Editing Large-group awareness training

{{Short description|Behaviour modification training carried out in large groups}}
The term '''large-group awareness training''' ('''LGAT''') refers to activities—usually offered by groups with links to the [[human potential movement]]—which claim to increase [[self-awareness]] and to bring about desirable transformations in individuals' [[Personal life|personal lives]].<ref name="denniscoon">{{cite book |last= Coon |first= Dennis |title= Psychology: A Journey |publisher= Thomson Wadsworth |year= 2004 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/psychologyjourne00coon/page/520 520, 528, 538] |isbn= 0-534-63264-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/psychologyjourne00coon/page/520 }}</ref>
LGATs are unconventional; they often take place over several days,<ref name="structure">{{Cite thesis |chapter=Description of the Behavioral Structure of the Training |title=The politics of transformation: Recruitment-Indoctrination processes in a mass marathon psychology organization |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|year=1993|author=[[Philip Cushman]] | quote= The training is composed of successive sessions on Wednesday night, Thursday night, Friday night, Saturday day and night, Sunday day and night, a Tuesday night post-training session ten days after graduation, and a post-training interview. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Hughes
 | first1 = Steven James
 | title = Developmental Effects of Participation in a Large Group Awareness Training
 | year = 1998
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oVuqn4AwiGEC
 | publisher = University of Minnesota
 | publication-date = 1998
 | page = 2
 | access-date = 1 July 2021
 | quote = LGATs typically take place over the course of three to five days or over sequential weekends. The time spent in the trainings is intensive, normally consisting of 12 to 15 hour days. 
}}</ref> and may compromise participants' mental wellbeing.<ref name="lieberman"/><ref name="Haaken 1983"/>

LGAT programs may involve several hundred people at a time.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last        = Weigel
| first       = Richard G.
| year        = 2002
| title       = The marathon encounter group—vision and reality: Exhuming the body for a last look
| journal     = [[Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research]]
| volume      = 54
| issue       = 3
| pages       = 186–198
| publisher   = [[American Psychological Association]]
| issn        = 1065-9293
| quote       = The groups I'm talking about are est (and its more recent descendant, The Forum) and Lifespring, both of which use structured activities; involve several hundred or more participants and one central leader ...
| doi        = 10.1037/1061-4087.54.3.186
}}</ref>
Though early definitions cited LGATs as featuring unusually long durations, more recent texts{{which|date=December 2020}} describe trainings lasting from a few hours to a few days.

Forsyth and Corazzini cite Lieberman (1994) as suggesting "that at least 1.3 million Americans have taken part in LGAT sessions".<ref>{{Cite book
 | last1 = Forsyth
 | first1 = Donelson R.
 | author1-link = Donelson R. Forsyth
 | last2 = Corazzini
 | first2 = John G.
 | year = 2000
 | contribution = Groups as Change Agents
 | contribution-url = http://epsy.tamu.edu/uploads/files/Elliott/CPSY%20633%20-%20Group%20Counseling/Forsyth%20Corazzini%20chapter%202000%20no%20refs.pdf
 | editor-last = Snyder
 | editor-first = Charles Richard
 | editor-link = C. R. Snyder
 | editor2-last = Ingram
 | editor2-first = R E
 | title = Handbook of psychological change: Psychotherapy processes and practices for the 21st century
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Wiley
 | quote = Lieberman suggests that at least 1.3 million Americans have taken part in LGAT sessions.
 | access-date = 2009-09-28
 | archive-date = 2012-02-27
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120227080704/http://epsy.tamu.edu/uploads/files/Elliott/CPSY%20633%20-%20Group%20Counseling/Forsyth%20Corazzini%20chapter%202000%20no%20refs.pdf
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

==Definitions of LGAT==
In 2005 Rubinstein compared large-group awareness training to certain principles of [[cognitive therapy]], such as the idea that people can change their lives by reinterpreting the way they view external circumstances.<ref>
{{Cite journal
  | last = Rubinstein
  | first = Gidi
  | author-link = Gidi Rubinstein
  | title = Characteristics of participants in the Forum, psychotherapy clients, and control participants: A comparative study
  | journal = Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice
  | volume = 78
  | issue = 4
  | pages = 481–492
  | publisher = [[British Psychological Society]]
  | year = 2005
  | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/17be6d08e0657abb7c3bb9fa3f77ec66f05035cc
  | doi = 10.1348/147608305X42721
  | issn=1476-0835
  | pmid = 16354440  | s2cid = 13599890
  | quote = In general, LGATs espouse the idea that people are capable of changing their lives, not so much by modifying their external circumstances, but by changing the way they interpret them (Berger, 1977; Erhard & Gioscia, 1978), which is in accord with the principles of cognitive therapy (e.g. Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1985; Ellis, 1974; [[Donald Meichenbaum|Meichenbaum]], 1977). }}</ref>

