Editing Laurasia

{{Short description|Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent}}

{{Infobox historical continent
|name = Laurasia
|image = Laurasia 200Ma.jpg
|caption = Laurasia (centre) and Gondwana (bottom) as part of Pangaea 200&nbsp;Mya (Early Jurassic)<!-- (view centred on 55,10) -->
|formation_year = 1,071 Mya (Proto-Laurasia) 253&nbsp;Mya
|type = [[Supercontinent]]
|today = {{plainlist|
*[[Europe]] (without the [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]])
*[[Asia]] (without the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian subcontinent]])
*[[North America]]
 }}
|smaller_continents = {{plainlist|
*[[Laurentia]]
*[[Baltica]]
*[[Kazakhstania]]
*[[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]]
*[[North China craton|North China]]
*[[South China craton|South China]]
*[[Tarim Basin#Geology|Tarim]]}}
|plate = {{plainlist|
*[[Eurasian Plate]]
*[[North American Plate]]}}
}}

'''Laurasia''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɔː|ˈ|r|eɪ|ʒ|ə|,_|-|ʃ|i|ə}})<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref> was the more northern of two large landmasses that formed part of the [[Pangaea]] supercontinent from around {{Ma|335|175}} ([[Million years ago|Mya]]), the other being [[Gondwana]]. It separated from Gondwana {{Ma|215|175|Mya}} (beginning in the late [[Triassic]] period) during the breakup of Pangaea, drifting further north after the split and finally broke apart with the [[opening of the North Atlantic Ocean]] {{circa}} 56 Mya. The name is a [[Blend word|portmanteau]] of [[Laurentia]] and [[Eurasian_plate|Eurasia]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Geology of North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgYJEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|year=2024|publisher=Springer International Publishing, Imprint: Springer|isbn=978-3-03148-2-991|page=189}}</ref>

Laurentia, [[Avalonia]], [[Baltica]], and a series of smaller [[terrane]]s, collided in the [[Caledonian orogeny]] c. 400&nbsp;Mya to form Laurussia. Laurussia then collided with Gondwana to form Pangaea.  [[Kazakhstania]] and [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] were then added to Pangaea 290–300&nbsp;Mya to form Laurasia.  Laurasia finally became an independent continental mass when Pangaea broke up into Gondwana and Laurasia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Cocks|2004|loc=Laurussia and Laurasia, pp. 558, 560}}</ref>

==Terminology and origin of the concept==
Laurentia, the [[Paleozoic|Palaeozoic]] [[Craton|core]] of North America and continental fragments that now make up part of Europe, collided with [[Baltica]] and [[Avalonia]] in the [[Caledonian orogeny]] from c. 430–420&nbsp;Mya to form Laurussia. In the Late [[Carboniferous]], Laurussia and Gondwana collided and formed Pangaea. [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] and [[Kazakhstania]] finally collided with Baltica in the Late Permian to form Laurasia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Van der Voo|Preeden|Mac Niocaill|2012|loc=From Laurentia to Laurussia and Laurasia: Overview, p. 6}}</ref> A series of continental blocks that now form East Asia and Southeast Asia were later added to Laurasia.

In 1904–1909, Austrian geologist [[Eduard Suess]] proposed that the continents in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] were once merged into a larger continent called Gondwana. In 1915, German meteorologist [[Alfred Wegener]] proposed the existence of a supercontinent that he called Pangaea. In 1937, South African geologist [[Alexander du Toit]] proposed that Pangaea was divided into two larger landmasses, Laurasia in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, separated by the Tethys Ocean.<ref name="Meert-2012">{{Harvnb|Meert|2012|pp=991–992}}</ref>

"Laurussia" was defined by Swiss geologist [[Peter Ziegler]] in 1988 as the merger between Laurentia and Baltica along the northern Caledonian suture.  The "Old Red Continent" is an informal name often used for the Silurian-Carboniferous deposits in the central landmass of Laurussia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ziegler|1988|loc=Abstract}}</ref>

