Editing Kassites

{{short description|People of the ancient Near East}}
{{Distinguish|Kaysites|Kingdom of Kush{{!}}Kushites}}
{{Redirect|Kassite|the mineral|Kassite (mineral)}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Kassites
| native_name = 
| image = {{
Location map+|Iraq|width=260|float=right|relief=yes|places=
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.536389|long=44.420833|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Babylon]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.885|long=45.268611|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Isin]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.540278|long=44.604722|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.126444|long=45.233381|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Nippur]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.058829|long=44.252153|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Sippar]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.9625|long=46.103056|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Ur]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.322222|long=45.636111|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Uruk]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.353611|long=44.202222|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Dur-Kurigalzu]]
}}
{{
Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.562028|long=46.177583|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Girsu]]
}}
}}
| image_caption = Map of Iraq showing important sites that were occupied by the Kassite dynasty of Babylonia (clickable map)
| total = <!-- total population worldwide -->
| total_year = <!-- year of total population -->
| total_source = <!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' -->
| total_ref = <!-- references supporting total population -->
| genealogy = 
| regions = [[Karduniash]]
| languages = [[Kassite language|Kassite]]
| philosophies = 
| religions = [[Kassite deities|Kassite religion]], later subsumed into [[Mesopotamian religion]]
| related_groups = 
| footnotes = 
}}
The '''Kassites''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|s|aɪ|t|s}}) were a people of the [[ancient Near East]]. They controlled [[Babylonia]] after the fall of the [[Old Babylonian Empire]] from {{Circa|1531 BC}} until {{Circa|1155 BC}} ([[Chronology of the ancient Near East#Variant Middle Bronze Age chronologies|short chronology]]).

The Kassites gained control of Babylonia after the [[Hittites|Hittite]] sack of [[Babylon]] in 1531 BC, and established a dynasty generally assumed to have been based first in that city, after a hiatus. Later rule shifted to the new city of [[Dur-Kurigalzu]].<ref>Brinkman, J. A.. "1. Babylonia under the Kassites: Some Aspects for Consideration". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 1-44</ref> By the time of Babylon's fall, the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against.<ref>van Koppen, Frans. “THE OLD TO MIDDLE BABYLONIAN TRANSITION: HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE MESOPOTAMIAN DARK AGE.” Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 20, 2010, pp. 453–63</ref> There are records of Kassite and Babylonian interactions, in the context of military employment, during the reigns of Babylonian kings [[Samsu-iluna]] (1686 to 1648 BC), [[Abi-Eshuh|Abī-ešuh]], and [[Ammi-Ditana|Ammī-ditāna]].<ref>Koppen, Frans van. "2. The Early Kassite Period". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 45-92</ref>

The origin and classification of the [[Kassite language]], like the [[Sumerian language]] and [[Hurrian language]], is uncertain, and, also like the two latter languages, has generated a wide array of speculation over the years, even to the point of linking it to [[Sanskrit]], however like these other languages it is regarded as a [[language Isolate]] and is not accepted to be  [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]].<ref>Pinches, T. G. “The Question of the Kassite Language.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1907, pp. 685–685</ref> The Kassite religion is also poorly understood, though the names of some [[Kassite deities]] are known.<ref>Malko, Helen. "The Kassites of Babylonia: A Re-examination of an Ethnic Identity". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 177-189</ref> The chief gods, titular gods of the kings, were [[Shuqamuna and Shumaliya]], which are distinct from Sumerian, Semitic and Indo-European gods.<ref>Krebernik, M., and Seidl, U. (2012). "Šuqamuna und Šu/imalija." [in:] ''[http://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologie]'' vol 13, [https://publikationen.badw.de/en/rla/index#11245 p. 323-325]</ref> As was typical in the region, there was some cross pollination with other religions. After Babylon came within the Kassite sphere of control its city-god, [[Marduk]], was absorbed into the Kassite pantheon.<ref>Tenney, J. S. (2016). ''The elevation of Marduk revisited: Festivals and sacrifices at Nippur during the High Kassite period''. Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 68(1), 153-180. Pg 154 note 4.</ref>