In the 1997 collection of essays ''Consumer Research: Postcards from the edge'', discussing behavioral and economic studies, the authors contrast the "enclosed locations" used in Large Group Awareness Trainings with the relatively open environment of a "[[variety store]]".<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Brown
  | first = Stephen I.
  |author2=Darach Turley
  | title = Consumer Research: Postcards from the edge
  | publisher = Routledge
  | year= 1997
  | pages = [https://archive.org/details/consumerresearch00brow/page/n295 279]
  | url = https://archive.org/details/consumerresearch00brow
  | url-access = limited
  | isbn = 0-415-17317-5}}
</ref>{{qn|date=February 2021}}<ref>
{{cite book
 | year = 1997
 | editor1-last = Brown
 | editor1-first = Stephen
 | editor2-last = Turley
 | editor2-first = Darach
 | title = Consumer Research: Postcards From the Edge
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mW-FAgAAQBAJ
 | location = London
 | publisher = Routledge
 | publication-date = 2005
 | isbn = 9781134690022
 | access-date = 13 July 2020
}}
</ref>{{qn|date=July 2020}}{{page needed|date=February 2021}}

The ''Handbook of Group Psychotherapy'' (1994) characterised LGAT as focusing on "philosophical, psychological and ethical issues" relating "to [[personal effectiveness]], [[decision-making]], [[personal responsibility]], and commitment."<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Burlingame
  | first = Gary M.
  | title = Handbook of Group Psychotherapy: An Empirical and Clinical Synthesis
  | publisher = John Wiley and Sons
  | year= 1994
  | page = 535
  | isbn =  0-471-55592-4
  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DkstCYXmoAQC
  | access-date = 9 February 2021
  | quote = LGATs focus on philosophical, psychological, and ethical issues related to personal effectiveness, decision-making, personal responsibility, and commitment.
}}</ref><ref name="handbook">{{Cite book
  | last = Burlingame
  | first = Gary M.
  | title = Handbook of Group Psychotherapy: An Empirical and Clinical Synthesis
  | publisher = John Wiley and Sons
  | year= 1994
  | pages = 528, 532, 535, 539, 549, 550, 555, 556, 581, 583
  | isbn =  0-471-55592-4}}</ref>

[[Psychologist]] Dennis Coon's textbook, ''Psychology: A Journey'', defines the LGAT as referring to programs claiming "to increase [[self-awareness]] and facilitate constructive personal change".<ref>
{{cite book
|last= Coon
|first= Dennis
|title= Psychology: A Journey
|publisher= Thomson Wadsworth
|year= 2004
|page = 520
|isbn= 0-534-63264-5
|url= https://archive.org/details/psychologyjourne00coon/page/520
|quote = '''Large-group awareness training''' refers to programs that claim to increase self-awareness and facilitate constructive personal change.
}}</ref> Coon further defines Large Group Awareness Training in his book ''Introduction to Psychology''.<ref name="coonintroduction">{{Cite book
  | last = Coon
  | first = Dennis
  | title = Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior
  | publisher = Thomson Wadsworth
  | year=2003
  | pages = 648, 649, 655
  | isbn = 0-495-59913-1
}}</ref>{{qn|date=July 2020}} Coon and Mitterer emphasize the commercial nature of several LGAT organizations.<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Coon
 | first1 = Dennis
 | last2 = Mitterer
 | first2 = John O.
 | chapter = Therapies
 | title = Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vw20LEaJe10C
 | series = CengageNOW Series
 | others = 12
 | publisher = Cengage Learning
 | date = 2010
 | page = 513
 | isbn = 9780495599111
 | access-date = 13 July 2020
 | quote = '''Large-group awareness training''' refers to programs that claim to increase self-awareness and facilitate constructive personal change. The Garden Company, Lifespring, the Forum, the Hoffman Quadrinity Process, and similar commercial programs are examples. ...  '''Large-group awareness training'''[:] Any of a number of programs (many of them commercialized) that claim to increase self-awareness and facilitate constructive personal change.
}}</ref>

