Editing Khosrow II

{{Short description|Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire from 590 to 628}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Khosrow II<br>{{lang|pal|𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩}}
| title        = [[King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians]]
| image        = KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg
| image_size   = 220px
| alt          = 
| caption      = [[Gold dinar]] of Khosrow II, minted in 611
| succession   = [[List of shahanshahs of the Sasanian Empire|Shahanshah]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]
| reign1       = 590
| reign-type1  = 1st reign
| predecessor1 = [[Hormizd IV]]
| successor1   = [[Bahram Chobin]]
| reign2       = 591 – 25 February 628
| reign-type2  = 2nd reign
| predecessor2 = Bahram Chobin
| successor2   = [[Kavad II]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|570}}
| birth_place  = 
| death_date   = {{death date|628|2|28|df=y}} (aged 57–58)
| death_place  = [[Ctesiphon]]
| burial_place = 
| royal house  = [[House of Sasan]]
| dynasty      = 
| father       = [[Hormizd IV]]
| mother       = Unnamed [[House of Ispahbudhan|Ispahbudhan]] noblewoman
| spouse       = {{plainlist|
* [[Maria (daughter of Maurice)|Maria]]
* [[Gordiya]]
* [[Shirin]]
}}
| spouse-type  = Consort
| religion     = [[Zoroastrianism]]
| issue        = [[#Family|See below]]
}}

'''Khosrow II''' (spelled '''Chosroes II''' in classical sources; {{langx|pal|𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩|Husrō}} and ''Khosrau''), commonly known as '''Khosrow Parviz''' ([[Persian language|New Persian]]: {{lang|fa|خسرو پرویز}}, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] [[Sasanian king|King of Kings]] ([[Shahanshah]]) of [[Pre-Islamic Iran|Iran]], ruling from 590 to 628, with an interruption of one year.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}

Khosrow II was the son of [[Hormizd IV]] (reigned 579–590), and the grandson of [[Khosrow I]] (reigned 531–579). He was the last king of Iran to have a lengthy reign before the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of Iran]], which began five years after his execution. He lost his throne, then recovered it with the help of the Byzantine emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], and, a decade later, went on to emulate the feats of the [[Achaemenids]], conquering the rich [[Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire|Roman provinces]] of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and [[Sasanian civil war of 589–591|struggling against usurpers]] such as [[Bahram Chobin]] and [[Vistahm]].

Khosrow II began [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|a war against the Byzantines]] in 602, ostensibly to avenge the murder of his ally Maurice. Persian forces captured much of the Byzantine Empire's territories, earning Khosrow II the epithet "the Victorious". A [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of the Byzantine capital]] of Constantinople in 626 was unsuccessful, and [[Heraclius]], now [[Third Perso-Turkic War|allied with Turks]], started a risky but successful counterattack deep into Persia's heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the feudal families of the empire supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power as [[Kavad II]]. This led to [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632|a civil war and interregnum]] in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Byzantines.

In works of [[Persian literature]] such as the [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'' and [[Nizami Ganjavi]]'s (1141–1209) ''[[Khosrow and Shirin]]'', a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a king. ''Khosrow and Shirin'' tells the story of his love for the originally Aramean princess [[Shirin]], who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.

== Name ==
{{main|Khosrow (word)|l1=''Khosrow'' (word)}}
{{Lang|fa-Latn|Khosrow}} is the [[New Persian]] variant of his name used by scholars; in [[Middle Persian]], his name is {{Lang|pal-Latn|Husraw}}, which derives from [[Avestan]] {{Lang|ae-Latn|Haosrauuah}} ("he who has good fame").{{sfn|Skjærvø|2000}}{{sfn|Nicholson|Canepa|Daryaee|2018}} The name is rendered in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''Chosroes'' ({{Lang|grc|Χοσρόης}}) and in [[Arabic]] as ''Kisra''.{{sfn|Nicholson|Canepa|Daryaee|2018}} He was given the epithet {{Lang|pal-Latn|Abarwēz}} (New Persian {{Lang|fa-Latn|Parwēz}} / {{Lang|fa-Latn|Parviz}}), meaning "victorious."{{Sfn|Börm|2020}} His name in combination with the epithet {{Lang|pal-Latn|Abarwēz}} is attested in [[Georgian language|Georgian]] as {{Lang|oge-Latn|K‛asre Ambarvez}} ([[Pseudo-Juansher]], writing around the year 800){{sfn|Rapp|2014|page=341}} and in Armenian as {{Lang|xcl-Latn|Aprouēz Xosrov}}.{{sfn|Schmitt|Bailey|1986}}

== Background ==
Khosrow II was born in {{circa|570}}; he was the son of [[Hormizd IV]] and an unnamed noblewoman from the [[House of Ispahbudhan]], one of the [[Seven Great Houses of Iran]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Her brothers, [[Vinduyih]] and [[Vistahm]], were to have a profound influence in Khosrow II's early life.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Khosrow's paternal grandfather was the famed Sasanian shah [[Khosrow I|Khosrow I Anushirvan]] ({{reign|531|579}}), whilst his paternal grandmother was the daughter of the [[khagan]] of the [[Khazars]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}} Khosrow is first mentioned in the 580s, when he was at [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Partaw]], the capital of [[Caucasian Albania]]. During his stay there, he served as the governor of the kingdom, and managed to put an end to the [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Iberia]] and make it into a [[Sasanian Iberia|Sasanian province]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Furthermore, Khosrow II also served as the governor of [[Erbil|Arbela]] in [[Mesopotamia]] sometime before his accession to the throne.{{sfn|Hansman|1986|pp=277–278}}