==History==
Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). Many of those tablets have not yet been published, including hundreds held in the Ottoman Museum in Istanbul.<ref>[https://melc.berkeley.edu/Web_Veldhuis/articles/Kassite_exercises.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122165708/https://melc.berkeley.edu/Web_Veldhuis/articles/Kassite_exercises.pdf|date=2022-01-22}} Veldhuis, Niek. "Kassite Exercises: Literary and Lexical Extracts." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 52, 2000, pp. 67–94</ref><ref>Biggs, Robert D. “A Letter from Kassite Nippur.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, 1965, pp. 95–102</ref>

About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu.<ref>O. R. Gurney, Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, vol. 11, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;131–149, 1949</ref><ref>O. R. Gurney, Further Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Sumer, vol. 9, pp.&nbsp;21–34, 1953</ref> A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish.<ref>T. Clayden. “Kish in the Kassite Period (c. 1650-1150 B.C.).” Iraq, vol. 54, 1992, pp. 141–55</ref> Several tablets dated to the reign of Agum III were found at the [[Dilmun]] site of [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]].<ref>Højlund, Flemming. Qala'at al-Bahrain/2 The central monumental buildings. Aarhus Univ. Press, 1997</ref> In total, about 12,000 Kassite period documents have been recovered, of which only around 10% have been published. There are also a number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites.<ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/mskh1.pdf] Brinkman, J.A. 1976. Materials and Studies for Kassite History. Vol. 1, pt. A, Catalogue of Cuneiform Sources Pertaining to Specific Monarchs of the Kassite Dynasty. Chicago: Chicago University Press.</ref> A number of seals have also been found.<ref>[https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/150405/1/Matthews_1992_The_Kassite_Glyptic_of_Nippur.pdf] Donalds M Matthews, The Kassite Glyptic of Nippur, Freiburg, Switzerland / Göttingen,Germany: Universitätsverlag / Vandenhoeck Ruprecht, 1992</ref><ref>Kjaerum, F. “SEALS OF ‘DILMUN-TYPE’ FROM FAILAKA, KUWAIT.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 10, 1980, pp. 45–53</ref> [[Kudurru]]s, stone stele used to record land grants and related documents, provide another source for Kassite history.<ref>Paulus, Susanne. "10. The Babylonian Kudurru Inscriptions and their Legal and Sociohistorical Implications". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 229-244</ref> This practice continued for several centuries after the end of the Kassite Dynasty.<ref>Brinkman, J. A. “Babylonian Royal Land Grants, Memorials of Financial Interest, and Invocation of the Divine.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 49, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–47</ref> Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around the world.<ref>Lambert, W. G. “The Warwick Kudurru.” Syria, vol. 58, no. 1/2, 1981, pp. 173–85</ref>

[[File:Cylinder seal of king Kirigalzu II Louvre Museum AOD 105.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Cylinder seal of Kassite king [[Kurigalzu II]] (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105]]
The ancient city of [[Nippur]] was a major focus for the Kassites. Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak.<ref>Schneider, Bernhard. "Studies Concerning the Kassite Period Ekur of Nippur: Construction History and Finds". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 146-164</ref> Other important centers during the Kassite period were [[Larsa]], [[Sippar]] and [[Susa]]. The Kassites were very active at [[Ur]].<ref>Brinkman, John Anthony. "Ur:" The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings"." (1969): 310-348</ref> At the site of [[Isin]], which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple of [[Gula (goddess)|Gula]]. The work at Isin was initiated by Kurigalzu I and continued by Kadashman-Enlil I, and after a lapse, by Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak II.<ref>Kaniuth, Kai. "18. Isin in the Kassite Period". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 492-507</ref> After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.<ref>Brinkman, J. A. “Provincial Administration in Babylonia under the Second Dynasty of Isin.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 6, no. 3, 1963, pp. 233–42</ref>