Several earlier supercontinents proposed and debated in the 1990s and later (e.g. Rodinia, Nuna, Nena) included earlier connections between Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia.<ref name="Meert-2012" /> These original connections apparently survived through one and possibly even two [[Wilson Cycle]]s, though their intermittent duration and recurrent fit is debated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bleeker|2003|p=108}}</ref>

==Proto-Laurasia==
===Pre–Rodinia===
[[File:Paleoglobe NO 1590 mya-vector-colors.svg|thumb|Columbia/Nuna 1,590&nbsp;Mya]]
Laurentia and Baltica first formed a continental mass known as Proto-Laurasia as part of the supercontinent [[Columbia (supercontinent)|Columbia]] which was assembled 2,100–1,800&nbsp;Mya to encompass virtually all known [[Archean|Archaean]] continental blocks.<ref name="Zhao-etal-2004-Abst">{{Harvnb|Zhao|Sun|Wilde|Li|2004|loc=Abstract}}</ref> Surviving [[Suture (geology)|suture]]s from this assembly are the [[Trans-Hudson orogeny|Trans-Hudson orogen]] in Laurentia; [[Nagssugtoqidian orogeny|Nagssugtoqidian orogen]] in Greenland; the Kola-Karelian (the northwest margin of the [[Svecofennian orogeny|Svecofennian orogen]]) and the Volhyn—Central Russia orogen and Pachelma orogen (across western Russia) in Baltica, the Akitkan Orogen in Siberia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zhao|Sun|Wilde|Li|2004|loc=Summary and Discussion, pp. 114–115}}</ref>

Additional [[Proterozoic]] crust was [[Accretion (geology)|accreted]] 1,800–1,300&nbsp;Mya, especially along the Laurentia—Greenland—Baltica margin.<ref name="Zhao-etal-2004-Abst" /> Laurentia and Baltica formed a coherent continental mass with southern Greenland and Labrador adjacent to the Arctic margin of Baltica. A magmatic arc extended from Laurentia through southern Greenland to northern Baltica.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zhao|Cawood|Wilde|Sun|2002|loc=Laurentia (North America and Greenland) and Baltica, pp. 145-149}}</ref> The breakup of Columbia began 1,600&nbsp;Mya, including along the western margin of Laurentia and northern margin of Baltica (modern coordinates), and was completed c. 1,300–1,200&nbsp;Mya, a period during which mafic [[dike swarm]]s were emplaced, including [[Mackenzie dike swarm|MacKenzie]] and [[Sudbury dike swarm|Sudbury]] in Laurentia.<ref name="Zhao-etal-2004-Abst" />

Traces left by [[large igneous province]]s provide evidences for continental mergers during this period. Those related to Proto-Laurasia includes:<ref>{{Harvnb|Ernst|Bleeker|Söderlund|Kerr|2013|loc=Progress on continental reconstructions, pp. 8–9}}</ref>
* 1,750&nbsp;Mya extensive magmatism in Baltica, [[Sarmatian craton|Sarmatia]] (Ukraine), southern Siberia, northern Laurentia, and West Africa indicate these cratons were linked to each other;
* a 1,630–1,640&nbsp;Mya-old continent composed of Siberia, Laurentia, and Baltica is suggested by [[sill (geology)|sills]] in southern Siberia that can be connected to the Melville Bugt dyke swarm in western Greenland;
* a major large igneous province 1,380&nbsp;Mya during the breakup of the Nuna supercontinent connects Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia, [[Congo craton|Congo]], [[West African craton|West Africa]].