== Rebellion of Bahram Chobin ==
=== Overthrow of Hormizd IV and accession ===
[[Image:Hormidziv.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of [[Hormizd IV]]]]
In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general [[Bahram Chobin]] disgraced and dismissed. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions, [[Sasanian civil war of 589-591|responded by rebelling]], and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor for [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and afterwards set out for the Sasanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]].{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} The legitimacy of the [[House of Sasan]] was based on acceptance that the halo of kingship, the ''[[xwarrah]]'', was given to the first Sasanian shah, [[Ardashir I]] ({{reign|224|242}}) and his family following the latter's conquest of the [[Parthian Empire]].{{sfn|Shayegan|2013|p=810}} This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.{{sfn|Shayegan|2013|p=810}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=96}}

Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who according to the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] writer [[Joshua the Stylite]], both "equally hated Hormizd".{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}} The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}} They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1985–2007|loc=v. 5: p. 49}} Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=178}}

Khosrow then took a [[carrot and stick]] attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram Chobin, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done."{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=241}}

=== Fight ===
[[File:The Night Attack of Bahram Chubina on the Army of Khusraw Parvis LACMA M.2009.44.3 (2 of 8).jpg|thumb|right|Bahram Chobin fighting Sasanian loyalists near [[Ctesiphon]]]]
Bahram Chobin, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached the [[Nahrawan Canal]] near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram Chobin's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram Chobin's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and a [[retinue]] of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram Chobin.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Bahram Chobin declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian king [[Ardashir I]] ({{reign|224|242}}) had usurped the throne of the [[Parthian Empire|Arsacids]], and that he now was restoring their rule.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}

Bahram Chobin tried to support his cause with the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] belief that by the end of [[Zoroaster]]'s millennium, chaos and destructive wars with the Hephthalites/Huns and the Romans occurs and then a savior would appear. Indeed, the Sasanians had misidentified Zoroaster's era with that of the [[Seleucids]] (312 BC), which put Bahram Chobin's life almost at the end of Zoroaster's millennium, he was therefore hailed by many as the promised savior Kay Bahram Varjavand.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Bahram was to re-establish the [[Arsacid Empire]] and commenced a new millennium of dynastic rule. He started minting coins, where he is on the front imitated as an exalted figure, bearded and wearing a [[crenellation]]-shaped crown with two crescents of the moon, whilst the reverse shows the traditional [[fire altar]] flanked by two attendants.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Regardless, many nobles and priests still chose to side with the inexperienced and less dominant Khosrow II.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}

In order to get the attention of the Byzantine emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (r. 582–602), Khosrow II went to [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], and sent a message to the Sasanian occupied city of [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Martyropolis]] to stop their resistance against the Byzantines, but with no avail.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=172}} He then sent a message to Maurice, and requested his help to regain the Sasanian throne, which the Byzantine emperor agreed with; in return, the Byzantines would re-gain sovereignty over the cities of [[Diyarbakır|Amida]], [[Harran|Carrhae]], [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]] and [[Silvan, Turkey|Martyropolis]]. Furthermore, Iran was required to stop intervening in the affairs of [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]] and [[Armenia]], effectively ceding control of [[Lazica|Lazistan]] to the Byzantines.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}

===Return to Iran===
[[Image:The battle between kusrau parvis and Bhram Chubineh.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the forces of Bahram Chobin and Khosrow II fighting.]]
In 591, Khosrow moved to [[Viranşehir|Constantia]] and prepared to invade Bahram Chobin's territories in Mesopotamia, while Vistahm and Vinduyih were raising an army in [[Adurbadagan]] under the observation of the Byzantine commander [[John Mystacon]], who was also raising an army in Armenia. After some time, Khosrow, along with the Byzantine commander of the south, [[Comentiolus]], invaded Mesopotamia. During this invasion, [[Nisibis]] and Martyropolis quickly defected to them,{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} and Bahram Chobin's commander Zatsparham was defeated and killed.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=173}} One of Bahram Chobin's other commanders, Bryzacius, was captured in [[Mosul|Mosil]] and had his nose and ears cut off, and was thereafter sent to Khosrow, where he was killed.{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|p=251}}{{sfn|Rawlinson|2004|p=509}} Khosrow II and the Byzantine general [[Narses (magister militum per Orientem)|Narses]] then penetrated deeper into Bahram's territory, seizing Dara and then [[Mardin]] in February, where Khosrow was re-proclaimed king.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=173}} Shortly after this, Khosrow sent one of his Iranian supporters, Mahbodh, to capture Ctesiphon, which he managed to accomplish.{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2002|p=174}}
[[Image:Roman-Persian Frontier in Late Antiquity.svg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Roman-Sasanian frontier during Late Antiquity, including the 591 border that was established between the two empires after Khosrow II's victory over Bahram Chobin.]]
At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians under [[Mushegh II Mamikonian]] invaded Adurbadagan.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} Bahram Chobin tried to disrupt the force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?"{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=128–129}} Bahram Chobin in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by a Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=129}} Mushegh, however, rejected the offer.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=129}}

Bahram Chobin was then defeated at the [[Battle of Blarathon]], forcing him to flee with 4,000 men eastwards. He marched towards [[Nishapur]], where he defeated a pursuing army as well as an army led by a [[House of Karen|Karenid]] nobleman at [[Qumis (region)|Qumis]]. Constantly troubled, he crossed the [[Oxus river]], where he was received honorably by the Khagan of the Turks, who was most likely Birmudha—the same Turkic prince that Bahram Chobin had defeated and captured a few years earlier during his wars against the Turks.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=178}} Bahram Chobin entered his service, and was appointed as a commander in the army, achieving further military accomplishments there.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}}{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=242}} Bahram Chobin became a highly popular figure after saving the Khagan from a conspiracy instigated by the latter's brother Byghu (conceivably an incorrect translation of ''[[yabghu]]'').{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=178}} Khosrow II, however, could not feel safe as long as Bahram Chobin lived, and succeeded in having him assassinated.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1988|pp=514–522}} The assassination was reportedly achieved through distribution of presents and bribes between the members of the Turkic royal family, notably the queen.{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=242}} What remained of Bahram Chobin's supporters went back to northern Iran and joined the [[rebellion of Vistahm]] (590/1–596 or 594/5–600).{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=133–134}}