=== Origins ===
The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. Several suspected Kassite names are recorded in economic documents from the [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ur III]] period (c. 2112–2004 BC) in southern [[Babylon]], but their origin is ambiguous.<ref>J. A. Brinkman, “Kassiten (Kassû),” RLA, vol. 5 (1976–80</ref> They are thought to originate from the [[Zagros Mountains]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kassites |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/kassites}}</ref> Kassites were first reported in [[Babylonia]] in the 18th century BC, especially around the area of [[Sippar]]. The 9th year name of king [[Samsu-iluna]] (1749–1712 BC) of [[Babylon]], the son of [[Hammurabi]] mentions them ie. ("Year in which Samsu-iluna the king (defeated) the totality of the strength of the army / the troops of the Kassites").<ref>[https://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/HTML/T12K7.htm Year Names at CDLI]</ref>

===Middle Bronze Age===
As the Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon.<ref>[https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/179897/1/179897.pdf] Claudia Glatz, et al., Babylonian Encounters in the Upper Diyala River Valley: Contextualizing the Results of Regional Survey and the 2016–2017 Excavations at Khani Masi, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 123, No. 3 (July 2019), pp. 439-471</ref>
The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god [[Marduk]], but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city ''Karanduniash'', re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia.

=== Late Bronze Age ===
[[File:Kudurru Louvre Sb31.jpg|thumb|Kassite [[Kudurru]] stele of Kassite king [[Marduk-apla-iddina I]]. [[Louvre Museum]].]]

The fall of the [[First Sealand dynasty]] in 1460 BC created a power vacuum which the Kassites filled. After the destruction of the [[Mittani]] by the Hittites in the early 14th century BC, Assyria rose in power creating a three-way power structure in the region between the Kassites, Hittites, and Assyrians, with Elam exerting influence from the east and Egypt from the south. A number of the [[Amarna Letters]] are correspondence between the respective rulers (including 14 between the Pharaoh and the Kassite ruler).<ref>Miller, Jared L.. "3. Political Interactions between Kassite Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt and Ḫatti during the Amarna Age". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 93-111</ref> An international system came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites).<ref>Schulman, Alan R. “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 38, no. 3, 1979, pp. 177–93</ref><ref>Roaf, Michael. "6. Kassite and Elamite Kings". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 166-195</ref> A typical treaties include the [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty]] (c.1259 BC) and the treaty between the Kassite ruler Karaindash and the Assyrian ruler Ashur-bel-nisheshu (c. 1410 BC).

At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14th century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital of [[Susa]].<ref>Frans van Koppen (2006). "Inscription of Kurigalzu I". In Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing Ltd</ref> That ruler initiated  significant building efforts in Ur and other southern Mesopotamia cities.<ref>Clayden, Tim. "Ur in the Kassite Period". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 88-124</ref> The most notable of these efforts was the construction of a new city, Dur-Kurigalzu. It contained a number of palaces and also temples to many Babylonia gods including Enlil, Ninlil, and Ninurta.<ref>Clayden, Tim. "16. Dūr-Kurigalzu: New Perspectives". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 437-478</ref><ref>Malko, Helen. "17. Dūr-Kurigalzu: Insights from Unpublished Iraqi Excavation Reports". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 479-491</ref> The Kassites also extended their power into the Persian Gulf, including at [[Qal'at al-Bahrain]].<ref>Potts, D. T. “Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 65, no. 2, 2006, pp. 111–19</ref> Being in close proximity the Assyrians and Kassites often came into political and military conflict over the next few centuries. For a time in the early reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I, Assyria gained ascendancy, until the Elamites under Kidin-Hutran III intervened. This period is marked by a building hiatus at Babylon, similar to the one after the fall of the [[First Babylonian dynasty]].<ref>Pedersén, Olof. 2005. "Archive und Bibliotheken in Babylon. Die Tontafeln der Grabung Robert Koldeweys 1899–1917." Saarbrücken: Saarländische Druckerei und Verlag</ref><ref>Sternitzke, Katja. "Babylon in the Second Millennium BCE: New Insights on the Transitions from Old Babylonian to Kassite and Isin II Periods". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 125-145</ref>

===Iron Age===
[[File:Kassite cylinder seal impression, ca. 16th–12th century BC.jpg|thumb|left|Kassite cylinder seal, c. 16th–12th century BC.]]

