Editing Kerosene

{{Short description|Combustible hydrocarbon liquid}}
{{Distinguish|Kerogen}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2018}}
[[File:Kerosene bottle.jpg|right|thumb|upright|A kerosene bottle, containing blue-dyed kerosene]]

'''Kerosene''', or '''paraffin''', is a [[combustibility|combustible]] [[hydrocarbon]] liquid which is derived from [[petroleum]]. It is widely used as a [[fuel]] in [[Aviation fuel|aviation]] as well as households. Its name derives from the Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|κηρός}} (''kērós'') meaning "[[wax]]"; it was registered as a trademark by [[Nova Scotian|Nova Scotia]] geologist and inventor [[Abraham Pineo Gesner|Abraham Gesner]] in 1854 before evolving into a [[generic trademark]]. It is sometimes spelled '''kerosine''' in scientific and industrial usage.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|dictionary=Webster's New World College Dictionary|article=Kerosene}}</ref>

Kerosene is widely used to power [[jet engine]]s of aircraft ([[jet fuel]]), as well as some [[rocket engine]]s in a highly refined form called [[RP-1]]. It is also commonly used as a cooking and lighting fuel, and for fire toys such as [[Poi (performance art)#Fire poi|poi]]. In parts of Asia, kerosene is sometimes used as fuel for small [[outboard motor]]s or even [[motorcycle]]s.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Kerosene Outboard Motors
| url = http://www.marineenginedigest.com/specialreports/kerosene-outboards.htm
| access-date = 25 October 2011 }}</ref> World total kerosene consumption for all purposes is equivalent to about 5,500,000 barrels per day as of July 2023.<ref>[https://knoema.com/data/consumption+kerosene Kerosene consumption in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805212935/https://knoema.com/data/consumption+kerosene |date=5 August 2022 }}. World Data Atlas, [[Knoema]]</ref>

The term "kerosene" is common in much of [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[India]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nigeria]], and the [[United States]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary|article=Kerosene}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kerosene |title= Has kerosene become a generic trademark? |access-date= 2021-01-28 |website= genericides.org |date= 23 March 2020 |archive-date= 7 February 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210207153626/https://www.genericides.org/trademark/kerosene  }}</ref> while the term paraffin (or a closely related variant) is used in [[Chile]], [[East Africa]], [[South Africa]], [[Norway]], and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>[http://ingoeoils.co.uk/kerosene/ What is Kerosene – Ingoe Oils Ltd] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802091501/https://ingoeoils.co.uk/kerosene/ |date=2 August 2017 }}. Ingoeoils.co.uk. on 2 June 2015,</ref> The term "lamp oil", or the equivalent in the local languages, is common in the majority of [[Asia]] and the [[Southeastern United States]], although in [[Appalachia]], it is also commonly referred to as "[[coal oil]]".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.dictionary.com/browse/lamp-oil#:~:text=noun%20South%20Midland%20and%20Southern,kerosene.| title = Lamp oil Definition & Meaning {{!}} Dictionary.com| access-date = 4 July 2021| archive-date = 9 July 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182743/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/lamp-oil#:~:text=noun%20South%20Midland%20and%20Southern,kerosene.| url-status = live}}</ref>

The name "paraffin" is also used to refer to a number of distinct petroleum byproducts other than kerosene. For instance, [[Liquid paraffin (drug)|liquid paraffin]] (called [[mineral oil]] in the US) is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as a laxative. [[Paraffin wax]] is a waxy solid extracted from petroleum.

To prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more flammable and volatile [[gasoline|gasoline (petrol)]], some jurisdictions regulate markings or colourings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, [[Pennsylvania]] requires that portable containers used at retail service stations for kerosene be colored blue, as opposed to red (for [[gasoline]]) or yellow (for [[Diesel fuel|diesel]]).<ref>{{cite web
| title = Pennsylvania Combustible and Flammable Liquids Act
| url = http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=552949&mode=2
| access-date = 28 April 2014
| archive-date = 7 July 2016
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160707055513/http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt?open=514&objID=552949&mode=2
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Fuel Storage Cans - Getting the Color Right|url=http://www.horizononline.com/fuel-storage-cans-getting-the-color-right/|access-date=2020-10-20|website=Horizon Distributors - Irrigation & Landscape Supply|language=en|archive-date=10 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410175344/https://www.horizononline.com/fuel-storage-cans-getting-the-color-right/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[World Health Organization]] considers kerosene to be a polluting fuel and recommends that "governments and practitioners immediately stop promoting its household use".<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/  |archive-date=24 November 2017 |title=Burning opportunity: clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children |year=2016 |location=Geneva, Switzerland|page=X}}</ref> Kerosene smoke contains high levels of harmful [[Particulates|particulate matter]], and household use of kerosene is associated with higher risks of [[cancer]], respiratory infections, [[asthma]], [[tuberculosis]], [[cataract]]s, and adverse pregnancy outcomes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/  |archive-date=24 November 2017 |title=Burning opportunity: clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children |year=2016 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |page=49}}</ref>