==Consolidation of the empire==
===Domestic affairs and relations with the Byzantines===
With Khosrow's rule now restored, his aim was to now consolidate his grip over his realm, which included showing tolerance and support to his Christian subjects.{{sfn|Daryaee|Rezakhani|2016|p=43}} His wife [[Shirin]]—a Christian from [[Khuzestan]]—was the most influential of his wives, playing an important role in the royal favour that the Mesopotamian Christians enjoyed. She had a church and monastery constructed near the palace in Ctesiphon, which was used to receive a portion of the treasury for the wages of the clergy and their vestments.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} The Arab [[Lakhmids|Lakhmids/Nasrids]], a client state located at [[al-Hira]] and its surroundings, could now openly convert to [[Nestorian Christianity]] without angering the Sasanian court.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}

The Iranians and the Byzantines enjoyed good relations with each other for the first eleven years. This was apparent in their management of the issues that had risen in Armenia. In the 590s, many Armenian nobles and their supporters sought asylum in Iran to avoid being conscripted for [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns]]. The open borders between the two empires meant that nobles could freely immigrate to Iran and get promoted. However, when they showed signs of aspiring to fight the Byzantines, the Iranians worked together with the Byzantines to deal with the issue.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===Revolt of Vistahm===
After his victory, Khosrow rewarded his uncles with high positions: [[Vinduyih]] became treasurer and first minister and [[Vistahm]] received the post of ''[[spahbed]]'' of the East, encompassing [[Tabaristan]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], which was the traditional homeland of the Ispahbudhan.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=131–132}} Soon, however, Khosrow changed his intentions: trying to disassociate himself from his father's murder, he decided to execute his uncles. The Sasanian monarchs' traditional mistrust of over-powerful magnates and Khosrow's personal resentment of Vinduyih's patronising manner certainly contributed to this decision. Vinduyih was soon put to death, according to a Syriac source captured while trying to flee to his brother in the East.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=132, 134}}
[[Image:Drachm of Bistam, 595 or 596 Rayy.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient drachma|Drachma]] of [[Vistahm]], minted at [[Ray, Iran|Ray]]]]
At the news of his brother's murder, Vistahm rose in open revolt. According to [[Dinawari]], Vistahm sent a letter to Khosrow announcing his claim to the throne through his Parthian ([[Arsacid dynasty of Parthia|Arsacid]]) heritage: "You are not worthier to rule than I am. Indeed, I am more deserving on account of my descent from [[Darius III|Darius, son of Darius]], who fought [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. You Sasanians deceitfully gained superiority over us [the Arsacids] and usurped our right, and treated us with injustice. Your ancestor Sasan was no more than a shepherd." Vistahm's revolt, like Bahrams's shortly before, found support and spread quickly. Local magnates as well as the remnants of Bahram Chobin's armies flocked to him, especially after he married Bahram's sister [[Gordiya]]. Vistahm repelled several loyalist efforts to subdue him, and he soon held sway in the entire eastern and northern quadrants of the Iranian realm, a domain stretching from the [[Oxus]] river to the region of [[Ardabil]] in the west. He even campaigned in the east, where he subdued two [[Hephthalite]] princes of [[Transoxiana]], Shaug and Pariowk.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=132–133, 135}} The date of Vistahm's uprising is uncertain. From his coinage, it is known that his rebellion lasted for seven years. The commonly accepted dates are ca. 590–596, but some scholars like J. D. Howard-Johnston and [[Parvaneh Pourshariati]] push its outbreak later, in 594/5, to coincide with the Armenian Vahewuni rebellion.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=133–134}}

As Vistahm began to threaten [[Media (region)|Media]], Khosrow sent several armies against his uncle, but failed to achieve a decisive result: Vistahm and his followers retreated to the mountainous region of [[Gilan]], while several Armenian contingents of the royal army rebelled and defected to Vistahm. Finally, Khosrow called upon the services of the Armenian [[Smbat IV Bagratuni|Smbat Bagratuni]], who engaged Vistahm near [[Qumis, Iran|Qumis]]. During the battle, Vistahm was murdered by Pariowk at Khosrow's urging (or, according to an alternative account, by his wife Gordiya). Nevertheless, Vistahm's troops managed to repel the royal army at Qumis, and it required another expedition by Smbat in the next year to finally end the rebellion.{{sfn|Shahbazi|1989|pp=180–182}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=136–137}}

=== Abolition of the Lakhmid dynasty ===
In 600, Khosrow II executed [[Al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir|Al-Nu'man III]], King of the [[Lakhmid]]s of [[Al-Hira]], presumably because of the Arab king's refusal to give him his daughter [[al-Ḥurqah]] in marriage and insulting Persian women.{{sfn|Landau-Tasseron|1996}} Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert, and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This ultimately facilitated the Muslim [[Caliph]]s' invasion and conquest of Lower [[Iraq]], less than a decade after Khosrow's death.{{sfn|Frye|1984|p=330}}

== Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 ==
=== Initial Iranian invasion and dominance ===
{{See also|Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628}}
[[File:The Sasanian Empire at its apex under Khosrow II-es.svg|thumb|Sasanian territories in 620s]]
[[File:Piero della Francesca 021.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An [[anachronistic]] illustration of the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)]] between [[Heraclius]]' army and the Persians under Khosrow II. Fresco by [[Piero della Francesca]], ca. 1452|alt=Idealized painting of a battle between Heraclius' army and Iranians under Khosrow II ca. 1452]]
Toward the beginning of his reign, Khosrow II had good relations with the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. However, when in 602 Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] was murdered by his General [[Phocas]] (602–610), who usurped the [[Roman Emperor|Roman (Byzantine)]] throne, Khosrow launched an offensive against Constantinople: ostensibly to avenge Maurice's death, but his aim clearly included the annexation of as much [[Byzantine]] territory as was feasible.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} Khosrow II, along with [[Shahrbaraz]] and his other best generals, quickly captured [[Dara (Mesopotamia)|Dara]] and [[Edessa]] in 604, and recaptured lost territory in the north, which made the Sasanian–Byzantine borders go back to the pre-591 frontier before Khosrow gave Maurice territory in return for military aid against [[Bahram Chobin]]. After having reclaimed lost territory, Khosrow withdrew from the battlefield and handed military operations to Shahrbaraz and [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan]]. The Sasanian armies then invaded and plundered [[Byzantine Syria|Syria]] and [[Asia Minor]], and in 608 advanced into [[Chalcedon]].

In 610, [[Heraclius]] revolted against [[Phocas]] and killed him, crowning himself as Emperor of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. He then tried to negotiate peace with Khosrow II by sending diplomats to his court. Khosrow, however, rejected their offer and said: "That kingdom belongs to me, and I shall enthrone Maurice's son, Theodosius, as emperor. [As for Heraclius], he went and took the rule without our order and now offers us our own treasure as gifts. But I shall not stop until I have him in my hands." Khosrow then had the diplomats executed.<ref>[[Sebeos]], chapter 24</ref>

In 613 and 614, General Shahrbaraz besieged and captured [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]], and the [[True Cross]] was carried away in triumph. Soon afterwards, Shahin marched through [[Anatolia]], defeating the Byzantines numerous times; he conquered [[Byzantine Egypt|Egypt]] in 618. The Byzantines could offer but little resistance, as they were torn apart by internal dissensions, and pressed by the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and [[Slavs]], who were invading the Empire from across the [[Danube River]].{{sfn|Meyer|1911}} In 622/3, [[Rhodes]] and several other islands in the eastern [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] fell to the Sasanians, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.{{sfn|Kia|2016|page=223}}{{sfn|Greatrex|Lieu|2005|page=197}}{{sfn|Foss|1975|p=725}}{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2006|page=33}} Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government to [[Carthage]] in Africa.<ref name="Kaegi88">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA88 88]}}</ref>

=== Turko-Hephthalite invasion ===
In ca. 606/607, Khosrow recalled [[Smbat IV Bagratuni]] from [[Sasanian Armenia]] and sent him to repel the [[Western Turkic Khaganate|Turko]]-[[Hephthalites]], who had raided as far as [[Spahan (satrapy)|Spahan]] in central Iran. Smbat, with the aid of an Iranian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Turko-Hephthalites from Iran, and plundered their domains in [[Greater Khorasan|eastern Khorasan]], where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|pp=1363–1364}} Khosrow then gave Smbat the honorific title ''Khosrow Shun'' ("the Joy or Satisfaction of Khosrow"),{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|pp=1363–1364}} while his son [[Varaztirots II Bagratuni]] received the honorific name ''Javitean Khosrow'' ("Eternal Khosrow").{{sfn|Martindale|Jones|Morris|1992|pp=1363–1364}}{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=153–154}}

[[Sebeos]] describes the event as:

{{Cquote|He [Khosrow] ordered that a huge elephant be adorned and brought to the chamber. He commanded that [Smbat's son] Varaztirots' (who was called Javitean Khosrow by the king), be seated atop [the elephant]. And he ordered treasures scattered on the crowd. He wrote [to Smbat] a hrovartak [expressing] great satisfaction and summoned him to court with great honor and pomp. [Smbat] died in the 28th year of [Khosrow's] reign [618–19].{{sfn|Soudavar|2012}}}}

=== Byzantine counter-offensive and resurgence ===
[[File:Cherub plaque Louvre MRR245 n2.jpg|thumb|right|Sassanid King [[Khosrau II]] being vanquished by the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]], from a plaque on a 12th-century French cross. This is only allegorical, as Khosrau II never actually submitted in person to Heraclius.]]
In 622, despite the major progress the Sasanians were making in the area of the [[Aegean Sea]], the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] was able to take the field with a powerful force. In 624, he advanced into northern [[Adurbadagan]], where he was welcomed by [[Farrukh Hormizd]] and his son [[Rostam Farrokhzad]] who had rebelled against Khosrow.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|pp=152–153}} Heraclius then began sacking several cities and temples, including the [[Takht-e Soleymān|Adur Gushnasp]] temple.{{sfn|Meyer|1911}}

In 626 Heraclius captured [[Lazistan]] ([[Colchis]]). Later that same year, [[Shahrbaraz]] advanced on [[Chalcedon]] on the [[Bosphoros]] and attempted to capture [[Constantinople]] with the help of [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]] and [[Early Slavs|Slavic]] allies. In this [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|siege of Constantinople in 626]], the combined Sassanid, Slavic and Avar forces failed to capture the Byzantine capital city. The Avars did not have the patience or technology to conquer the city. On top of that, the Iranians, who were [[siege warfare]] experts, were unable to transport their troops and equipment to the other side of the [[Bosphorus]] where their Slavic and Avar allies were located, due to heavy guarding of the strait by the [[Byzantine navy]]. Furthermore, the [[walls of Constantinople]] were easily defended against the siege towers and engines. Another reason was that the Persians and Slavs did not have a strong enough navy to skirt the sea walls and establish a channel of communication. The lack of supplies for the Avars eventually caused them to abandon the siege.{{sfn|Kaegi|2003|p=140}} As this maneuver failed, Shahrbaraz' forces were defeated, and he withdrew his army from [[Anatolia]] later in 628.