==The evolution of LGAT providers==

Lou Kilzer, writing in ''[[The Rocky Mountain News]]'', identified [[Leadership Dynamics]] (in operation 1967–1973) as "the first of the genre psychologists call 'large group awareness training'".<ref>
{{Cite news
  | last = Kilzer
  | first = Lou
  | title = Desperate Measures Network of Behavior Modification Compounds Known as Teen Help Has Straightened Out Hundreds of Defiant Adolescents, But Its Methods Aren't For the Faint-hearted.
  | work = [[Rocky Mountain News]]
  | publisher = [[E. W. Scripps Company]]
  | date=July 18, 1999
  }}<br />"The first of the genre psychologists call "large group awareness training" was the Leadership Dynamics Institute..."
</ref>
Leadership Dynamics directly or indirectly influenced several permutations of large-group transformation trainings.{{citation needed|date= June 2017}} [[Werner Erhard]] (successively associated with [[Erhard Seminars Training]] (est or EST), [[Werner Erhard and Associates|WE&A]] and [[Landmark Education]]) trained as an instructor with Mind Dynamics.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Lande
 | first1 = Nathaniel
 | author-link1 = Nathaniel Lande
 | title = Mindstyles, Lifestyles: A Comprehensive Overview of Today's Life-changing Philosophies
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EgYrAAAAMAAJ
 | publisher = Price/Stern/Sloan
 | date = 1976
 | isbn = 9780843104097
 | access-date = 22 January 2020
 | quote = ... Werner Erhard trained as a Mind Dynamics instructor ...
}}
</ref>
Michael Langone notes that Erhard Seminars Training (est) became in the popular mind the archetype for LGATs.<ref name="langone">{{Cite journal
  | last = Langone
  | first = Michael
  | author-link = Michael Langone
  | title = Large Group Awareness Trainings
  | journal = Cult Observer
  | publisher = [[International Cultic Studies Association]]
  | volume = 15
  | issue = 1
  | year = 1998
  | url = http://www.csj.org/rg/rgessays/rgessay_lgate.htm
  | issn = 1539-0152
  | access-date = 2017-06-11
  | quote = In the 1960s the encounter group movement was born.  Advocating enhanced communication and intensified experience, this movement evolved into something that was part psychotherapy, part spirituality, and part business. In some scholarly articles, these groups were referred to as "large group awareness trainings" or LGATs. Erhard Seminars Training (est) was the most successful of these groups, and it has been widely imitated. Even though it no longer officially exists, in the minds of many est is identified with the entire LGAT movement. It is in a sense the progenitor of a myriad of programs that have been marketed to the public and the business community.
  | archive-date = 2019-05-08
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190508224107/http://www.csj.org/rg/rgessays/rgessay_lgate.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref>

While working for [[Holiday Magic]], [[Lifespring]] founder John Hanley attended a course at Leadership Dynamics.<ref>
{{cite news 
  | last = Fisher
  | first = Marc
  | title = I Cried Enough to Fill a Glass: In One Lifespring Session, Trainees May Find Themselves Crawling on Their Hands and Knees, Wailing Like Infants and Tightly Hugging 200 Total Strangers - All to Get Control of Their Lives. Does it Work? Sometimes.
  | newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]
  | publisher = 1987 The Washington Post
  | date = October 25, 1987 
}}
</ref>
Chris Mathe, at the time a [[PhD]] candidate in [[clinical psychology]], wrote that most of the current commercial forms of Large Group Awareness Training {{as of | 1999 | lc = on}} were modeled after the Leadership Dynamics Institute.<ref name="mathe">{{cite web |last=Mathe |first=Chris |url=http://perso.orange.fr/eldon.braun/awareness/choosingx.htm |title=Choosing a Personal Growth Program: Ten questions to help you make an informed decision |year=1999 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714043544/http://perso.orange.fr/eldon.braun/awareness/choosingx.htm |archive-date=2006-07-14 |quote=Most of today’s commercial LGATs are modeled after the Leadership Dynamics Institute (LDI), a program developed by William Penn Patrick in the early 1960s.}}</ref>{{sps|date=July 2022}}

==Academic analyses, studies==
"Large Group Awareness Training", a 1982 [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] article published in ''[[Annual Review of Psychology]]'', sought to summarize literature on the subject of LGATs and to examine their efficacy and their relationship with more standard [[psychology]]. This academic article describes and analyzes large group awareness training as influenced by the work of [[humanistic psychology|humanistic psychologists]] such as [[Carl Rogers]], [[Abraham Maslow]] and [[Rollo May]].<ref>
See for example {{harvnb|Fisher|Silver|Goff|1990|p=1}}. Quote: "Large Group Awareness Training: An Historical Context. Groups associated with the human potential movement have been a controversial feature of American life during the last three decades."</ref>