== Properties and grades ==
Kerosene is a low-[[viscosity]], clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons obtained from the [[fractional distillation]] of [[petroleum]] between {{Convert|150 and 275|C||round=5}}, resulting in a mixture with a [[density]] of 0.78–0.81 g/cm<sup>3</sup>. It is [[miscible]] with [[:Category:Hydrocarbon_solvents|petroleum solvents]], but not with water. It is composed of [[hydrocarbon]] molecules that typically contain between 6-20 [[carbon]] atoms per [[molecule]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Chris|last=Collins|title=Phytoremediation |chapter=Implementing Phytoremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons |series=Methods in Biotechnology |year=2007|volume=23|issue=23|pages=99–108|publisher=Humana Press|isbn=978-1-58829-541-5|doi=10.1007/978-1-59745-098-0_8}}</ref> predominantly containing 9 to 16 carbon atoms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shepherd |first1=J.E. |last2=Nuyt |first2=C.D. |last3=Lee |first3=J.J. |title=Flash Point and Chemical Composition of Aviation Kerosene (Jet A) |journal=Graduate Aeronautical Laboratories |date=2 March 2000 |volume=California Institute of Technology |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/25832/1/galcit_fm99-4.pdf |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226204920/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/25832/1/galcit_fm99-4.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosene's major components are branched- and straight-chain [[alkane]]s (hydrocarbon chains) and [[naphthene]]s (cycloalkanes), which normally account for at least 70% of volume. [[Aromatic hydrocarbon]]s such as [[alkylbenzene]]s (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring), do not normally exceed 25% by volume of kerosene streams. [[Olefin]]s are usually not present at more than 5% by volume.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kerosene/Jet Fuel Assessment Document |url=http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/kerjetfc/c15020ad2.pdf |work=EPA |access-date=28 October 2016 |author=American Institute of Petroleum |page=8 |date=September 2010  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228144933/http://www.epa.gov/hpv/pubs/summaries/kerjetfc/c15020ad2.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2014 }}</ref>

The [[heat of combustion]] of kerosene is similar to that of [[diesel fuel]]; its [[lower heating value]] is 43.1 [[megajoule|MJ]]/[[kilogram|kg]] (around 18,500 [[British thermal unit|Btu]]/[[Pound (mass)|lb]]), and its [[higher heating value]] is {{Convert|46.2|MJ/kg|Btu/lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite book
| title = Combustion Science and Engineering
| first = Kalyan | last = Annamalai
| author2=Ishwar Kanwar Puri
| publisher = CRC Press
| year = 2006
| page =  851
| isbn = 978-0-8493-2071-2
}}</ref>

[[ASTM International]] recognizes two grades of kerosene: 1-K (less than 0.04% [[sulfur]] by weight) and 2-K (0.3% sulfur by weight).<ref> {{Cite web |title=Standard Specification for Kerosine |url=https://www.astm.org/d3699-19.html |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=[[ASTM International]] |language=en}}</ref> Grade 1-K kerosene burns cleaner with fewer deposits, fewer toxins, and less frequent maintenance than 2-K, and is the preferred grade for indoor heaters and stoves.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Baldwin's Ohio Monthly Record|title=1301:7-5-10 Fuel for kerosene heaters|volume=2|year=1984|publisher=Banks-Baldwin Law. |page=1109}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS 2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, and wick heaters, and mixed with petrol in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for [[tractor vaporizing oil]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=KEROSENE |url=https://www.eworldtrade.com/pd/udpetro/kerosene/690312/ |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=eWorldTrade.com |language=en |archive-date=18 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418111502/https://www.eworldtrade.com/pd/udpetro/kerosene/690312/ |url-status=live }}</ref> BS 2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene is usually sold in 5- or 20-litre containers from hardware, camping and garden stores, and is often dyed purple. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed.

National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for [[jet fuel]]. Flash point and freezing point properties are particularly interesting for operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of [[static electricity]] and other purposes.

=== Melting, freeze and flash points ===
Kerosene is liquid around [[room temperature]]: {{Convert|25|C|F}}. The [[flash point]] of kerosene is between {{Convert|37|C|F}} and {{Convert|65|C|F}}, and its [[autoignition temperature]] is {{convert|220|C|F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerosene |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0663.htm |access-date=10 June 2009 |archive-date=29 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429122421/http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0663.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The freezing point of kerosene depends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized at {{convert|-47|C|F|abbr=on}}.

Grade 1-K kerosene freezes around −40&nbsp;°C (−40&nbsp;°F, 233 K).<ref>{{cite web |date=4 August 2015 |title=Ask.com |url=http://www.ask.com/science/freezing-point-kerosene-52221b0bdd2ecc07 |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222154427/http://www.ask.com/science/freezing-point-kerosene-52221b0bdd2ecc07 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File: Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG|thumb|upright|Persian scholar [[Rhazes|Rāzi]] (or Rhazes) was the first to distil kerosene in the ninth century. He is depicted here in a manuscript by [[Gerard of Cremona]].]]

== History ==
[[File:Kerosene queue.jpg|thumb|A queue for kerosene. Moscow, Russia, 1920s]]
{{See also|Coal oil}}

The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the ninth century by the Persian scholar [[Rhazes|Rāzi]] (or Rhazes). In his ''Kitab al-Asrar'' (''Book of Secrets''), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed ''naft abyad'' (نفط ابيض "white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an [[alembic]]. One method used [[clay]] as an [[absorption (chemistry)|absorbent]], and later the other method using chemicals like [[ammonium chloride]] (''sal ammoniac''). The distillation process was repeated until most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed and the final product was perfectly clear and safe to burn. Kerosene was also produced during the same period from [[oil shale]] and [[bitumen]] by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Bilkadi
| first = Zayn
| title = The Oil Weapons
| journal = [[Saudi Aramco World]]
| volume = 46
| issue = 1
| pages = 20–27
| url = http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199501/the.oil.weapons.htm
| access-date = 13 February 2009
| archive-date = 9 June 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110609223628/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199501/the.oil.weapons.htm
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> During the Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]], the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum and then converted it into lamp fuel.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Chinese Oil Industry: History and Future |last1=Feng |first1=Lianyong  |last2=Hu |first2=Yan  |last3=Hall |first3=Charles A. S |last4=Wang |first4=Jianliang  |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4419-9409-7 |publication-date=28 November 2012 |page=2}}</ref> The Chinese made use of petroleum for lighting lamps and heating homes as early as 1500 BC.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Practical Advances in Petroleum Processing |last1= Chang |first1= Samuel Hsu |last2=Robinson |first2=Paul R. |publisher=Springer |year=2006 |volume=1 |page=2|bibcode= 2006papp.book.....H }}</ref>