Following the [[Third Perso-Turkic War]] in 627, Heraclius defeated the Iranian army at the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]] and advanced towards [[Ctesiphon]]. Khosrow II fled from his favorite residence, [[Dastagird]] (near Ctesiphon), without offering resistance.{{sfn|Meyer |1911}} Heraclius then captured [[Dastagird]] and plundered it.

=== Overthrow and death ===
[[File:Khusrau Parvîz, his hands bound, is led by two rustics wearing straw hats with high crowns, from a pavilion in a garden where he had taken refuge.jpg|right|thumb|upright|17th-century [[Shahnameh]] illustration of Khosrow II's arrest]]
After the capture of Dastagird, the son of Khosrow, Sheroe, was released by the feudal families of the [[Sasanian Empire]], which included the [[Ispahbudhan]] ''[[spahbed]]'' [[Farrukh Hormizd]] and his two sons [[Rostam Farrokhzad]] and [[Farrukhzad]]. [[Shahrbaraz]] of the [[House of Mihran|Mihran]] family, the Armenian faction represented by [[Varaztirots II Bagratuni]], and finally [[Kanadbak]] of the [[Kanarang|Kanārangīyān family]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=173}} On the night of 25 February, the night-watch of the Sasanian capital of [[Ctesiphon]], which would usually shout the name of the reigning shah, shouted the name of Sheroe instead, which indicated a ''[[coup d'état]]'' was taking place.{{sfn|Morony|2005|p=92}} Sheroe, with Aspad Gushnasp leading his army, captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrow II in the house of a certain Mehr-Sepand (also known as Maraspand). Sheroe, who had now assumed the dynastic name of Kavad II, then ordered Aspad Gushnasp to lead the charge of accusations against the deposed shah. Khosrow, however, dismissed all accusations one by one.{{sfn|Tafazzoli|1987|p=743}}

Kavad shortly proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir Mardanshah, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men",{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}} stripped the Sasanian dynasty of a future competent ruler, and has been described as a "mad rampage" and "reckless".{{sfn|Kia|2016|pp=255–256}} Three days later he ordered [[Mihr Hormozd]] to execute Khosrow. However, after the regicide of his father, Kavad also proceeded to have Mihr Hormozd killed.{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1985–2007|loc=v. 5: p. 398}} Khosrow's daughters [[Boran]] and [[Azarmidokht]] reportedly criticized and scolded Kavad for his barbaric actions, which made him filled with remorse.{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1985–2007|loc=v. 5: p. 399}} With the support of the Iranian nobles, Kavad then made peace with the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]], which made the Byzantines regain all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a [[war indemnity]], along with the [[True Cross]] and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.<ref name="Oman212">{{Harvnb|Oman|1893|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N6A-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212 212]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA178 178], [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA189 189–190]}}</ref>

Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.{{sfn|Kia|2016|pp=255–256}} The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in a [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632|chaotic civil war]], with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (''Parsig'') and [[Parthia]]n (''Pahlav'') noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation.{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004|pp=466–467}} The civil war finally ended when Khosrow's eight year old grandson, [[Yazdegerd III]], ascended the throne.{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=219}} The young king, however, inherited a disintegrating empire, which was dealt its last blow in 651 during the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab conquest of Iran]].{{sfn|Kia|2016|pp=284–285}}

== Religious policy and beliefs ==
Khosrow II, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of Zoroastrianism.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=2}} Since the 5th century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to integrate them into a structure of administration where, according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly as {{Lang|pal-Latn|mard}} / {{Lang|pal-Latn|zan ī šahr}}, i.e. "man/woman [citizen] of the country". [[Jews]] and Christians (but not the persecuted [[Manichaeans]]) had accepted the concept of ''[[Iran (word)|Eranshahr]]'' / ''Iran'' (which had once been inextricable from Zoroastrianism) and considered themselves part of it.{{sfn|Daryaee|2014|p=56}}

During his reign there was constant conflict between [[Monophysitism|Monophysite]] and [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians. Khosrow favored the Monophysites, and ordered all his subjects to adhere to Monophysitism, perhaps under the influence of Shirin and the royal physician [[Gabriel of Sinjar]], who both supported this faith. Khosrow also dispensed money or gifts to Christian shrines.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=166}} Khosrow's great tolerance to Christianity and friendship with the Christian Byzantines even made some Armenian writers think that Khosrow was a Christian.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=166}} His positive policy toward Christians (which, however, was probably politically motivated) made him unpopular with the Zoroastrian priests, and also made Christianity greatly spread around the Sasanian Empire.{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=171}} In 591, at the beginning of his reign, Byzantine-Sasanian negotiations resulted in an edict of toleration, based on the understanding that proselytization would be banned. According to [[Nina Garsoïan]], Khosrow "returned to the normal pattern of alternate toleration and repression" of Christians after the death of his ally Maurice in 602. While individual Christians continued to enjoy his favor, a number of prominent Christian officials and prelates were put to death during this period.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|2000|p=586}} During Khosrow's war with the Byzantines, Christian elites and organizations were incorporated into the Sasanian system, as part of his attempt to absorb the Byzantine realm into his expanded empire.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=200}} The condition of the Christian nobility reached its pinnacle under Khosrow.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=168}} [[Mushegh II Mamikonian]], a prominent Armenian ''[[nakharar]]'', is the first and only Christian nobleman that is praised by courtly historiographers, due to his rejection of the enticements of Bahram Chobin. His decision to choose Khosrow over his native Armenia, gained him a place in the ''[[Shahnameh]]'', the national epic of Iran.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=168}} [[Smbat IV Bagratuni]] likewise led an illustrious career under Khosrow, rising to the office of frontier commander of [[Hyrcania|Gurgan]], possibly the most vital and contested area of the Sasanian realm. As a reward for his accomplishments in the east, Smbat was appointed the leader of the military jurisdiction in the Caucasus. Furthermore, his aristocratic house – the [[Bagratuni dynasty|Bagratunis]] – was made the pillar of Sasanian authority in the area.{{sfn|Payne|2015|p=168}}