===Rodinia===
{{Main|Rodinia}}
[[File:Rodinia 900Ma.jpg|thumb|left|Rodinia 900&nbsp;Mya centred on Laurentia with Baltica and Amazonia on its southern margin.<ref>"Consensus" reconstruction from {{Harvnb|Li|Bogdanova|Collins|Davidson|2008}}.</ref><br />View centred on 30°S,130°E.]]
In the vast majority of plate tectonic reconstructions, Laurentia formed the core of the supercontinent [[Rodinia]], which formed 1,260-900 Mya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kee |first1=Weon-Seo |last2=Kim |first2=Sung Won |last3=Kwon |first3=Sanghoon |last4=Santosh |first4=M. |last5=Ko |first5=Kyoungtae |last6=Jeong |first6=Youn-Joong |date=1 December 2019 |title=Early Neoproterozoic (ca. 913–895 Ma) arc magmatism along the central–western Korean Peninsula: Implications for the amalgamation of Rodinia supercontinent |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926819303791 |journal=[[Precambrian Research]] |volume=335 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105498 |bibcode=2019PreR..33505498K |s2cid=210298156 |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref> However, the exact fit of various continents within Rodinia is debated. In some reconstructions, Baltica was attached to Greenland along its Scandinavian margin while [[Amazonian craton|Amazonia]] was docked along Baltica's [[Trans-European Suture Zone|Tornquist margin]]. Australia and East Antarctica were located on Laurentia's western margin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Smethurst|Meert|Van der Voo|1996|loc=Rodinia, pp. 236–237}}</ref>

Siberia was located near but at some distance from Laurentia's northern margin in most reconstructions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Li|Bogdanova|Collins|Davidson|2008|loc=Siberia–Laurentia connection, p. 189}}</ref> In the reconstruction of some Russian geologists, however, the southern margin (modern coordinates) of Siberia merged with the northern margin of Laurentia, and these two continents broke up along what is now the {{Convert|3000|km|abbr=on}}-long [[Central Asian Orogenic Belt|Central Asian Foldbelt]] no later than 570&nbsp;Mya and traces of this breakup can still be found in the [[Franklin dike swarm]] in northern Canada and the [[Aldan Shield]] in Siberia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yarmolyuk|Kovalenko|Sal'nikova|Nikiforov|2006|loc=p. 1031; Fig. 1, p. 1032}}</ref>

The [[Panthalassa|Proto-Pacific]] opened and Rodinia began to breakup during the [[Neoproterozoic]] (c. 750–600&nbsp;Mya) as Australia-Antarctica (East Gondwana) rifted from the western margin of Laurentia, while the rest of Rodinia (West Gondwana and Laurasia) rotated clockwise and drifted south. Earth subsequently underwent a series of glaciations&nbsp;&ndash; the [[Cryogenian|Varanger]] (c. 650&nbsp;Mya, also known as [[Snowball Earth]]) and the Rapitan and Ice Brook glaciations (c. 610-590&nbsp;Mya)&nbsp;&ndash; both Laurentia and Baltica were located south of 30°S, with the South Pole located in eastern Baltica, and glacial deposits from this period have been found in Laurentia and Baltica but not in Siberia.<ref name="Torsvik-etal-1996-Rodinia">{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Smethurst|Meert|Van der Voo|1996|loc=Abstract; Initial break-up of Rodinia and Vendian glaciations, pp. 237–240}}</ref>

A [[mantle plume]] (the [[Central Iapetus Magmatic Province]]) forced Laurentia and Baltica to separate ca. 650–600&nbsp;Mya and the [[Iapetus Ocean]] opened between them. Laurentia then began to move quickly ({{Convert|20|cm/yr|abbr=on}}) north towards the Equator where it got stuck over a [[Large low-shear-velocity provinces|cold spot]] in the Proto-Pacific. Baltica remained near Gondwana in southern latitudes into the [[Ordovician]].<ref name="Torsvik-etal-1996-Rodinia" />

===Pannotia===
{{Multiple image | total_width = 400 | align = right
 | image1 = Laurasia 600Ma.jpg
 | image2 = Laurasia 550Ma.jpg
 | footer = Left: Laurasia as part of Pannotia 600&nbsp;Mya.<br />Right: Laurasia during the breakup of Pannotia at 550&nbsp;Mya.<br />View centred on the South Pole.
}}
{{Main|Pannotia}}
Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia remained connected to each other within the short-lived, [[Precambrian]]-[[Cambrian]] supercontinent [[Pannotia]] or Greater Gondwana. At this time a series of continental blocks&nbsp; called as Peri-Gondwana,&nbsp; that now form parts of Asia, the [[Cathaysia]]n terranes,&nbsp; namely Indochina, North China, South China&nbsp;, [[Cimmeria (continent)|Cimmerian]] terranes,&nbsp; [[Shan–Thai terrane|Sibumasu]], [[Qiangtang terrane|Qiangtang]], [[Lhasa terrane|Lhasa]], Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey&nbsp;– were still attached to the Indian–Australian margin of Gondwana. Other blocks that now form part of southwestern Europe and North America from New England to Florida were still attached to the African-South American margin of Gondwana.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scotese|2009|p=71}}</ref> This northward drift of terranes across the Tethys Ocean also included the [[Hunic superterrane|Hunic terranes]], now spread from Europe to China.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stampfli|2000|loc=Palaeotethys, p. 3}}</ref>