===Illuminating oil from coal and oil shale===
[[File:Abraham Gesner Photo.png|thumb|left|[[Abraham Pineo Gesner|Abraham Gesner]] distilled kerosene from bituminous coal and oil shale experimentally in 1846; commercial production followed in 1854.]]
Although "coal oil" was well known by industrial chemists at least as early as the 1700s as a byproduct of making [[coal gas]] and coal tar, it burned with a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination. In cities, much indoor illumination was provided by piped-in [[coal gas]], but outside the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for fueling indoor lamps was supplied by [[whale oil]], specifically that from [[sperm whale]]s, which burned brighter and cleaner.<ref name=GlobeAndMail2019-10-04/><ref>Samuel T. Pees, [http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Whale/whale.html Whale oil versus the others] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104151055/http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Whale/whale.html |date=4 January 2018 }}, Petroleum History Institute, accessed 17 November 2014.</ref>

Canadian geologist [[Abraham Pineo Gesner]] claimed that in 1846, he had given a public demonstration in [[Charlottetown]], [[Prince Edward Island]] of a new process he had discovered.<ref name=GlobeAndMail2019-10-04/><ref group=note>In his book of 1861 and its second edition of 1865, Gesner claimed to have demonstrated ''liquid'' kerosene – an "oil" – in 1846 during his public lectures on Prince Edward's Island.  
*  Gesner, Abraham (1861) [https://archive.org/stream/apracticaltreat02gesngoog#page/n16/mode/2up ''A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, and Other Distilled Oils.'']  New York, New York, USA:  Bailliere Brothers, p. 9.
*  Gesner, Abraham; Gesner, George Weltden (1865) [https://books.google.com/books?id=KTkKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9 ''A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum, and Other Distilled Oils''], 2nd ed., New York, New York, USA:  Bailliere Brothers, p. 9.
However, John Butt characterized Gesner's book as " … a piece of propaganda designed to get people to believe that he had been constantly interested in inventing burning oil from 1846 to 1854".  Butt also stated that "No independent documentary proof has ever been produced to support Gesner's claim."   Furthermore, "He [Gesner] omitted to mention that kerosene had first been used to describe an illuminating gas."
* Butt, John (1963) [http://theses.gla.ac.uk/3894/1/1963ButtPhD.pdf "James Young, Scottish Industrialist and Philanthropist"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225095733/http://theses.gla.ac.uk/3894/1/1963ButtPhD.pdf |date=25 February 2021 }} PhD thesis (University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK), p. 227.
As late as 1850, Gesner promoted his "kerosene" as an illuminating ''gas'':  
* In his U.S. patent of 1850, Gesner called the product of his distillations an "illuminating gas", not an oil:  Gesner, Abraham [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00007052 "Manufacture of illuminating-gas from bitumen"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224124608/https://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00007052 |date=24 February 2021 }} U.S. Patent no. 7,052 (issued: 29 January 1850).
* In his prospectus of 1850, Gesner repeatedly identified "kerosene" as a ''gas'', not an oil:  Gesner, Abraham (1850) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=aeu.ark:/13960/t9960mm6j;view=1up;seq=7 "Prospectus of Gesner's patent kerosene gas, obtained from bitumen, asphaltum, or mineral pitch"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301004556/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=aeu.ark:/13960/t9960mm6j;view=1up;seq=7 |date=1 March 2021 }} New York, New York, USA:  Trehern & Williamson.</ref> He heated coal in a [[retort]], and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid that he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name "kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of ''keroselaion'', meaning ''wax-oil''.<ref name="russell" >{{Cite book
| last = Russell  | first = Loris S.
| title = A Heritage of Light: Lamps and Lighting in the Early Canadian Home
| publisher = University of Toronto Press
| year = 2003
| isbn = 978-0-8020-3765-7
}}</ref> The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was high.

Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of [[New Brunswick]]'s geology a naturally occurring [[Bitumen|asphalt]]um called [[albertite]]. He was blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate because they had coal extraction rights for the province, and he lost a court case when their experts claimed albertite was a form of coal.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Black
| first = Harry
| title = Canadian Scientists and Inventors
| publisher = Pembroke Publishers
| year = 1997
| isbn = 978-1-55138-081-0
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/canadianscientis0000blac
}}</ref> In 1854, Gesner moved to [[Newtown Creek]], [[Long Island]], [[New York (state)|New York]]. There, he secured backing from a group of businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to which he assigned his patents.

Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854, two years after [[James Young (chemist)|James Young]]'s United States patent.<ref>Gesner, Abraham, "Improvement in kerosene burning-fluids", U.S. Patent no.s [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011203 11,203] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612113021/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011203 |date=12 June 2018 }}; [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011204 11,204] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612112937/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011204 |date=12 June 2018 }}; [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011205 11,205] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612112812/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?docid=00011205 |date=12 June 2018 }} (issued:  27 June 1854).</ref><ref>Young, James, [http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00008833 "Improvement in making paraffine-oil"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612112810/http://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00008833 |date=12 June 2018 }} U.S. Patent no. 8,833 (issued:  23 March 1852).</ref> Gesner's method of purifying the distillation products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better-smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in 1854 and later in [[Boston]]—being distilled from [[bituminous coal]] and [[oil shale]].<ref name=russell/> Gesner registered the word "Kerosene" as a trademark in 1854, and for several years, only the North American Gas Light Company and the Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil "Kerosene" in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Asbury
| first = Herbert
| title = The golden flood: an informal history of America's first oil field
| publisher = Alfred A. Knopf
| year = 1942
| page = 35
}}</ref>