LGATs as commercial trainings took many techniques from [[encounter group]]s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} They existed alongside but "outside the domains of academic psychology or psychiatry. Their measure of performance was consumer satisfaction and formal research was seldom pursued."<ref name="finkelstein" />

The article describes an ''est'' training, and discusses the literature on the [[testimony]] of ''est'' graduates. It notes minor changes on psychological tests after the training and mentions anecdotal reports of psychiatric casualties among est trainees. The article considers how est compares to more standard psychotherapy techniques such as [[behavior therapy]], [[group psychotherapy|group]] and [[existential psychotherapy]] before concluding with a call for "objective and rigorous research" and stating that unknown variables might have accounted for some of the positive accounts. Psychologists advised [[Borderline personality disorder|borderline]] or [[psychosis|psychotic]] patients not to participate.<ref name="finkelstein">{{Cite journal
  | last = Finkelstein
  | first = P.
  |author2=Wenegrat, B. |author3=Yalom, I.
  | title = Large Group Awareness Training
  | journal = [[Annual Review of Psychology]]
  | volume = 33
  | issue = 1| pages = 515–539
  | publisher = [[Calvin Perry Stone]]
  |year=1982
  | doi =10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.002503
  |issn=0066-4308
  }}
{{Request quotation|date=August 2009}}
</ref>

Psychological factors cited by academics{{clarify|date=November 2021|reason=in what context?}} include emotional "[[Flooding (psychology)|flooding]]", [[catharsis]], [[universality (philosophy)|universality]] (identification with others), the instillation of hope, identification and what [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]] called "uncontested authorship".<ref name="finkelstein"/>

In 1989 researchers from the [[University of Connecticut]] received the "National Consultants to Management Award" from the [[American Psychological Association]] for their study: ''[[Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training]]''.<ref name="evaluating">{{Cite book
  | last1 = Fisher
  | first1 = Jeffrey D.
  | author-link = Jeffrey D. Fisher |last2=Silver |first2=Chinsky |last3=Goff |first3=Klar
  | title = Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training
  | publisher = Springer-Verlag
  |year=1990
  | page = vii
  | isbn =  978-0-387-97320-3  | title-link = Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training
 }} The research reported in this volume was awarded the American Psychological Association, Division 13, National Consultants to Management Award, August 13, 1989.
</ref>

Psychologist Chris Mathe has written in the interests of [[consumer protection|consumer-protection]], encouraging potential attendees of LGATs to discuss such trainings with any current therapist or counselor, to examine the principles underlying the program, and to determine pre-screening methods, the training of facilitators, the full cost of the training and of any suggested follow-up care.<ref name="mathe"/>
One study noted the many difficulties in evaluating LGATs, from proponents' explicit rejection of certain study models to difficulty in establishing a rigorous [[control group]].<ref name="finkelstein" />  In some cases, organizations under study have partially funded research into themselves.<ref name="lieberman" />

Not all professional researchers view LGATs favorably. Researchers such as psychologist Philip Cushman,<ref>Cushman, "Iron Fists/Velvet Gloves: A Study of A Mass Marathon Psychology Training", ''Psychotherapy'' vol 26, Spring 1989.</ref> for example, found that the program he studied "consists of a pre-meditated attack on the self". A 1983 study on Lifespring<ref name="Haaken 1983">{{cite journal | last1=Haaken | first1=Janice | last2=Adams | first2=Richard | title=Pathology as 'Personal Growth': A Participant-Observation Study of Lifespring Training | journal=Psychiatry | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=46 | issue=3 | year=1983 | issn=0033-2747 | doi=10.1080/00332747.1983.11024199 | pages=270–280}}</ref> found that "although participants often experience a heightened sense of well-being as a consequence of the training, the phenomenon is essentially pathological", meaning that, in the program studied, "the training systematically undermines [[Id, ego and super-ego|ego]] functioning and promotes regression to the extent that [[reality testing]] is significantly impaired". Lieberman's 1987 study,<ref name="lieberman">{{cite journal | last=Lieberman |first=M. A. | title=Effects of large group awareness training on participants' psychiatric status | journal=American Journal of Psychiatry | publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing | volume=144 | issue=4 | date=April 1987 | issn=0002-953X | doi=10.1176/ajp.144.4.460 | pages=460–464 |pmid=3565614 }}</ref> funded partially by Lifespring, noted that 5 out of a sample of 289 participants experienced "[[Stress (medicine)|stress]] reactions" including one "transitory psychotic episode". He commented: "Whether [these five] would have experienced such stress under other conditions cannot be answered. The clinical evidence, however, is that the reactions were directly attributable to the large group awareness training."