Pannotia broke apart in the late Precambrian into Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia, Gondwana. A series of continental blocks,&nbsp; the Cadomian, Avalonian, Cathaysian, Cimmerian terranes,&nbsp; broke away from Gondwana and began to drift north.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scotese|2009|loc=The break-up of Pannotia, p. 78}}</ref>

== Euramerica/Laurussia ==
[[File:Laurasia 430Ma.jpg|thumb|Laurussia (left) during the closure of the Iapetus Ocean 430&nbsp;Mya (middle Silurian). View centred on 0°, 60° W.]]
[[File:Laurussia Euramerica.svg|thumb|left|Euramerica in the Devonian<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Devonian Period |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/devonian/devonian.php#:~:text=During%20this%20period,%20the%20world's,all%20sides%20by%20subduction%20zones |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mollweide Paleographic Map of Earth, 405 Ma (Emsian Age).png|thumb|Map of Earth around 405 million years ago, during the Early Devonian, showing Euramerica (centre) and Gondwana (south and east)]]
Laurentia remained almost static near the Equator throughout the early Palaeozoic, separated from Baltica by the up to {{Convert|3000|km|abbr=on}}-wide [[Iapetus Ocean]].<ref name="Torsvik-etal-2012-p16">{{Harvnb|Torsvik|Van der Voo|Preeden|Mac Niocaill|2012|p=16}}</ref> In the Late Cambrian, the mid-ocean ridge in the Iapetus Ocean subducted beneath Gondwana which resulted in the opening of a series of large [[back-arc basin]]s. During the Ordovician, these basins evolved into a new ocean, the [[Rheic Ocean]], which separated a series of terranes&nbsp;– [[Avalonia]], [[Carolina terrane|Carolinia]], and [[Armorican terrane|Armorica]]&nbsp;– from Gondwana.<ref name="Zhao-etal-closure">{{Harvnb|Zhao|Wang|Huang|Dong|2018|loc=Closure of Proto-Tethys Ocean and the first assembly of East Asian blocks at the northern margin of Gondwana, pp. 7-10}}</ref>

Avalonia rifted from Gondwana in the Early Ordovician and collided with Baltica near the [[Late Ordovician mass extinction|Ordovician–Silurian boundary]] (480–420&nbsp;Mya). Baltica-Avalonia was then rotated and pushed north towards Laurentia. The collision between these continents closed the Iapetus Ocean and formed '''Laurussia''', also known as '''Euramerica'''. Another historical term for this continent is the '''Old Red Continent''' or '''Old Red Sandstone Continent''', in reference to abundant red beds of the [[Old Red Sandstone]] during the Devonian. The continent covered {{Convert|37000000|km2|abbr=on}} including several large Arctic continental blocks.<ref name="Torsvik-etal-2012-p16" /><ref name="Zhao-etal-closure" />

With the Caledonian orogeny completed Laurussia was delimited thus:<ref name="Ziegler-2012">{{Harvnb|Ziegler|2012|loc=Introduction, pp. 1–4}}</ref>
* The eastern margin were the Barents Shelf and [[Moscow Basin|Moscow Platform]];
* the western margin were the western shelves of Laurentia, later affected by the [[Antler orogeny]];
* the northern margin was the [[Innuitian Mountains|Innuitian]]-[[Lomonosov Ridge|Lomonosov]] orogeny which marked the collision between Laurussia and the [[Arctica|Arctic Craton]];
* the southern margin was a Pacific-style [[Convergent boundary|active margin]] where the northward directed subduction of the ocean floor between Gondwana and Laurussia pushed continental fragments towards the latter.