In 1848, [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[chemist]] [[James Young (chemist)|James Young]] experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating fuel. When the seep became exhausted, he experimented with the dry distillation of coal, especially the resinous "boghead coal" ([[torbanite]]). He extracted a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named ''paraffine oil'' because at low temperatures, it congealed into a substance that resembled paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at [[Bathgate]] in 1851, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal. In 1852, he took out a United States patent for the same invention. These patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits, and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties.<ref name=russell/>

===Kerosene from petroleum===
In 1851, [[Samuel Martin Kier]] began selling lamp oil to local miners, under the name "Carbon Oil". He distilled this from [[crude oil]] by a process of his own invention. He also invented a new lamp to burn his product.<ref Name="Pioneer" >{{Cite book
| title =Greater Pittsburgh and Allegheny County, Past, Present, Future; The Pioneer Oil Refiner
| publisher =The American Manufacturer and Iron World
| year=1901
| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=lkcVAAAAYAAJ&q=refinery+kier+pittsburgh&pg=PT57
| author1 =World, American Manufacturer and Iron
}}</ref> He has been dubbed the ''Grandfather of the American Oil Industry'' by historians.<ref Name="McInnis" >{{cite web
| last = McInnis
| first = Karen
| title = Kier, Samuel Martin- Bio
| work = biography
| publisher = The Pennsylvania State University
| url = http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Kier__Samuel_Martin.html
| access-date = 12 December 2008
| archive-date = 13 June 2010
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100613130838/http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Kier__Samuel_Martin.html

}}</ref> Kier's [[salt well]]s began to be fouled with [[petroleum]] in the 1840s. At first, Kier simply dumped the oil into the nearby [[Pennsylvania Main Line Canal]] as useless waste, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil, along with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania.<ref Name="Harper">{{Cite journal
 |last        = Harper
 |first       = J. A.
 |title       = Samuel Kier&nbsp;– Medicine Man & Refiner
 |format      = Excerpt from Yo-Ho-Ho and a Bottle of Unrefined Complex Liquid Hydrocarbons
 |journal     = Pennsylvania Geology
 |volume      = 26
 |issue       = 1
 |publisher   = Oil Region Alliance of Business, Industry & Tourism
 |year        = 1995
 |url         = http://www.oil150.com/essays/2007/02/samual-kier
 |access-date  = 12 December 2008
 
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315221502/http://www.oil150.com/essays/2007/02/samual-kier
 |archive-date = 15 March 2012
 }}</ref>

[[Ignacy Łukasiewicz]], a [[Poland|Polish]] pharmacist residing in [[Lviv]], and his partner {{interlanguage link|Jan Zeh|pl}} had been experimenting with different distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's kerosene process, but using [[petroleum|oil]] from a local [[petroleum seep]]. Many people knew of his work, but paid little attention to it. On the night of 31 July 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Łukasiewicz and his new lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several lamps plus a large supply of fuel. Łukasiewicz realized the potential of his work and quit the pharmacy to find a business partner, and then traveled to [[Vienna]] to register his technique with the government. Łukasiewicz moved to the [[Gorlice]] region of Poland in 1854, and sank several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near [[Jasło]] in 1859.<ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Steil  |first1 = Tim
| last2 = Luning  |first2=Jim
| title = Fantastic Filling Stations
| publisher = MBI Publishing
| year= 2002
| pages = 19–20
| isbn = 978-0-7603-1064-9
}}</ref>

The petroleum discovery by [[Edwin Drake]] {{ndash}} [[Drake Well]] {{ndash}} in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused a great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at [[Oil Springs, Ontario]] in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As a result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product "kerosene".<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Lucier|title=Scientists and Swindlers: Consulting on Coal and Oil in America, 1820–1890|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNsKrN56RKEC&pg=PA161|year=2008|publisher=JHU Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-1-4214-0285-7|pages=232–233}}</ref> Because Gesner's original Kerosene had been also known as "coal oil", generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called "coal oil" in some parts of the United States well into the 20th century.

In the United Kingdom, manufacturing oil from coal (or oil shale) continued into the early 20th century, although increasingly overshadowed by petroleum oils.

As kerosene production increased, whaling declined. The [[Whaling in the United States|American whaling fleet]], which had been steadily growing for 50 years, reached its all-time peak of 199 ships in 1858. By 1860, just two years later, the fleet had dropped to 167 ships. The Civil War cut into American whaling temporarily, but only 105 whaling ships returned to sea in 1866, the first full year of peace, and that number dwindled until only 39 American ships set out to hunt whales in 1876.<ref>United States Bureau of the Census, 1960, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957, p.445.</ref> Kerosene, made first from coal and oil shale, then from petroleum, had largely taken over whaling's lucrative market in lamp oil.