The [[Elam]]ites of the [[Shutrukid dynasty]] conquered Babylonia, carrying away the [[Statue of Marduk]], in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state.<ref>Potts, Daniel T. (1999). ''The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-563585}}. pp. 233–234</ref> According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable, the last Kassite king, [[Enlil-nadin-ahi]], was taken to [[Susa]] and imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died.<ref>Albert Kirk Grayson (1975), ''Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles'', Locust Valley, New York: J. J. Augustin, {{ISBN|978-1575060491}}</ref>

The annals of the Assyrian king [[Sennacherib]] detail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along the [[Diyala River]] between the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. The Kassites took refuge in the mountains but were brought down and resettled, in standard Assyrian practice, in Hardispi and Bit Kubatti, which were made part of the Arrapha district.<ref>Levine, Louis D. "The Second Campaign of Sennacherib". ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'', vol. 32, no. 3, 1973, pp. 312–317</ref><ref>Levine, Louis D. "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros—I". ''Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies'' 11.1 (1973): 1–27</ref><ref>Levine, Louis D. "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros—II". ''Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies'' 12.1 (1974): 99–124.</ref>

[[File:Kudurru Melishipak Louvre Sb23 n02.jpg|thumb|Kassite king [[Meli-Shipak II]] on a kudurru land grant presenting his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya to the goddess [[Nanaya]] (pictured enthroned). The eight-pointed star seen above was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside the [[solar symbol|solar disk]] of her brother [[Shamash]] (Sumerian Utu) and the [[crescent|crescent moon]] of her father [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] (Sumerian Nanna) on a [[kudurru|boundary stone]] of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.<ref group=i name=sb23>''Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru'', Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22 during the French excavations at Susa.</ref>]]