During the Devonian (416-359&nbsp;Mya) the combined landmass of Baltica and Avalonia rotated around Laurentia, which remained static near the [[Equator]]. The Laurentian warm, shallow seas and on [[Continental shelf|shelves]] a diverse assemblage of [[benthos]] evolved, including the largest [[trilobite]]s exceeding {{Convert|1|m|abbr=on}}. The [[Old Red Sandstone]] Continent stretched across northern Laurentia and into Avalonia and Baltica but for most of the Devonian a narrow seaway formed a barrier where the North Atlantic would later open. Tetrapods evolved from fish in the Late Devonian, with the oldest known fossils from Greenland. Low sea-levels during the Early Devonian produced natural barriers in Laurussia which resulted in [[Geologic province|provincialism]] within the benthic fauna. In Laurentia the [[Transcontinental Arch]] divided [[brachiopod]]s into two provinces, with one of them confined to a large embayment west of the Appalachians. By the Middle Devonian, these two provinces had been united into one and the closure of the Rheic Ocean finally united faunas across Laurussia.  High plankton productivity from the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary resulted in [[anoxic event]]s that left [[Shale|black shales]] in the basins of Laurentia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cocks|Torsvik|2011|loc= Facies and faunas, pp. 10–11}}</ref>

===Pangaea===
{{Main|Pangaea}}
[[File:Laurasia 330Ma.jpg|thumb|Pangaea formed during the closure of the Rheic Ocean 330&nbsp;Mya (early Carboniferous). View centred on 30°S, 30°E.]]
The subduction of the Iapetus Ocean resulted in the first contact between Laurussia and Gondwana in the Late Devonian and terminated in full collision or the [[Variscan orogeny]] in the early Carboniferous (340&nbsp;Mya).<ref name="Ziegler-2012" /> The Variscan orogeny closed the [[Rheic Ocean]] (between Avalonia and Armorica) and the [[Proto-Tethys Ocean]] (between Armorica and Gondwana) to form the supercontinent Pangaea.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rey|Burg|Casey|1997|loc=Introduction, pp. 1–2}}</ref> The Variscan orogeny is complex and the exact timing and the order of the collisions between involved microcontinents has been debated for decades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Eckelmann|Nesbor|Königshof|Linnemann|2014|loc=Introduction, pp. 1484–1486}}</ref>

Pangaea was completely assembled by the Permian except for the Asian blocks. The supercontinent was centred on the Equator during the Triassic and Jurassic, a period that saw the emergence of the [[Pangean megamonsoon|Pangaean megamonsoon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Parrish|1993|loc=Paleogeographic Evolution of Pangea, p. 216}}</ref> Heavy rainfall resulted in high groundwater tables, in turn resulting in peat formation and extensive coal deposits.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parrish|1993|loc=Geological Evidence of the Pangean Megamonsoon, p. 223}}</ref>

During the Cambrian and Early Ordovician, when wide oceans separated all major continents, only pelagic marine organisms, such as plankton, could move freely across the open ocean and therefore the oceanic gaps between continents are easily detected in the fossil records of marine bottom dwellers and non-marine species. By the Late Ordovician, when continents were pushed closer together closing the oceanic gaps, [[benthos]] (brachiopods and trilobites) could spread between continents while [[ostracod]]s and fishes remained isolated. As Laurussia formed during the Devonian and Pangaea formed, fish species in both Laurussia and Gondwana began to migrate between continents and before the end of the Devonian similar species were found on both sides of what remained of the Variscan barrier.<ref>{{Harvnb|McKerrow|Mac Niocaill|Ahlberg|Clayton|2000|loc=The narrowing oceans, pp. 10–11}}</ref>