Electric lighting started displacing kerosene as an illuminant in the late 19th century, especially in urban areas. However, kerosene remained the predominant commercial end-use for petroleum refined in the United States until 1909, when it was exceeded by motor fuels. The rise of the gasoline-powered automobile in the early 20th century created a demand for the lighter hydrocarbon fractions, and refiners invented methods to increase their output of gasoline, while decreasing their output of kerosene. In addition, some of the heavier hydrocarbons that previously went into kerosene were incorporated into diesel fuel. Kerosene kept some market share by being increasingly used in stoves and portable heaters.<ref>[[Harold F. Williamson]] and others, ''The American Petroleum Industry: the Age of Energy, 1899–1959'' (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1963) 170, 172, 194, 204.</ref>

=== Kerosene from carbon dioxide and water ===
A pilot project by [[ETH Zurich]] used [[solar power]] to produce kerosene from carbon dioxide and water in July 2022. The product can be used in existing aviation applications, and "can also be blended with fossil-derived kerosene".<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=All-in-one solar-powered tower makes carbon-neutral kerosene in the field at pilot-scale |url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/07/20220721-zoller.html |access-date=2022-07-24 |website=Green Car Congress |archive-date=24 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724151751/https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/07/20220721-zoller.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zoller |first1=Stefan |last2=Koepf |first2=Erik |last3=Nizamian |first3=Dustin |last4=Stephan |first4=Marco |last5=Patané |first5=Adriano |last6=Haueter |first6=Philipp |last7=Romero |first7=Manuel |last8=González-Aguilar |first8=José |last9=Lieftink |first9=Dick |last10=de Wit |first10=Ellart |last11=Brendelberger |first11=Stefan |date=2022 |title=A solar tower fuel plant for the thermochemical production of kerosene from H2O and CO2 |journal=Joule |language=en |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=1606–1616 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2022.06.012 |pmc=9332358 |pmid=35915707}}</ref>

==Production== 
{{Further|Jet fuel}}

Kerosene is produced by [[fractional distillation]] of crude oil in an [[oil refinery#Major products|oil refinery]]. It condenses at a temperature intermediate between [[diesel fuel]], which is less volatile, and [[naphtha]] and [[gasoline]], which are more volatile.

Kerosene made up 8.5 percent by volume of petroleum refinery output in 2021 in the United States, of which nearly all was kerosene-type jet fuel (8.4 percent).<ref>{{cite web | title=U.S. Refinery Yield | website=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) | url=http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pnp_pct_dc_nus_pct_a.htm | access-date=2022-08-08 | archive-date=4 April 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404235401/https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/PET_PNP_PCT_DC_NUS_PCT_A.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Applications==
===As fuel===
{{Home heating fuels}}

====Heating and lighting====
The fuel, also known as heating oil in the UK and Ireland, remains widely used in [[kerosene lamp]]s and lanterns in the developing world.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/ccfaa1ba-d0f1-11e5-831d-09f7778e7377 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/ccfaa1ba-d0f1-11e5-831d-09f7778e7377 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=Lightbulb moment for M-Kopa|newspaper=Financial Times|date=17 March 2016|last1=Aglionby|first1=John}}</ref> Although it replaced [[whale oil]], the 1873 edition of ''Elements of Chemistry'' said, "The vapor of this substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder."<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Cooley | first = Le Roy Clark
| title = Elements of Chemistry: for Common and High Schools
| publisher = Scribner, Armstrong
| year= 1873
| page = 98
}}</ref> This statement may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with cheaper but more volatile hydrocarbon mixtures, such as [[naphtha]].<ref>{{Cite book
| first1 = Benjamin Johnson | last1= Crew
| first2 = Charles Albert  |last2=Ashburner
| title = A Practical Treatise on Petroleum
   | publisher = Baird |year = 1887
| pages = 395. This reference uses "benzene" in the obsolescent generic sense of a volatile hydrocarbon mixture, now called benzine, petroleum ether, ligroin, or naphtha, rather than the modern meaning of [[benzene]] as the specific aromatic hydrocarbon C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>}}</ref>
Kerosene was a significant fire risk; in 1880, nearly two of every five New York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Bettmann  | first = Otto
| title = The Good Old Days – They Were Terrible!
| publisher = Random House
| year = 1974
| page = 34
| isbn = 978-0-394-70941-3
}}</ref>

In [[developing country|less-developed countries]] kerosene is an important source of energy for cooking and lighting. It is used as a [[cooking]] fuel in [[portable stove]]s for [[Backpacking (wilderness)|backpackers]]. As a heating fuel, it is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some [[filling station]]s. It is sometimes used as a heat source during power failures.

[[File:Kerosene truck Aichi Japan.jpg|thumb|A truck delivering kerosene in Japan]]
[[File:Kerosene Storage Tank.jpg|thumb|Kerosene storage tank]]
Kerosene is widely used in Japan and [[Chile]] as a home heating fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In [[Chile]] and Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling station or be delivered to homes in some cases.<ref name="Nagoya">{{cite web|title=Heating Your Home in Winter: Kerosene Fan Heater|url=http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/en/e/archives/423|website=Nagoya International Center|date=30 November 2011|access-date=3 November 2016|archive-date=3 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803130914/http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/en/e/archives/423}}</ref>
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in areas not connected to a [[natural gas|gas]] pipeline network. It is used less for cooking, with [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] being preferred because it is easier to light. Kerosene is often the fuel of choice for range cookers such as [[Rayburn range|Rayburn]]. Additives such as RangeKlene can be put into kerosene to ensure that it burns cleaner and produces less soot when used in range cookers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Additives (KeroKlene and Range Klene)|url=https://craggsenergy.co.uk/info/kerosene/|publisher=Craggs Energy|access-date=30 May 2017|date=25 January 2016|archive-date=29 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329155604/https://craggsenergy.co.uk/info/kerosene/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Amish]], who generally abstain from the use of electricity, rely on kerosene for lighting at night.
More ubiquitous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [[kerosene heater|kerosene space heaters]] were often built into kitchen ranges, and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry through the winter. At one time, citrus growers used a [[smudge pot]] fueled by kerosene to create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from damaging crops. "[[Salamander heater|Salamanders]]" are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before the days of electrically lighted road barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired, pot-bellied torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low temperature of combustion.