Khosrow also paid attention to the Zoroastrians, and had various [[fire temples]] constructed. However, this did not help the Zoroastrian church, which was in a heavy decline during his reign. According to [[Richard N. Frye]], the Zoroastrian church under Khosrow "was noted for its devotion to luxury more than its devotion to thought."{{sfn|Frye|1983|p=172}}

== Music during the reign of Khosrow II ==
Khosrow II's reign was considered a [[golden age]] in [[Sasanian music|music]]. Before Khosrow II there were many other Sasanian kings that showed particular interest in music, like [[Khosrow I]], [[Bahram Gur]], and even [[Ardashir I]]. Notable musicians during the reign of Khosrow II were [[Barbad]] (Khosrow's favorite court musician), [[Bamshad]], [[Sarkash]], and [[Nagisa (harpist)|Nagisa]].

== Rock reliefs ==
[[File:Taghe bostan.JPG|thumb|A divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinities [[Ahura Mazda]] and [[Anahita]] each giving Khosrow II a [[diadem]].]]
Khosrow restored the practice of erecting rock reliefs, after an absence of nearly three centuries, the last one being erected under [[Shapur III]] ({{reign|383|388}}).{{sfn|Canepa|2018|p=361}} At [[Taq-e Bostan]], Khosrow mimicked and magnified the rock relief of Shapur III.{{sfn|Canepa|2018|p=361}} His relief, known as the "Great [[Ayvan]]", is in a [[barrel vault]] carved in a cliff. The ayvan is split into an upper and lower section; the upper section depicts a divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinities [[Ahura Mazda]] and [[Anahita]] each giving Khosrow a [[diadem]].{{sfn|Canepa|2018|p=361}} The lower section depicts Khosrow II on horseback, wearing full body armor, whilst holding a lance and shield. His head is encircled by a [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], which according to Howard-Johnston, is most likely a representation of his ''[[xwarrah]]'', i.e. kingly glory.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}{{sfn|Canepa|2018|p=361}} On the left side panel, a boar hunt scene is depicted, portraying Khosrow on a boat whilst aiming a bow. On the right, there is a deer hunt scene. The relief, however, is unfinished, probably due to Khosrow's setback in the later stages of the war and his eventual downfall.{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}}

<gallery>
File:Petroglyph of Khosrow II in Taq-e Bostan.png|The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation
File:Taq-e Bostan - equestrian statue.jpg|Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.
File:Taq-e Bostan - Low-relief the boar hunt.jpg|Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.
File:Taq-e-Bostan (Iran) Sassanid Period.JPG|Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.
File:Muhammad ibn Muhammad Shakir Ruzmah-'i Nathani - Mount Bistun and the Carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad (?) - Walters W659182A - Cropped.jpg|This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.
</gallery>

== Coinage ==
[[Image:Gold coin of Khosrow II.jpg|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of Khosrow II, minted in 625/6.]]
Khosrow, during his second reign, added the [[ideogram]] GDH, meaning ''[[xwarrah]]'' ("royal splendor") on his coins. He combined this together with the word ''abzōt'' ("he has increased"), making the full inscription thus read as: "Khosrow, he has increased the royal splendor" (''Khūsrōkhwarrah abzōt'').{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=837}} The title of [[King of Kings]]–missing since the reign of [[Peroz I]] ({{reign|459|484}})–was also restored on his coins.{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=837}} According to Shayegan, Khosrow's adoption of the title was "undoubtedly a consequence of his Byzantine policy," and was signifying a resurrection of the ancient [[Achaemenid Empire]].{{sfn|Shayegan|2013|pp=806, 812–813}} His two successors, [[Kavad II]] ({{reign|628|628}}) and [[Ardashir III]] ({{reign|628|630}}), refrained from using the title, seemingly in order distance themselves from him.{{sfn|Schindel|2013|p=837}}

== Khosrow II in Islamic tradition ==
[[Islamic]] tradition tells a story in which Khosrow II (in {{langx|ar|كسرى}} ''Kisra'') was a Persian king to whom [[Muhammad]] had sent a messenger, [[Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi]], along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam.{{sfn|al-Mubarakpuri|2002|p=417}}<ref name="al-islam.org">{{cite web|last=Subhani|first=Ja'far |url=https://www.al-islam.org/message-jafar-subhani/chapter-42-events-seventh-year-migration|title=Chapter 42: The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration|work=The Message |date=27 December 2012 |access-date=13 September 2023 |via=Al-Islam.org}}</ref> The account as transmitted by Muslim tradition reads:

{{blockquote|In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the great (leader/head) of the Persians. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in Allah and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but Allah and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of Allah, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe (in this life and the next). And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the [[Magi]].<ref name="al-islam.org" /><ref>''Tabaqat-i Kubra'', vol. I, p. 360; ''Tarikh-i Tabari'', vol. II, pp. 295, 296; ''Tarikh-i Kamil'', vol. II, p. 81; and ''Biharul Anwar'', vol. XX, p. 389.</ref>}}