In 2003 the [[Holy See|Vatican]] reported its study results about [[New Age]] training courses:

{{blockquote|text=''New Age'' training courses (what used to be known as "Erhard seminar trainings" [EST] etc.) marry [[counter-culture|counter-cultural]] values with the mainstream need to succeed, inner satisfaction with outer success ...|source=[[A Christian reflection on the New Age]]<ref>{{cite web
 |url          = https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_new-age_en.html
 |title        = A Christian reflection on the "New Age"
 |editor=[[Pontifical Council for Culture]] |editor2=[[Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue]]
 |website      = [[Holy See|The Vatican]]
 |access-date   = 2013-11-30}}</ref>}}

In Coon's psychology textbook (''Introduction to Psychology'') the author references many other studies, which postulate that many of the "claimed benefits" of Large Group Awareness Training actually take the form of "a kind of therapy placebo effect".<ref name="coonintroduction" />

Jarvis described Large Group Awareness Training as "educationally dubious" in the 2002 book ''The Theory & Practice of Teaching''.<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Jarvis
  | first = Peter
  | title = The Theory & Practice of Teaching
  | publisher = Routledge
  | year = 2002
  | pages = 97
  | url = https://archive.org/details/theorypracticeof0000unse_i2p1/page/97
  | isbn = 0-7494-3409-0
  }}</ref>

Tapper mentions that "some {{interp|unspecified}} large group-awareness training and psychotherapy groups" exemplify non-religious "cults".<ref name="Tapper">
{{Cite journal
  | last = Tapper
  | first = A
  | title = The Impact of Cults on Health
  | journal = Nursing Spectrum
  |date=September 2002
  | url = http://www.reveal.org/library/psych/The%20Impact%20of%20Cults%20on%20Health.pdf
  }}
</ref>
Benjamin criticizes LGAT groups for their high prices and [[spirituality|spiritual]] subtleties.<ref>
{{Cite journal
  | last = Benjamin  | first = Elliot
  | title = Spirituality and Cults
  | journal = Integral Science
  | date=June 2005
  | url = http://www.integralscience.org/spiritualitycults.pdf
  | access-date = 2013-11-30
  | quote = ... the dogma, recruitment focus, and high prices of Avatar courses are in themselves enough reason to be very much on guard with this organization.
}}
</ref>

==LGAT techniques==
Specific techniques used in some Large Group Awareness Trainings may include:

* [[meditation]]<ref name="techniques">[http://caic.org.au/psyther/lgat/singer.htm "Intruding into the Workplace"], [[Margaret Singer]], excerpted from
{{Cite book
 | last = Singer
 | first = Margaret
 | author-link = Margaret Singer
 | author2 = Janja Lalich
 | title = Cults in our Midst
 | url = https://archive.org/details/cultsinourmidst00sing
 | access-date = November 19, 2007
 | year = 1995
 | publisher = Jossey-Bass Publishers
 | location = San Francisco
 | isbn = 0-7879-0051-6
 | quote = Aside from complaining that they were being put through programs tantamount to a forced religious conversion, employees also objected to specific techniques being used: meditation, neurolinguistic programming, biofeedback, self-hypnosis, bizarre relaxation techniques, mind control, body touching, yoga, trance inductions, visualization, and in some cases, intense confrontational sessions akin to the "attack" therapy methods that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.
 }}</ref>
* [[biofeedback]]<ref name="techniques" />
* [[jargon]]<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Hughes
 | first1 = Steven James
 | title = Developmental Effects of Participation in a Large Group Awareness Training
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oVuqn4AwiGEC
 | publisher = University of Minnesota
 | date = 1998
 | page = 53
 | access-date = 18 Apr 2019
 | quote = Many LGAT principles are codified in catch phrases .... Many such phrases form the unique vocabulary that emerges as the training progresses. Use of LGAT 'jargon' (e.g., 'I got it,' 'that works for me,' 'get off automatic,' and 'shift!') may signal acceptance of LGAT norms ....
}}
</ref>
* [[self-hypnosis]]<ref name="techniques" />
* [[relaxation technique]]s<ref name="techniques" />
* [[Creative visualization|visualization]]<ref name="techniques" />
* [[neuro-linguistic programming]]<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Partridge
  | first = C.
  | title = New Religions: A Guide; New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities
  | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
  | year=2004
  | pages = 407
  | url = http://skepdic.com/lgsap.html
  | isbn = 0-19-522042-0 }}</ref>
* [[yoga]]<ref name="techniques" />