A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a [[gas mantle]] mounted above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above the woven cotton wick, the mantle is a residue of mineral materials (mostly [[thorium dioxide]]), heated to [[incandescence]] by the flame from the wick. The [[thorium]] and [[cerium]] oxide combination produces both a whiter light and a greater fraction of the energy in the form of visible light than a [[black body]] at the same temperature would. These types of lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity, because they give a much better light than a simple wick-type lamp does.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} Recently, a multipurpose lantern that doubles as a cook stove has been introduced in India in areas with no electricity.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110216013917/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/lanstove-a-lamp-thats-also-a-stove/143262-11.html Lanstove:A lamp that's also a stove]. Ibnlive.in.com (14 February 2011). Retrieved on 2 June 2015.</ref>

====Cooking====
[[File:Rippingille Albion Lamp Coy c1900 advert.jpg|thumb|upright|Advertisement for an oil stove, from the Albion Lamp Company, Birmingham, England, c. 1900]]
[[File:Old Kerosene stoves.jpg|thumb|left|Old kerosene stoves from India]]

In countries such as Nigeria, kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking, especially by the poor, and kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking appliances. As such, increases in the price of kerosene can have a major political and environmental consequence. The Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price very low, to around 15 U.S. cents per liter as of February 2007, as keeping the price low discourages dismantling of forests for cooking fuel.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Bradsher
| first = Keith
| title = Fuel Subsidies Overseas Take a Toll on U.S.
| newspaper = New York Times
| date = 28 July 2008
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/28/business/worldbusiness/28subsidy.html
| access-date = 22 February 2017
| archive-date = 5 January 2018
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180105201219/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/28/business/worldbusiness/28subsidy.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref> In Nigeria, an attempt by the government to remove a fuel subsidy that includes kerosene met with strong opposition.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Ibikun
| first = Yinka
| title = Nigeria Kerosene Too Expensive For Oil-Rich Country's Poor
| newspaper = Huffington Post
| date = 25 July 2011
| url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/25/nigeria-kerosene-too-expensive_n_908837.html
| access-date = 11 December 2012
| archive-date = 7 January 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140107091438/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/25/nigeria-kerosene-too-expensive_n_908837.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

Kerosene is used as a fuel in [[portable stove]]s, especially in [[Primus stove]]s invented in 1892. Portable kerosene stoves are reliable and durable in everyday use, and perform especially well under adverse conditions. In outdoor activities and mountaineering, a decisive advantage of [[Portable stove#Pressurized liquid fuel stoves|pressurized kerosene stove]]s over [[Portable stove#Gas cartridge stoves|gas cartridge stoves]] is their particularly high thermal output and their ability to operate at very low ambient temperatures in winter or at high altitude. Wick stoves like Perfection's or wickless like Boss continue to be used by the Amish and off grid living, and in natural disasters where there is no power available.

==== Engines ====
In the early to mid-20th century, kerosene or [[tractor vaporizing oil]] was used as a cheap fuel for [[tractor]]s and [[hit-and-miss engine]]s. A [[petrol-paraffin engine]] would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine warmed up. On some engines, a heat valve on the manifold would route the exhaust gasses around the intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where it was vaporized and could be ignited by an [[electric spark]].

In Europe following the Second World War, automobiles were similarly modified to run on kerosene rather than gasoline, which they would have to import and pay heavy taxes on. Besides additional piping and the switch between fuels, the [[head gasket]] was replaced by a much thicker one to diminish the compression ratio (making the engine less powerful and less efficient, but able to run on kerosene). The necessary equipment was sold under the trademark "Econom".<ref name="Corporation1951">{{cite book|last=Baer|first=Frederick H.|title=Popular Science December 1951|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA2-PA193|chapter=Report from abroad on kerosene-fed cars|date=December 1951|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|page=193}}</ref>

During the [[1973 oil crisis|fuel crisis of the 1970s]], Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the [[Saab 99]] Petro that ran on kerosene, [[turpentine]] or gasoline. The project, codenamed "Project Lapponia", was headed by Simo Vuorio, and towards the end of the 1970s, a working prototype was produced based on the Saab 99 GL. The car was designed to run on two fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat using the [[Fischer–Tropsch process]]. Between 1980 and 1984, 3,756 Saab 99 Petros and 2,385 [[Talbot Horizon]]s (a version of the Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab components) were made. One reason to manufacture kerosene-fueled cars was that, in Finland, kerosene was less heavily taxed than gasoline.<ref>Bakrutan: "Saab 99 Petro" by Petri Tyrkös, n. 4, 2008 {{Dead link|date=January 2022}}</ref>

Kerosene is used to fuel smaller-horsepower outboard motors built by Yamaha, Suzuki, and Tohatsu. Primarily used on small fishing craft, these are dual-fuel engines that start on gasoline and then transition to kerosene once the engine reaches optimum [[operating temperature]]. Multiple fuel Evinrude and Mercury Racing engines also burn kerosene, as well as jet fuel.<ref>
{{Cite news
| last  = Banse
| first = Timothy
| title = Kerosene Outboards: An Alternative Fuel?
| magazine = Marine Engine Digest
| date  = 7 July 2010
| url   = http://marineenginedigest.com/specialreports/kerosene-outboards.htm}}</ref>

Today, kerosene is mainly used in [[jet fuel|fuel for jet engines]] in several grades. One highly refined form of the fuel is known as [[RP-1]], and is often burned with [[liquid oxygen]] as [[Rocket propellant|rocket fuel]]. These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for [[smoke point]]s and [[freeze point]]s. The combustion reaction can be approximated as follows, with the molecular formula C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>26</sub> ([[dodecane]]):

: 2 C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>26</sub>(''l'') + 37 O<sub>2</sub>(''g'')&nbsp;→ 24 CO<sub>2</sub>(''g'')&nbsp;+ 26 H<sub>2</sub>O(''g''); [[Enthalpy|∆''H''˚]]&nbsp;= -7513 [[Joule|kJ]]