Islamic tradition further states that Khosrow II tore up Muhammad's letter{{sfn|Morony|1980|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185 185]}} saying, "A pitiful slave among my subjects dares write his name before mine"{{sfn|Mubarakpuri|2009|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} and commanded [[Badhan (Persian Governor)|Badhan]], his vassal ruler of [[Yemen]], to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man from [[Hijaz]] (Muhammad) to him. When Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces, Muhammad promised the destruction of Khosrow II stating, "Even so, Allah shall destroy his kingdom."{{sfn|Morony|1980|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA185 185]}} Later, Badhan's men arrived in [[Medina]] and talked to Muhammad, ordering him to accompany them back to Khosrow II. Muhammad reportedly changed the subject, made it obvious he did not like their appearance, and responded by asking why they shave their beards and leave their mustaches to grow and be that large. When they said that's what their god orders them to do, he said his god orders him to cut his mustache and grow his beard. After he took control of the conversation like that, he went back on-topic and asked them to come back to him the next day. When they did, he informed them that Khosrow II had been killed by his son. Badhan's men responded angrily, threatening Muhammad to tell Badhan what he is saying about Khosrow II. To that, he responded by encouraging them to write to Badhan and to also tell him that Islam and its power will reach all that Khosrow II has ever ruled over. A few days later, Badhan received confirmation from Persia that Khosrow II was dead. As a consequence, he is said to have accepted Islam, and Muhammad kept him as a ruler over his people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Al Bidaya Wal Nihaya|last=Ibn Kathir|first=Ismail |year=1367}}</ref>

== In art ==
[[File:Capital of Khosrow II, Taq-e Bostan.jpg|thumb|Capital with depiction of Khosrau II at [[Taq-e Bostan]]]]
The battles between Heraclius and Khosrow are depicted in a famous early Renaissance fresco by [[Piero della Francesca]], part of the ''[[History of the True Cross]]'' cycle in the church of [[Basilica of San Francesco, Arezzo|San Francesco, Arezzo]]. Many [[Persian miniature]] paintings depict events in his life, like his battles or his assassination.

== Family ==
Khosrow was the son of [[Hormizd IV]] and an unnamed [[House of Ispahbudhan|Ispahbudhan]] noblewoman who was the sister of [[Vistahm]] and [[Vinduyih]]. Khosrow also had two cousins from the Ispahbudhan family who were named [[Mah-Adhur Gushnasp]] and [[Narsi]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=179}} He had a brother-in-law named [[Hormuzan]],{{sfn|Shahbazi|2004b}} a Sasanian nobleman from one of the [[seven Parthian clans]], who later fought against the Arabs during the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim invasion of Persia]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=236}}

Of Khosrow's wives, the Christian [[Shirin]] played the most prominent public role. She bore Khosrow a son, [[Mardanshah (Sasanian prince)|Mardanshah]], and unsuccessfully tried to secure the succession for him. Another one of Khosrow's wives was [[Maria (daughter of Maurice)|Maria]], which some sources depict as the daughter of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} However, this identification is generally not accepted by scholars. Maria may have been a Greek girl in Khosrow's harem, later remembered as a Byzantine princess.{{Sfn|Garsoïan|2000|p=579}} Maria was the mother of Khosrow's successor [[Kavad II]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010}} The 9th-century historian [[Abu Hanifa Dinawari|Dinawari]] claims that Khosrow married [[Gordiya]], the sister of [[Bahram Chobin]], after the latter's death, and that Gordiya bore him a son named [[Juvansher|Javanshir]]. Javanshir is supposed to have ruled before Khosrow's daughter [[Borandukht]], but he is not represented in Sasanian coinage.{{sfn|Al-Tabari|1985–2007|p=|loc=v. 5: p. 404 (note 996)}} Khosrow also had other children: daughters Borandukht and [[Azarmidokht]] and sons [[Shahriyar (son of Khosrow II)|Shahriyar]] and [[Farrukhzad Khosrau V|Farrukhzad Khosrow V]]. All these persons except Shahriyar would later become the monarch of Iran during the [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632]]. Khosrow had a sister who was married to the Sasanian ''[[spahbed]]'' [[Shahrbaraz]] and bore him [[Shapur-i Shahrvaraz]]. She was called Mihran because she had married into the [[House of Mihran]].{{sfn|Pourshariati|2008|p=205}}

=== Family tree ===

{{Tree chart/start}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | ANU | | | | SHA | | | | | | | | | | | | | SHA = Shapur<br />(† 580s) | ANU = [[Khosrow I]]<br />(531–579) | border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | |}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | | | HO4 |y| UNK | | VIS | | | VIN | | | | UNN |y| JUS | | | | HO4 = [[Hormizd IV]]<br />(579–590) | UNK = Unknown | VIS = [[Vistahm]]<br />(590/1–596<br/>or<br/>594/5–600) | VIN = [[Vinduyih]] | UNN = Unnamed noblewoman | JUS = Jushnas |border=1}}

{{Tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}
{{Tree chart| | | | | KH2 | | | | | | | | | | | KVD | | MIR | | MAH | | NAR | KH2 = '''Khosrow II'''<br />(590–628) | KVD = Kavad | MIR = Mihran | MAH = [[Mah-Adhur Gushnasp]] | NAR = [[Narsi]] |border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | |,|-|v|^|v|-|v|-|v|-|v|-|v|-|.| |!| | | |!| | | |)|-|.| |)|-|.|}}
{{Tree chart| | KA2 |!| AZA |!| MAD |!| JVS |!| KH3 | | SH5 | | |!| ANO |!| BIS | | KA2 = [[Kavad II]]<br />(628) | AZA = [[Azarmidokht]]<br />(630–631) | MAD = [[Mardanshah (Sasanian prince)|Mardanshah]]<br />(† 628) | JVS = [[Javanshir (Sasanian prince)|Javanshir]] | KH3 = [[Khosrow III]]<br />(630) | SH5 = [[Shapur-i Shahrvaraz]]<br />(630) | BIS = Bistam | ANO = Anoshagan | border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | |border=1}}
{{Tree chart| | | | BUR | | KH5 | | SHR | | INC | | | | | | | | KAV | | TAM | | | | BUR = [[Borandukht]]<br />(629–630, 631–632) | KH5 = [[Farrukhzad Khosrau V|Farrukhzad Khosrow V]]<br />(631) | SHR = [[Shahriyar (son of Khosrow II)|Shahriyar]]<br />(† 628) | INC = Unknown | KAV = Kavad Gushnasp | TAM = Tamahij | border=1}}
{{Tree chart/end}}