The oldest tree fossils are from the Middle Devonian [[pteridophyte]] [[Gilboa Fossil Forest]] in central Laurussia (today [[New York City]], [[United States]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lu|Lu|Ikejiri|Hogancamp|2019|pp=1–2}}</ref> In the late Carboniferous, Laurussia was centred on the Equator and covered by tropical rainforests, commonly referred to as the [[coal forest|coal forests]]. By the Permian, the climate had become arid and these [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse|Carboniferous rainforests collapsed]], [[Lycopodiopsida|lycopsids]] (giant mosses) were replaced by [[Cyatheales|treeferns]]. In the dry climate a [[Detritivore|detritivorous]] fauna&nbsp;&ndash; including [[Annelid|ringed worms]], [[Mollusca|molluscs]], and some [[Arthropod|arthropods]]&nbsp;&ndash; evolved and diversified, alongside other arthropods who were herbivorous and carnivorous, and tetrapods&nbsp;&ndash; [[insectivore]]s and [[piscivore]]s such as [[Amphibian|amphibians]] and early [[amniote]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sahney|Benton|Falcon-Lang|2010|loc=Introduction, p. 1079}}</ref>

==Laurasia==
{{Multiple image | total_width = 600 | align = right
 | image1 = Uralian_orogeny_300Ma.jpg
 | image2 = Uralian_orogeny_280Ma.jpg
 | image3 = Uralian_orogeny_240Ma.jpg
 | footer = The Uralian orogeny and the formation of Laurasia 300, 280, and 240 Mya.<br />View centred on 25°N,35°E.
}}
During the Carboniferous to Permian periods,  Siberia, Kazakhstania, Baltica collided in the [[Uralian orogeny]] to form Laurasia.<ref name="Blakey-2003">{{Harvnb|Blakey|2003|loc=Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454; Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454; Fig. 10, p. 454}}</ref>

The Palaezoic-Mesozoic transition was marked by the reorganisation of Earth's tectonic plates which resulted in the assembly of Pangaea, and eventually its break-up. Caused by the detachment of subducted mantle slabs, this reorganisation resulted in rising [[mantle plume]]s that produced [[large igneous province]]s when they reached the crust. This tectonic activity also resulted in the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]].  Tentional stresses across Eurasia developed into a large system of rift basins (Urengoy, East Uralian-Turgay, Khudosey) and [[flood basalt]]s in the [[West Siberian petroleum basin|West Siberian Basin]], the [[Pechora coal basin|Pechora Basin]], South China.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nikishin|Ziegler|Abbott|Brunet|2002|loc=Introduction, pp. 4–5; Fig. 4, p. 8}}</ref>

Laurasia and Gondwana were equal in size but had distinct geological histories. Gondwana was assembled before the formation of Pangaea, but the assembly of Laurasia occurred during and after the formation of the supercontinent. These differences resulted in different patterns of basin formation and transport of sediments. East Antarctica was the highest ground within Pangaea and produced sediments that were transported across eastern Gondwana but never reached Laurasia. During the Palaeozoic, c. 30–40% of Laurasia was covered by shallow marine water but only 10–20% of Gondwana was covered by shallow marine water.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rogers|Santosh|2004|loc=Differences Between Gondwana and Laurasia in Pangea, pp. 127, 130}}</ref>

===Asian blocks===
{{Multiple image | total_width = 400 | align = right | perrow = 2
 | image1 = Geology of Asia 450.Ma.jpg
 | image2 = Geology of Asia 350Ma.jpg
 | image3 = Geology of Asia 300Ma.jpg
 | image4 = Geology of Asia 200Ma.jpg
 | footer = Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia 450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya.<br />View centred on 0°S,105°E.
}}
During the assembly of Pangaea, Laurasia grew as continental blocks broke off Gondwana's northern margin; pulled by old closing oceans in front of them and pushed by new opening oceans behind them.<ref name="Zhao-etal2018-p14">{{Harvnb|Zhao|Wang|Huang|Dong|2018|loc=Closure of Paleo-Tethys Ocean and assembly of Pangea with East Asian blocks, pp. 14-16}}</ref> During the Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic break-up of Rodinia, the opening of the Proto-Tethys Ocean split the Asian blocks&nbsp;– Tarim, Qaidam, Alex, North China, South China&nbsp;– from the northern shores of Gondwana (north of India and Australia in modern coordinates) and the closure of the same ocean reassembled them along the same shores 500–460&nbsp;Mya resulting in Gondwana at its largest extent.<ref name="Zhao-etal-closure" />