In the initial phase of liftoff, the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of liquid oxygen with RP-1.<ref name="Ebbing" >{{cite book|author=Ebbing, Darrell |title=General Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VakHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA251|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-80895-2|pages=251–|date=3 December 2007}}</ref> For the five 6.4 meganewton sea-level thrust [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1]] rocket engines of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>11</sup> [[watt]]s (J/s) (162 gigawatt) or 217 million horsepower.<ref name=Ebbing/>

Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/diesel/presentations/keroseneblding.pdf Kerosene blending] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233943/http://www.epa.gov/diesel/presentations/keroseneblding.pdf |date=27 May 2008 }}, (pdf from EPA)</ref>

Ultra-low sulfur kerosene is a custom-blended fuel used by the [[New York City Transit Authority]] to power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the widespread adoption of [[ultra-low-sulfur diesel]], which has since become the standard. In 2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/25/nyregion/25fuel.html|title=How a Plan for Bus Fuel Grew Expensive|newspaper=The New York Times|date=25 September 2008|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=5 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105215847/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/25/nyregion/25fuel.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[JP-8]] (for "Jet Propellant 8"), a kerosene-based fuel, is used by the United States military as a replacement in diesel fueled vehicles and for powering aircraft. JP-8 is also used by the U.S. military and its NATO allies as a fuel for heaters, stoves, tanks, and as a replacement for diesel fuel in the engines of nearly all tactical ground vehicles and electrical generators.

=== Chemical processes ===
Aliphatic kerosene is a type of kerosene which has a low aromatic hydrocarbon content. The aromatic content of crude oil varies greatly from oil field to oil field, however by solvent extraction, it is possible to separate aromatic hydrocarbons from aliphatic (alkane) hydrocarbons. A common method is solvent extraction with methanol, DMSO or [[sulfolane]]. Aromatic kerosene is a grade of kerosene with a large concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons, an example of this would be [[Exon]]'s Solvesso 150.

Kerosene is commonly used in metal extraction as the [[diluent]]. For example, in [[copper]] extraction by LIX-84, it can be used in mixer settlers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Amal I. |last2=Daoud |first2=Jacqueline A. |last3=Aly |first3=Hisham F. |date=October 1996 |title=Recovery of Copper from Sulphate Medium by Lix-84 in Kerosene |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199610)67:23.0.CO;2-S |journal=Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology |language=en |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=137–142 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199610)67:2<137::AID-JCTB551>3.0.CO;2-S |bibcode=1996JCTB...67..137A |issn=0268-2575}}</ref>

Kerosene is used as a diluent in the [[PUREX]] extraction process, but it is increasingly being supplanted by [[dodecane]] and other artificial hydrocarbons such as TPH (hydrogenated propylene trimer). Traditionally the UK plants at Sellafield used aromatic kerosene to reduce the radiolysis of TBP while the French nuclear industry tended to use diluents with very little aromatic content. The French nuclear reprocessing plants typically use TPH as their diluent. In recent times, it has been shown by Mark Foreman at Chalmers that aliphatic kerosene can be replaced in solvent extraction with HVO100, which is a second generation biodiesel made by [[Neste]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1039/D3SU00078H | title=Sustainable solvent extraction of gold and other metals with biomass chemicals | date=2024 | last1=Foreman | first1=Mark R. StJ. | last2=Johansson | first2=Richard K. | last3=Mariotti | first3=Gloria | last4=Persson | first4=Ingmar | last5=Tebikachew | first5=Behabitu E. | last6=Tyumentsev | first6=Mikhail S. | journal=RSC Sustainability | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=655–675 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

In [[X-ray crystallography]], kerosene can be used to store crystals. When a [[Hydrate|hydrated crystal]] is left in air, [[dehydration]] may occur slowly. This makes the color of the crystal become dull. Kerosene can keep air away from the crystal.

It can be also used to prevent air from re-dissolving in a boiled liquid,<ref name="KeroseneMiscellaneous" /> and to store alkali metals such as [[potassium]], [[sodium]], and [[rubidium]] (with the exception of [[lithium]], which is less dense than kerosene, causing it to float).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-s-and-p-block-elements/solved-problems.html|title=S and P Block Elements – Solved Problems for IIT JEE - askIITians|website=www.askiitians.com|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=12 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212193045/http://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-s-and-p-block-elements/solved-problems.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== In entertainment ===
Kerosene is often used in the entertainment industry for fire performances, such as [[Fire breathing (circus act)|fire breathing]], [[fire juggling]] or [[Poi (juggling)|poi]], and [[fire dancing]]. Because of its low flame temperature when burnt in free air, the risk is lower should the performer come in contact with the flame. Kerosene is generally not recommended as fuel for indoor fire dancing, as it produces an unpleasant (to some) odor, which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. [[Ethanol]] was sometimes used instead, but the flames it produces look less impressive, and its lower [[flash point]] poses a high risk.

=== In industry ===
As a petroleum product miscible with many industrial liquids, kerosene can be used as both a solvent, able to remove other petroleum products, such as chain grease, and as a [[cutting fluid|lubricant]], with less risk of combustion when compared to using [[gasoline]]. It can also be used as a cooling agent in metal production and treatment (oxygen-free conditions).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0026-0657(04)00279-6 | title = Oil atomisation puts a different face on iron alloy powders | journal = Metal Powder Report | volume = 59 | issue = 10 | pages = 26–06 | year = 2004 }}</ref>

In the petroleum industry, kerosene is often used as a synthetic [[hydrocarbon]] for corrosion experiments to simulate crude oil in field conditions.