LGATs utilize such techniques during long sessions, sometimes called "[[marathon]]" sessions. Paglia describes "EST's Large Group Awareness Training": "Marathon, eight-hour sessions, in which [participants] were confined and harassed, supposedly led to the breakdown of conventional ego, after which they were in effect [[born again]]."<ref>
{{Cite journal
 |last= Paglia |first= Camille
 |title= Cults and Cosmic Consciousness: Religious Vision in the American 1960s
 |journal= Arion |volume=10 |issue =3 |page= 106
 |publisher= [[Boston University]] |date= Winter 2003
 |url= http://www.bu.edu/arion/paglia_cults.pdf
 |access-date= August 5, 2009
 |url-status= dead
 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090724113754/http://www.bu.edu/arion/paglia_cults.pdf
 |archive-date= July 24, 2009
}}
</ref>

Finkelstein's 1982 article provides a detailed description of the structure and techniques of an Erhard Seminars Training event—techniques similar to those used in some [[group therapy]] and encounter groups.<ref name="finkelstein" />  The academic textbook, ''Handbook of Group Psychotherapy'' regards Large Group Awareness Training organisations as "less open to leader differences",{{clarify|date=November 2021|reason=less open than what or who?}} because they follow a "detailed written plan" that does not vary from one training to the next.<ref name="handbook" />

In his book [[Life 102 (book)|''Life 102'']], LGAT participant and former trainer [[Peter McWilliams]] describes the basic technique of marathon trainings as ''pressure/release'' and asserts that [[advertising]] uses pressure/release "all the time", as do "[[good cop/bad cop]]" police-interrogations and [[revival meeting]]s. By spending approximately half the time making a person feel bad and then suddenly reversing the feeling through effusive praise, the programs cause participants to experience a stress-reaction and an "[[endorphin]] high". McWilliams gives examples of various LGAT activities called ''processes'' with names such as "love bomb", "lifeboat", "cocktail party" and "cradling", which take place over many hours and days, physically exhausting the participants to make them more susceptible to the trainer's message, whether in the participants' best interests or not.<ref name="life102">{{Cite book|title=Life 102: What To Do When Your Guru Sues You|last=McWilliams|first=Peter|author-link=Peter McWilliams|year=1994|isbn=0-931580-34-X|publisher=Mary Book / Prelude Press |place=Los Angeles |pages=6–7}}</ref>

Although extremely critical of some LGATs, McWilliams found positive value in others{{which|date=April 2019}}, asserting that they varied not in technique but in the application of technique.<ref name="life102" />

==LGATs and the anti-cult movement==

After commissioning a report in 1983 by the [[APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control]] (DIMPAC) chaired by [[anti-cult movement| anti-cult]] psychologist [[Margaret Singer]], the American Psychological Association (APA) subsequently rejected<ref name="apamemo">[http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/mdtaskforce/bserp_loomis.htm American Psychological Association Memorandum of 11 May 1987] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060901094743/http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/mdtaskforce/bserp_loomis.htm |date=2006-09-01}} - "BSERP thanks the Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control for Its service but Is unable to accept the report of the Task Force. In general, the report lacks the scientific rigor and evenhanded critical approach necessary for APA Imprimatur."</ref> and strongly criticised <ref name="apabrief">[http://www.cesnur.org/testi/molko_brief.htm CESNUR – APA Brief in the Molko Case]</ref> the 1986 DIMPAC report, which included large group awareness trainings as one example of what it called "[[coercive persuasion]]".{{cn|date=September 2023}} In 1997 the APA characterized Singer's hypotheses as "uninformed speculations based on skewed data".<ref name="apabrief" />{{dead link|date=September 2023}} It stated in 1987 that the report generally lacked "the scientific rigor and evenhanded critical approach necessary for APA imprimatur."<ref name="apamemo" /> The APA also stated that "the specific methods by which Drs. Singer and Benson have arrived at their conclusions have also been rejected by all serious scholars in the field."<ref name="apabrief" />{{dead link|date=September 2023}}
Singer sued the APA, and lost on June 17, 1994.<ref name="singersuit">[http://www.cesnur.org/testi/singer.htm Decision Against Margaret Singer (CESNUR)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Despite the APA rejection of her task-force's report, Singer remained in good standing among psychology researchers.<ref>Blim, Andrew: 'Cult Experts Sue Lawyers, Others" in ''[[National Law Journal]]'', August 31, 1992, Vol 33, Issue 19: "Berkeley professors Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe ... are viewed by even the lawyer-defendants as reputable scholars".</ref> Singer reworked much of the DIMPAC report material into the book ''[[Cults in Our Midst]]'' (1995, second edition: 2003), which she co-authored with [[Janja Lalich]].

