-nato-raids-spared-libyan-antiquities-2011nov04-story.html |work=The San Diego Union-Tribune |agency=Associated Press |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831213631/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-expert-nato-raids-spared-libyan-antiquities-2011nov04-story.html |archive-date=2020-08-31 |ref={{SfnRef|AP, 4 November 2011}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=De Miro |first1=Ernesto |last2=Polito |first2=Antonella |year=2005 |title=Leptis Magna. Dieci anni di scavi archeologici nell area del Foro Vecchio. I livelli fenici, punici e romani |trans-title=Leptis Magna: Ten Years of Archaeological Excavations in the Area of the Old Forum. The Phoenician, Punic and Roman Levels. |series=Quaderni di Archeologia della Libya, 19 |language=it, ar |location=Rome |publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider |isbn=9788882653095}}
* {{cite book |last=Floriani Squarciapino |first=Maria |author-link=Maria Floriani Squarciapino |year=1966 |title=Leptis Magna |series= 	Ruinenstädte Nordafrikas, 2 |language=de |location=Basel |publisher=Raggi Verlag |oclc=625443}}
* {{cite book |last=Ghaki |first=Mansour |year=2015 |chapter=Toponymie et onomastique. L'apport de l'ecriture punique neopunique |trans-chapter=Toponymy and Onomastics: The Contribution of Neopunic Punic Writing |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/29670337 |access-date=2020-08-31 |chapter-format=PDF |editor-last=Di Tolla |editor-first=Anna Maria |title=La lingua nella vita e la vita della lingua. Itinerari e percorsi degli studi berberi. Miscellanea per il Centenario di studi berberi a "L'Orientale" di Napoli. Scritti in onore di Francesco Beguinot |trans-title=Language in Life and the Life of Language: Routes and Paths of Berber Studies. Miscellany for the Centenary of Berber Studies at "L'Orientale" in Naples: Written in Honor of Francesco Beguinot. |series=Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi, 4 |language=fr |location=Naples |publisher=[[Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale"|Unior]] |pages=65–71 |isbn=9788867191253 |via=Academia.edu}}
* {{cite book |last=Head |first=Barclay |author-link=Barclay V. Head |collaboration=assisted by [[George Francis Hill|G. F. Hill]], George MacDonald, and [[Warwick William Wroth|W. Wroth]] |title=Historia Numorum |contribution=Syrtica |contribution-url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/syrtica.html |page=875 |date=1911 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |via=''Digital Historia Numorum'', ed. Ed Snible}}
* {{cite book |last=Kreikenbom |first=Detlev |year=2007 |chapter=Leptis Magna vor der arabischen Eroberung |trans-chapter=Leptis Magna Before the Arab Conquest |editor1-last=Kreikenbom |editor1-first=Detlev |editor2-last=Muth |editor2-first=Franz-Christoph |editor3-last=Thielmann |editor3-first=Jörn |title=Arabische Christen – Christen in Arabien |trans-title=Arab Christians – Christians in Arabia |series=Nordostafrikanisch-Westasiatische Studien, 6 |language=de |location=Frankfurt am Main & New York |publisher=Peter Lang |pages=35–54 |isbn=9783631550403}}
* {{cite news |last=Lamloun |first=Imed |date=23 December 2016 |title=The unlikely saviors of Libya's Roman remains |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ArticlePrint.aspx?id=386437 |work=The Daily Star |agency=Agence France-Presse |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831215324/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ArticlePrint.aspx?id=386437 |archive-date=2020-08-31 |ref={{SfnRef|AFP, 23 December 2016}}}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis-magna/ |title=Lepcis Magna |last=Lendering |first=Jona |author-link=Jona Lendering |date=13 August 2020 |website=Livius.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831205155/https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis-magna/ |archive-date=2020-08-31 |ref={{SfnRef|''Livius.org''}}}}