=== Solvent ===
Kerosene can be used as an [[adhesive remover]] on hard-to-remove [[mucilage]] or adhesive left by stickers on a glass surface (such as in show windows of stores).<ref name="KeroseneMiscellaneous">[http://oilfielddirectory.com/oilfield/kerosene.htm Kerosene: Other uses: Miscellaneous] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229161359/http://oilfielddirectory.com/oilfield/kerosene.htm |date=29 December 2011 }}. Oilfielddirectory.com. Retrieved on 2 June 2015.</ref>

It can be used to remove candle wax that has dripped onto a glass surface; it is recommended that the excess wax be scraped off prior to applying kerosene via a soaked cloth or tissue paper.<ref name="KeroseneMiscellaneous"/>

It can be used to clean bicycle and motorcycle chains of old lubricant before relubrication.<ref name="KeroseneMiscellaneous"/>

It can also be used to thin [[oil-based paint]] used in fine art. Some artists even use it to clean their brushes; however, it leaves the bristles greasy to the touch.

=== Others ===
It has seen use for water tank [[mosquito control]] in Australia, where a temporary thin floating layer above the water protects it until the defective tank is repaired.<ref name="dohau_d0042_201103">{{cite book |title=Guidance on use of rainwater tanks |date=March 2011 |publisher=Australian Government Department of Health |isbn=978-1-74241-325-9 |pages=22, 23 |url=https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0D71DB86E9DA7CF1CA257BF0001CBF2F/$File/enhealth-raintank.pdf |access-date=16 March 2019 |archive-date=21 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321194006/https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0D71DB86E9DA7CF1CA257BF0001CBF2F/$File/enhealth-raintank.pdf  }}</ref>

== Toxicity ==
The [[World Health Organization]] considers kerosene to be a polluting fuel and recommends that "governments and practitioners immediately stop promoting its household use".<ref>{{Cite book|last=World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-date=24 November 2017|title=Burning opportunity: clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children|year=2016|location=Geneva, Switzerland|page=X}}</ref> Kerosene smoke contains high levels of harmful [[particulate matter]], and household use of kerosene is associated with higher risks of [[cancer]], respiratory infections, [[asthma]], [[tuberculosis]], [[cataract]], and adverse pregnancy outcomes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-date=24 November 2017|title=Burning opportunity: clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children|year=2016|location=Geneva, Switzerland|page=49}}</ref>

[[Ingestion]] of kerosene is harmful. Kerosene is sometimes recommended as a folk remedy for killing [[head louse|head lice]], but health agencies warn against this as it can cause burns and serious illness. A kerosene shampoo can even be fatal if fumes are inhaled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/821143-overview |title=Toxicity, Hydrocarbons |last1=Levine |first1=Michael D. |last2=Gresham |first2=Chip III |date=30 April 2009 |work=emedicine |access-date=1 December 2009 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418152853/https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/821143-overview |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| author      = Mahdi, Awad Hassan
| title       = Kerosene Poisoning in Children in Riyadh
| journal     = Journal of Tropical Pediatrics
| year        = 1988
| volume      = 34
| issue       = 6
| pages       = 316–318
| publisher   = Oxford University Press
| doi         = 10.1093/tropej/34.6.316
| quote       = Radiological signs of pneumonia were shown in nine out of 27 patients who had chest X-rays. There was one death.
| pmid        = 3221417
}}</ref>

People can be exposed to kerosene in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The US [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] of 100&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> over an 8-hour workday.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Kerosene|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0366.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 6 November 2015|archive-date = 23 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151123002412/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0366.html|url-status = live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Adiabatic flame temperature]]
* [[Gasoline gallon equivalent]]
* [[Kerosene jet fuel]]
* [[List of CO2 emitted per million Btu of energy from various fuels|List of CO<sub>2</sub> emitted per million Btu of energy from various fuels]]
{{colend}}

== References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=GlobeAndMail2019-10-04>
{{cite news     
| url         = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-cautionary-tale-of-whale-oil/
| title       = The cautionary tale of whale oil
| work        = [[The Globe and Mail]]
| author      = Ed Butts
| date        = 4 October 2019
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20191006064852/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-cautionary-tale-of-whale-oil/
| archive-date = 6 October 2019
| url-status  = live
| quote       = Then in 1846, a Nova Scotian physician and geologist named Abraham Gesner invented kerosene. This pioneering form of fossil fuel, which some called coal oil, burned cleaner and brighter than whale oil, and didn't have a pungent odor. <!-- Initially, kerosene was expensive to produce, but with refinements in the process, it could soon be manufactured for a fraction of what it cost to send a ship and crew halfway around the world in pursuit of dwindling whale pods. Inexpensive kerosene became the fuel that fed lanterns in homes and the street lamps that illuminated cities at night. -->
| author-link = Ed Butts
}}
</ref>
}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Kerosenes |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Liquid Fuels |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=3593–3734 |doi=10.1515/9783110750287-031 |isbn=978-3-11-075028-7}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|kerosene}}
{{Commons category|Kerosene}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061209193139/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/english/ke/kerosene.html "Kerosene"], Webster Online Dictionary
* [http://www.endtimesreport.com/kerosene_fuel_primer.html Kerosene Fuel Primer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911122721/http://www.endtimesreport.com/kerosene_fuel_primer.html |date=11 September 2009 }}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160415175137/http://www.nafaa.org/K1_MSDS.pdf Material Safety Data Sheet]}}
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0366.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025034928/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0366.html |date=25 October 2017 }}

{{Motor fuel}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alkanes]]
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Aviation fuels]]
[[Category:Brands that became generic]]
[[Category:Canadian inventions]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Coolants]]
[[Category:Liquid fuels]]
[[Category:Hydrocarbon solvents]]
[[Category:Iranian inventions]]
[[Category:Lubricants]]
[[Category:Petroleum products]]
[[Category:Polish inventions]]
[[Category:Scottish inventions]]