Singer and Lalich state that "large group awareness trainings" tend to last at least four days and usually five.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Singer
 |first1               = Margaret Thaler
 |author-link1         = Margaret Singer
 |date                 = 11 April 2003
 |orig-date            = 1995
 |chapter              = Intruding into the Workplace
 |title                = Cults in Our Midst: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=OourEAAAQBAJ
 |edition              = revised
 |publication-place    = San Francisco
 |publisher            = John Wiley & Sons
 |page                 = 192
 |isbn                 = 9780787967413
 |access-date          = 20 September 2023
 |quote                = LGAT programs tend to last at least four days and usually five.
}} 
</ref>
Their book mentions Erhard Seminars Training ("est") and similar undertakings, such as the [[Landmark Forum]], Lifespring, Actualizations, [[Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness |MSIA]]/Insight and [[PSI Seminars]].

In ''Cults in our Midst'', Singer differentiated between the usage of the terms ''cult'' and ''Large Group Awareness Training'',<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Singer
 |first1               = Margaret Thaler
 |author-link1         = Margaret Singer
 |date                 = 11 April 2003
 |orig-date            = 1995
 |chapter              = Defining Cults
 |title                = Cults in Our Midst: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=OourEAAAQBAJ
 |edition              = revised
 |publication-place    = San Francisco
 |publisher            = John Wiley & Sons
 |page                 = 4
 |isbn                 = 9780787967413
 |access-date          = 20 September 2023
 |quote                = The first [category] is made up of the cults and cultlike groups who expose their recruits and members to organized psychological and social persuasion processes designed to produce attitudinal changes and to establish remarkable degrees of control by the group over these recruits' and members' lives. These cults deceive, manipulate, and exploit their members and hope to keep them for as long as possible. The second category consists of the commercially sold large group awareness training programs and other 'self-improvement,' psychology-based or miscellaneaous organizations that use similar intense coordinated persuasion processes but ordinarily do not intend to keep their customers for long periods of membership. They prefer that adherents buy more courses and products and bring in more customers, staying around for perhaps a year or two.
}} 
</ref><ref name="ourmidst">{{Cite book|title= Cults in our Midst|last= Singer|first= Margaret|author-link= Margaret Singer|isbn= 0-7879-0266-7|year= 1996|publisher=[[Jossey-Bass]]|chapter=Intruding into the Workplace|chapter-url= http://caic.org.au/psyther/lgat/singer.htm|title-link=Cults in our Midst}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} while pointing out some commonalities.<ref>{{Cite book|last= Singer |first= Margaret Thaler |author-link= Margaret Singer |others= with [[Janja Lalich]] ; foreword by [[Robert Jay Lifton]] |title= Cults in our midst |series= Jossey-Bass social and behavioral science series |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7cQAQAAIAAJ |access-date= May 26, 2010 |year= 1995 |publisher= Jossey-Bass Publishers |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-7879-0051-6 |pages=381}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite book
|last= Singer
|first= Margaret Thaler
|author-link= Margaret Singer
|others= with [[Janja Lalich]]; foreword by [[Robert Jay Lifton]]
|title= Cults in our midst
|series= Jossey-Bass social and behavioral science series
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7cQAQAAIAAJ
|access-date=May 26, 2010
|year= 1995
|publisher= Jossey-Bass Publishers
|location= San Francisco
|isbn= 0-7879-0051-6
|page= 85
|quote= ... cultic groups use large group awareness training (LGAT) techniques ...
}}
</ref>
Elsewhere she groups the two phenomena together, in that they both use a shared set of thought-reform techniques.<ref>
{{Cite book
 | last = Singer | first = Margaret Thaler | author-link = Margaret Singer
 | contribution = The Process of Brainwashing, Psychological Coercion, and Thought Reform
 | editor-last = Dawson | editor-first = Lorne L. | editor-link = Lorne L. Dawson
 | title = Cults and new religious movements: a reader
 | edition = 2nd
 | series = Blackwell readings in religion
 | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
 | volume = 2
 | pages = 149–150
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nHMQrhbpEz0C
 | isbn = 978-1-4051-0181-3
 | access-date = May 26, 2010
 | quote = There is ... an important distinction ... between the version of thought reform prevalent in the 1940s and 1950s and the version used by a number of contemporary groups, including cults, large group awareness training programs, and assorted other groups. These latter-day efforts have built upon the age-old influence techniques to perfect amazingly successful programs of persuasion and change. What's new – and crucial – is that these programs change attitudes by attacking essential aspects of a person's sense of self, unlike the earlier brainwashing programs that primarily confronted a person's political beliefs.
 | year = 2003
 }}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Singer
 |first1               = Margaret Thaler
 |author-link1         = Margaret Singer
 |date                 = 11 April 2003
 |orig-date            = 1995
 |chapter              = Defining Cults
 |title                = Cults in Our Midst: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=OourEAAAQBAJ
 |edition              = revised
 |publication-place    = San Francisco
 |publisher            = John Wiley & Sons
 |page                 = 4
 |isbn                 = 9780787967413
 |access-date          = 20 September 2023
 |quote                = Thus groups in both categories use thought-reform processes.
}} 
</ref>