The break-up of Rodinia also resulted in the opening of the long-lived Paleo-Asian Ocean between Baltica and Siberia in the north and Tarim and North China in the south. The closure of this ocean is preserved in the [[Central Asian Orogenic Belt]], the largest orogen on Earth.<ref name="Zhao-etal2018-p11">{{Harvnb|Zhao|Wang|Huang|Dong|2018|loc=Closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean: collision of Tarim, Alex and North China with East Europe and Siberia, pp. 11-14}}</ref>

North China, South China, Indochina, Tarim broke off from Gondwana during the Silurian to Devonian periods; as the Paleo-Tethys Ocean  opened behind them. Sibumasu and Qiantang and other Cimmerian continental fragments broke off in the Early Permian. [[Lhasa terrane|Lhasa]], [[Burma terrane|Burma]], Sikuleh, southwest Sumatra, West Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo, broke off during the Late Triassic-Late Jurassic.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalfe|1999|pp=15–16}}</ref>

During the Carboniferous and Permian, Baltica first collided with Kazakhstania and Siberia, then North China with Mongolia and Siberia. By the middle Carboniferous, however, South China had already been in contact with North China long enough to allow floral exchange between the two continents. The Cimmerian blocks rifted from Gondwana in the Late Carboniferous.<ref name="Blakey-2003" />

In the early Permian, the Neo-Tethys Ocean opened behind the Cimmerian terranes (Sibumasu, Qiantang, Lhasa) and, in the late Carboniferous, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed in front. The eastern branch of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, however, remained opened while Siberia was added to Laurussia and Gondwana collided with Laurasia.<ref name="Zhao-etal2018-p14" />

When the eastern Palaeo-Tethys closed 250–230&nbsp;Mya, a series of Asian blocks&nbsp;– Sibumasu, Indochina, South China, Qiantang, Lhasa&nbsp;– formed a separate southern Asian continent.  This continent collided 240–220&nbsp;Mya with a northern continent&nbsp;– North China, Qinling, Qilian, Qaidam, Alex, Tarim&nbsp;– along the Central China orogen to form a combined East Asian continent.  The northern margins of the northern continent collided with Baltica and Siberia 310–250&nbsp;Ma, and thus the formation of the East Asian continent marked Pangaea at its greatest extent.<ref name="Zhao-etal2018-p14" /> By this time, the rifting of western Pangaea had already begun.<ref name="Blakey-2003" />

===Flora and fauna===
Pangaea split in two as the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys Seaway]] opened between Gondwana and Laurasia in the Late Jurassic. The fossil record, however, suggests the intermittent presence of a Trans-Tethys land bridge, though the location and duration of such a land bridge remains enigmatic.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gheerbrant|Rage|2006|loc=Introduction, p. 225}}</ref>

[[Pinaceae|Pine trees]] evolved in the early Mesozoic c. 250&nbsp;Mya and the [[List of Pinus species|pine genus]] originated in Laurasia in the Early Cretaceous c. 130&nbsp;Mya in competition with faster growing [[Flowering plant|flowering plants]].  Pines adapted to cold and arid climates in environments where the growing season was shorter or wildfire common; this evolution limited pine range to between 31° and 50° north and resulted in a split into two subgenera: ''[[List of Pinus species|Strobus]]'' adapted to stressful environments and ''[[Pine|Pinus]]'' to fire-prone landscapes. By the end of the Cretaceous, pines were established across Laurasia, from North America to East Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Keeley|2012|loc=Introduction, pp. 445–446; Mesozoic origin and diversification, pp. 450–451}}</ref>

From the Triassic to the Early Jurassic, before the break-up of Pangaea, [[archosaur]]s (crurotarsans, pterosaurs and dinosaurs including birds) had a global distribution, especially crurotarsans, the group ancestral to the [[Crocodilia|crocodilians]].  This cosmopolitanism ended as Gondwana fragmented and Laurasia was assembled.  [[Pterosaur]] diversity reach a maximum in the Late Jurassic—Early Cretaceous and plate tectonic didn't affect the distribution of these flying reptiles. Crocodilian ancestors also diversified during the Early Cretaceous but were divided into Laurasian and Gondwanan populations; true crocodilians evolved from the former. The distribution of the three major groups of [[dinosaur]]s&nbsp;– the [[Sauropoda|sauropods]], [[Theropoda|theropods]], and [[ornithischia]]ns&nbsp;– was similar to that of the crocodilians. East Asia remained isolated with endemic species including [[Psittacosaurus|psittacosaurs]] (horned dinosaurs) and [[Ankylosauridae]] (club-tailed, armoured dinosaurs).<ref>{{Harvnb|Milner|Milner|Evans|2000|p=319}}</ref>