* {{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Aidan |date=28 November 2017 |title=Famed Libyan ruins rely on locals for support |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ruins/famed-libyan-ruins-rely-on-locals-for-support-idUSKBN1DS1UR |work=Reuters |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221071100/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ruins/famed-libyan-ruins-rely-on-locals-for-support-idUSKBN1DS1UR |archive-date=2018-12-21 |ref={{SfnRef|Reuters, 28 November 2017}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist) |year=2004 |title=Itineraria Phoenicia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC |series=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 127; Studia Phoenicia, 18 |location=Leuven; Paris; Dudley, MA |publisher=Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies |isbn=9789042913448}}
* {{cite book |last=Matthews | first=Kenneth D. Jr. |year=1957 |title=Cities in the Sand: Leptis Magna and Sabratha in Roman Africa |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005745412 |others=Photographs by Alfred W. Cook |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |oclc=414295}}
* {{cite book |last=Mattingly |first=D. J. |author-link=David Mattingly (archaeologist) |year=2000 |chapter=Map 35: Tripolitana |editor-last=Talbert |editor-first=Richard J. A. |editor-link=Richard Talbert |title=[[Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World]] |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691031699}}
* {{cite book |last=Mommsen |first=Theodor |author-link=Theodor Mommsen |translator-last=Dickson |translator-first=William P. |translator-link=William Purdie Dickson |year=1909 |orig-date=1886 |title=The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian |url=https://archive.org/details/abq2762.0002.001.umich.edu/ |volume=2 |edition=Corrected |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |oclc=4308504}}
* {{cite journal |last=Musso |first=Luisa |year=2010 |others=Contributions by Daniela Baldoni, Barbara Bianchi, Maria Gloria Calì, Barbara Davidde, Ginette Di Vita-Evrard, Massimiliano Munzi, Roberto Petriaggi, Beatrice Pinna Caboni, Gianni Ponti & Ramadan Shebani |title=Missione archeologica dell'Università Roma Tre, 1998-2007 |trans-title=Archaeological Mission of Roma Tre University, 1998-2007 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1352701 |access-date=2020-08-31 |format=PDF |department=The Department of Archaeology of Libya |journal=Libya Antiqua |language=en, it |publisher=Fabrizio Serra Editore |location=Pisa & Rome |series=New series|volume=V |pages=49–78 |oclc=4221464 |via=Academia.edu}}
* {{cite journal |last=Prevost |first=Virginie |year=2007 |title=Les dernières communautés chrétiennes autochtones d'Afrique du Nord |trans-title=The Last Native Christian Communities of North Africa |journal=Revue de l'histoire des religions |volume=224 |language=fr |issue=4 |pages=461–483 |doi=10.4000/rhr.5401 |doi-access=free |jstor=23618252}}
* {{cite book |last=Robin |first=Daniel |year=2010 |title=This Holy Seed: Faith, Hope and Love in the Early Churches of North Africa |edition=2nd |location=Chester |publisher=Tamarisk Publications |isbn=9780953856534}}
* {{cite book |author=Strabo |author-link=Strabo |translator-last1=Hamilton |translator-first1=H. C. |translator-last2=Falconer |translator-first2=W. |translator-link2=William Falconer (translator) |year=1903 |orig-date=1854 |title=[[Geographica|The Geography of Strabo]] |series=''[[Bohn's Classical Library]]'' |volume=3 vols. |location=London |publisher=George Bell & Sons |oclc=250411 |ref={{SfnRef|Strabo, ''Geography''}}}}
* {{cite news |last1=Swails |first1=Brent |last2=Ward |first2=Damien |last3=Perez Maestro |first3=Laura |last4=Abdelaziz |first4=Salma |last5=Pleitgen |first5=Frederik |author-link5=Frederik Pleitgen |last6=Khadder |first6=Kareem |name-list-style=amp |date=14 June 2011 |title=South African president blasts NATO actions in Libya |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/14/libya.war/index.html |agency=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614224553/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/14/libya.war/index.html |archive-date=2020-06-14 |ref={{SfnRef|CNN, 14 June 2011}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Tomlinson |first=R. A. |author-link=Richard Tomlinson (academic) |year=1993 |chapter=Lepcis Magna |title=From Mycenae to Constantinople: The Evolution of the Ancient City |url=https://archive.org/details/frommycenaetovon0000toml |url-access=limited |location=London & New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=191–202 |isbn=9780203412909}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite EB1911 |last=Babelon |first=E.C.F. |wstitle=Leptis#Leptis Magna |display=Leptis § Leptis Magna |volume=16 |page=482 |short=x}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bianchi Bandinelli |first1=Ranuccio |author-link1=Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli |last2=Vergara Caffarelli |first2=Ernesto |last3=Caputo |first3=Giacomo |year=1966 |title=The Buried City: Excavations at Leptis Magna |others=Photographs by [[Fabrizio Clerici]] |location=New York |publisher=F. A. Praeger |oclc=670109}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Draper |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Draper |date=February 2013 |others=Photographs by [[George Steinmetz]] |title=New Old Libya |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/02/ancient-libya/ |magazine=National Geographic |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830001456/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2013/02/ancient-libya/ |archive-date=2020-08-30}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Huß |first1=Werner |author1-link=Werner Huß |last2=Niemeyer |first2=Hans Georg |editor1-last=Cancik |editor1-first=Hubert |editor2-last=Schneider |editor2-first=Helmuth |editor3-last=Salazar |editor3-first=Christine F. |encyclopedia=[[Brill's New Pauly|Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World]] |title=Leptis Magna |year=2006 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |series=Antiquity |volume=7 |isbn=9789004122598 |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e701890}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Gemma |date=February 2013 |title=Archaeologists, propaganda and the military: Libya's cultural heritage and the role of archaeologists in a political crisis |url=https://www.theposthole.org/read/article/191 |journal=The Post Hole |publisher=[[Department of Archaeology, University of York]] |issue=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716015730/https://www.theposthole.org/read/article/191 |archive-date=2020-07-16 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ward-Perkins |first1=J. B. |author-link1=John Bryan Ward-Perkins |year=1993 |editor-last=Kenrick |editor-first=Philip |title=The Severan Buildings Of Lepcis Magna: An Architectural Survey |url=https://www.societyforlibyanstudies.org/ebook/the-severan-buildings-of-lepcis-magna/ |url-access=registration |access-date=2020-08-31 |format=PDF |series=Society for Libyan Studies Monograph, 2 |others=With a contribution by [[Barri Jones]] and Roger Ling; architectural drawings prepared and edited by R. Kronenburg |location=London |publisher=The Society for Libyan Studies, on behalf of the Department of Antiquities, Tripoli, [[Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|SPLAJ]] |isbn=9780950836362}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Leptis Magna}}
* [http://www.alnpete.co.uk/lepcis/ Lepcis Magna - The Roman Empire in Africa], documenting the archaeological site and excavations undertaken in the 1990s, including teams from [[King's College London]] and the [[UCL Institute of Archaeology]]
* [https://www.livius.org/articles/place/lepcis-magna/ Lepcis Magna] article on ''Livius.org''
* [http://www.romanhideout.com/places/leptis_magna1.asp Lepcis (Leptis) Magna Images], a gallery of photographs taken at the site in February 2008
* [http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/344448 Neapolis/Lepcis Magna] on ''Pleiades'', a collaborative scholarly [[gazetteer]] to the ancient world

{{World Heritage Sites in Libya}}
{{Phoenician cities and colonies}}
{{Romano-Berber cities in Roman Africa}}
{{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Roman sites in Libya]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies in Libya]]
[[Category:History of Tripolitania]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 2nd millennium BC]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Libya]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Libya]]
[[Category:Al Khums]]
[[Category:Catholic titular sees in Africa]]
[[Category:Populated places of the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Ruins in Libya]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Murqub District]]
[[Category:Ancient Berber cities]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geography of North Africa]]
[[Category:Carthage]]