==See also==
* [[Brainwashing]]
* [[Multi-level marketing]]
* [[List of large-group awareness training organizations]]
* [[Group dynamics]]
* [[Crowd psychology]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Wikiquote}}
===Books===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|last=Carroll|first=Robert Todd|author-link=Robert Todd Carroll|year=2003|title=The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=0-471-27242-6|title-link=Skeptic's Dictionary}}
{{Refend}}

===Articles===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=EJ408249|title=Psychological Effects of Participation in a Large Group Awareness Training|last1=Fisher|first1=Jeffrey|journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=57|issue=6|pages=747–755|date=December 1989 | access-date =May 26, 2007|doi=10.1037/0022-006X.57.6.747|last2=Silver|first2=Roxane C.|last3=Chinsky|first3=Jack M.|last4=Goff|first4=Barry|display-authors=etal}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Klar|first1=Yechiel|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=EJ412831 |title=Characteristics of Participants in a Large Group Awareness Training |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology|volume=58|issue=1|pages=99–108|date=February 1990 | access-date =May 26, 2007 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.58.1.99 |pmid=2319051|last2=Mendola |first2=R|last3=Fischer|first3=JD|last4=Silver |first4=RC|last5=Chinsky|first5=JM |last6=Goff |first6=B}}
* {{Cite book|title=Self Change|last=Lieberman|first=MA|chapter=Perceptions of Changes in the Self: The Impact of Life Events and Large Group Awareness Training |pages=43–61|year=1992|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2922-3_3|isbn=978-1-4612-7720-0}}
* {{Cite thesis|title=Self system factors as an index of change in large group awareness training|author=Joyce, N|year=1992|publisher=[[San Francisco State University]]}}
* {{Cite thesis|title=The Children of est: A study of the Experience and Perceived Effects of a Large Group Awareness Training (The Forum)|author=Denison, Charles Wayne|publisher=[[University of Denver]]|year=1994}}
* {{Cite thesis|title=Large Group Awareness Training in the 1990s: The Participants' Perspective|author=Odell, Susan|publisher=[[University of Leeds]] (School of Medicine)|year=2001}}
* {{Cite journal |title=Description of the Behavioral Structure of the Training|first=Philip|last=Cushman|journal=The Politics of Transformation}}
* {{Cite thesis |title=Negotiating the Self in Society: A Large Group Awareness Training Program as a Cultural Scene|first=K|last=Neiman}}
* Polaski, Mary. "The Mary Polaski "L" Series"
{{refend}}

===Media/Press===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite news |last1=Bradley |first1=Paul |title=Be here and now: Adam Smith on wither self-actualization in the '80s |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_boston-phoenix_1982-02-23_11_8/page/n99/mode/1up |access-date=August 4, 2024 |work=The Boston Phoenix |date=February 23, 1982}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.salon.com/2005/08/02/therapist_lgat|title= My therapist is hawking awareness training|work=[[Salon.com|Salon]] |last=Tennis |first=Cary |date=August 2, 2005|access-date=May 26, 2007}}
* {{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943274,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501110837/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943274,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 1, 2007|title=Human Potential: The Revolution in Feeling|date=November 9, 1970|magazine=[[Time Magazine]]|access-date=May 26, 2007}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.houstonpress.com/1999-05-20/news/lifting-principals-spilling-guts/|title=Lifting Principals, Spilling Guts|date=May 20, 1999|newspaper=[[Houston Press]]|access-date=December 13, 2009}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Large-group awareness training| ]]
[[Category:Group processes]]
[[Category:Human Potential Movement]]
[[Category:Personal development]]