Meanwhile, [[Mammal|mammals]] slowly settled in Laurasia from Gondwana in the Triassic, the latter of which was the living area of their Permian [[Therapsida|ancestors]]. They split in two groups, with [[australosphenida|one]] returning to Gondwana (and stayed there after Pangaea split) while [[Tribosphenida|the other]] staying in Laurasia (until further descendants switched to Gondwana starting from the [[Jurassic]]).

In the early Eocene, a peak in global warming led to a pan-Arctic fauna with alligators and amphibians present north of the Arctic Circle. In the early Paleogene, landbridges still connected continents, allowing land animals to migrate between them. On the other hand, submerged areas occasionally divided continents: the [[Turgai Strait]] separated Europe and Asia from the Middle Jurassic to the Oligocene and as this strait dried out, a massive faunal interchange took place and the resulting extinction event in Europe is known as the ''[[Eocene–Oligocene extinction event|Grande Coupure]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Milner|Milner|Evans|2000|p=328}}</ref>

The [[Coraciiformes]] (an order of birds including kingfishers) evolved in Laurasia. While this group now has a mostly tropical distribution, they originated in the Arctic in the late Eocene c. 35&nbsp;Mya from where they diversified across Laurasia and further south across the Equator.<ref>{{Harvnb|McCullough|Moyle|Smith|Andersen|2019|loc=Conclusion, p. 7}}</ref>

The placental mammal group of [[Laurasiatheria]] is named after Laurasia.

===Final split===
{{Multiple image | total_width = 600 | align = right | perrow = 3
 | image1 = Opening of North Atlantic 090Ma.jpg
 | image2 = Opening of North Atlantic 050Ma.jpg
 | image3 = Opening of North Atlantic 030Ma.jpg
 | footer = Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean at 90, 50, and 30 Mya
}}

In the Triassic–Early Jurassic (c. 200&nbsp;Mya), the opening of the Central [[Atlantic Ocean]] was preceded by the formation of a series of large rift basins, such as the [[Newark Basin]], between eastern North America, from what is today the Gulf of Mexico to Nova Scotia, and in Africa and Europe, from Morocco to Greenland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Olsen|1997|loc=Introduction, p. 338}}</ref>

By c. 83&nbsp;Mya spreading had begun in the North Atlantic between the [[Rockall Basin]], a continental fragment sitting on top of the Eurasian Plate, and North America. By 56&nbsp;Mya, Greenland had become an independent plate, separated from North America by the [[Canadian Arctic Rift System|Labrador Sea-Baffin Bay Rift]]. By 33&nbsp;Mya, spreading had ceased in the Labrador Sea and relocated to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seton|Müller|Zahirovic|Gaina|2012|loc=Rockall–North America/Greenland, p. 222}}</ref> The [[opening of the North Atlantic Ocean]] had effectively broken Laurasia in two.

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|Laurasia}}
* [[Laurasiatheria]]
* [[Laurasiformes]]

==References==
===Notes===
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{{Refend}}

{{Continents of Earth}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Former supercontinents]]
[[Category:Historical continents]]
[[Category:Carboniferous paleogeography]]
[[Category:Permian paleogeography]]
[[Category:Mesozoic paleogeography]]
[[Category:Paleocene paleogeography]]
[[Category:Natural history of North America]]
[[Category:Mesozoic North America]]
[[Category:Geology of Greenland]]
[[Category:Geology of North America]]
[[Category:Geology of Europe]]
[[Category:Geology of Asia]]
[[Category:Natural history of Europe]]
[[Category:Natural history of Asia]]