== See also ==
{{Commons category|Khosrau II}}
*[[Babai the Great]]
*[[Behistun Inscription]]
*[[Behistun Palace]]
*[[Kisra legend]], an African migration myth that historian [[Leo Frobenius]] argued was based on Khosrow II
*[[Muqawqis]], Ruler of Alexandria
*[[Non-Muslim interactants with Muslims during Muhammad's era]]
*[[Shabdiz]], Khosrow's highly admired horse
* [[Ganj-e Badavard]]

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=al-Mubarakpuri |first=Saif-ur-Rahman |author-link=Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri |year=2002 |title=al-Raheeq al-Makhtoom, "The Sealed Nectar" |series=[[Islamic University of Madinah|Islamic University of Medina]] |place=Riyadh |publisher=Darussalam publishers |isbn=1-59144-071-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Al-Tabari |first=Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir |author-link=Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari |editor1=Ehsan Yar-Shater |title=The History of Al-Ṭabarī |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, NY |date=1985–2007}} 40 vols.
* Baca-Winters, Keenan. ''[https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/534664 He Did Not Fear: Xusro Parviz, King of Kings of the Sasanian Empire]''. Gorgias Press, 2019. {{ISBN|978-1-4632-3927-5}}
* Baca-Winters, Keenan. "From Rome to Iran: Identity and Xusro II." PhD. diss., University of California, Irvine, 2015. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1rp8c11b
* {{cite book |last=Börm |first=Henning |chapter=Chosroes II, Parvēz, Sasanian king, 590–628 CE |date=2020-04-30 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8146 |access-date=2025-02-03 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8146 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5}}
* {{cite book |first1=Matthew P. |last1=Canepa|title=The Iranian Expanse: Transforming Royal Identity through Architecture, Landscape, and the Built Environment, 550 BCE–642 CE |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520964365 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/62562}}
* {{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Peter|title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2013|isbn=978-1-84884-612-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPAHBAAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{cite book |title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire |year=2014 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |last=Daryaee| first=Touraj |author-link=Touraj Daryaee |pages=[https://archive.org/details/SasanianPersia/page/n2 1]–240 |isbn=978-0857716668 |url=https://archive.org/details/SasanianPersia}} {{free access}}
* {{cite book |first1=Touraj |last1=Daryaee |first2=Khodadad |last2=Rezakhani |title=From Oxus to Euphrates: The World of Late Antique Iran |date=2016 |publisher=H&S Media |isbn=978-1780835778 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYnMCwAAQBAJ}}
* [[Edward Walford]], translator, ''The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594'', 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1-889758-88-6}}. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE5]&nbsp;– a primary source containing detailed information about the early reign of Khosrow II and his relationship with the Romans.
* {{cite journal|last=Foss|first=Clive|year=1975|title=The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity|publisher= Oxford University Press|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=90|pages=721–747|doi=10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721}}
* {{cite book |last=Frye|first=R. N.|chapter=Chapter 4: The political history of Iran under the Sasanians |title=[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]|series=Volume 3 Part 1. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1983|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Frye |first=R. N. |year=1984 |chapter=The reforms of Chosroes Anushirvan ('Of the Immortal soul') |title=The History of Ancient Iran |via=fordham.edu/ |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/med/fryehst.asp |access-date=7 March 2020 |author-link=Richard N. Frye}}
* {{cite book |last=Garsoïan|first=Nina|author-link=Nina Garsoïan|chapter=Byzantium and the Sasanians |title=The Cambridge History of Iran|title-link=The Cambridge History of Iran|series=Volume 3 Part 1. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000|orig-date=First published 1983|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9}}
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* {{cite book |last=Morony |first=Michael G. |title=Iraq After the Muslim Conquest |year=2005 |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway, New Jersey |isbn=978-15-93333-15-7 }}
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*{{cite book| last = Oman| first =Charles|author-link= Sir Charles William Chadwick Oman| title =Europe, 476–918, Volume 1| publisher =Macmillan| year =1893| url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_N6A-AAAAYAAJ}} {{free access}}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Hämeen-Anttila |first1=Jaakko |title=The Letters of Shahrbarāz and Middle Persian Historiography on the Last Great War of Late Antiquity |journal=Journal of Late Antique, Islamic and Byzantine Studies |date=2022 |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–93|doi=10.3366/jlaibs.2022.0005 |s2cid=263274105 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/256768278/H_meen_Anttila2022JLAIBSTheLettersOfShahrbaraz.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Piras |first1=Andrea |date=2022 |title=Apocalyptic Imagery and Royal Propaganda in Khosrow II's Letter to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice |journal=Journal of Persianate Studies |volume=14 |issue=1–2 |pages=178–195 |doi=10.1163/18747167-bja10018 |s2cid=251787417}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Sassanid Empire|Sasanian dynasty]]||{{circa|570}}||February 628}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Hormizd IV]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=590}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Bahram Chobin]]}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Bahram Chobin]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran]]|years=591–628}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Kavad II]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Sassanid Rulers}}
{{One Thousand and One Nights}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khosrow 02}}
[[Category:Khosrow II| ]]
[[Category:570s births]]
[[Category:628 deaths]]
[[Category:6th-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:7th-century Sasanian monarchs]]
[[Category:Leaders ousted by a coup]]
[[Category:One Thousand and One Nights characters]]
[[Category:People of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]]
[[Category:Caucasian Albania]]
[[Category:Governors of the Sasanian Empire]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:Executed monarchs]]