==Kassite dynasty==
{{Main|Kassite dynasty}}
The Babylonian and Assyrian king lists mention eight or nine [[early Kassite rulers]] whose names are not fully known and who precede the following kings.<ref>Chen, Fei (2020). Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004430914.</ref><ref>Astour, Michael C. "The Name of the Ninth Kassite Ruler". ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' vol. 106, no. 2, 1986, pp. 327–331</ref> Another Kassite king, Hašmar-galšu, is known from five inscriptions from the Nippur area.<ref>Horowitz, W., Reeves, S., Stillman, L., White, M., & Zilberg, P. (2015). "Cuneiform Texts in The Otago Museum: A preliminary report". ''Buried History'', 51, 57–60</ref><ref>MacGinnis, J. (2015). Ira Spar, Michael Jursa: "Cuneiform Texts from the Metropolitan Museum of Art IV: The Ebabbar Temple Archive and Other Texts from the Fourth to the First Millennium BC". ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie'' 105(2), 255–257.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background-color:#f6e6ae;"
! Ruler !! !!Reign<br><small>([[Chronology of the ancient Near East#Variant Middle Bronze Age chronologies|short chronology]])</small> !! Comments
|-
| [[Agum-Kakrime]] ||[[File:Agum Kakrime Inscription.jpg|30px]] || || Returns [[Marduk]] statue to [[Babylon]]
|-
| [[Burnaburiash I]] || || c. 1500 BC || Treaty with [[Puzur-Ashur III]] of [[Assyria]]
|-
| [[Kashtiliash III]] || || || Son of Burnaburiash I, Grandson of Agum-Kakrime
|-
| [[Ulamburiash]] || || c. 1480 BC || Conquers the first [[Sealand Dynasty]] 
|-
| [[Agum III]] || || c. 1470 BC || Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in Dilmun" 
|-
| [[Karaindash]] || || c. 1410 BC || Treaty with [[Ashur-bel-nisheshu]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Kadashman-harbe I]] || || c. 1400 BC || Campaign against the [[Suteans]]
|-
| [[Kurigalzu I]] ||[[File:Bead with cuneiform inscription_of Kurigalzu I or II MET DP364276.jpg|30px]] || c. x–1375 BC || Founder of [[Dur-Kurigalzu]] and contemporary of [[Thutmose IV]]
|-
| [[Kadashman-Enlil I]] ||[[File:Kassite - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42619.jpg|30px]] ||style="white-space:nowrap;"| c. 1374–1360 BC  || Contemporary of [[Amenophis III]] of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Amarna letters]]
|-
| [[Burnaburiash II]] || [[File:Image from page 29 of "Ancient seals of the Near East" (1940).jpg|30px]]|| c. 1359–1333 BC || Contemporary of [[Akhenaten]] and [[Ashur-uballit I]]
|-
| [[Kara-hardash]] || || c. 1333 BC || Grandson of [[Ashur-uballit I]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Nazi-Bugash]] || || c. 1333 BC || Usurper "[[son of a nobody]]"
|-
| [[Kurigalzu II]] || [[File:Cylinder seal of king Kurigalzu II Louvre Museum AOD 105.jpg|30px]]|| c. 1332–1308 BC || Son of Burnaburiash II, [[Battle of Sugagi]] with [[Enlil-nirari]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Nazi-Maruttash]] ||[[File:Votive inscription Louvre AO7704.jpg|30px]] || c. 1307–1282 BC || Contemporary of [[Adad-nirari I]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Kadashman-Turgu]] || || c. 1281–1264 BC  || Contemporary of [[Hattusili III]] of the [[Hittites]]
|-
| [[Kadashman-Enlil II]] ||[[File:A letter from Hattusili III to Kadasman-Enlil II, 13th century BC, from Hattusa, Istanbul Archaeological Museum.jpg|30px]] || c. 1263–1255 BC || Contemporary of [[Hattusili III]] of the [[Hittites]]
|-
| [[Kudur-Enlil]] || || c. 1254–1246 BC || Time of [[Nippur]] renaissance
|-
| [[Shagarakti-Shuriash]] || || c. 1245–1233 BC || "Non-son of Kudur-Enlil" according to [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Kashtiliashu IV]] ||[[File:Tablet of Akaptaḫa.jpg|30px]] || c. 1232–1225 BC || Deposed by [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] of Assyria
|-
| [[Enlil-nadin-shumi]] || || c. 1224 BC || Deposed by Elamite king Kidin-Hutran III
|-
| [[Kadashman-Harbe II]] || || c. 1223 BC || 
|-
| [[Adad-shuma-iddina]] || || c. 1222–1217 BC || Son of Kashtiliashu IV
|-
| [[Adad-shuma-usur]] ||[[File:ABL 924.jpg|30px]] || c. 1216–1187 BC || Sender of [[Adad-shuma-usur#Letter to Aššur-nirari III|rude letter]] to [[Ashur-nirari III|Aššur-nirari]] and [[Ilī-padâ|Ilī-ḫaddâ]], the kings of Assyria
|-
| [[Meli-Shipak II]] || [[File:Kudurru Melishipak Louvre Sb23 n02.jpg|30px]]|| c. 1186–1172 BC || Correspondence with [[Ninurta-apal-Ekur]]
|-
| [[Marduk-apla-iddina I]] ||[[File:Kudurru Louvre Sb31.jpg|30px]] || c. 1171–1159 BC || Son of Meli-Shipak II
|-
| [[Zababa-shuma-iddin]] || || c. 1158 BC || Defeated by [[Shutruk-Nahhunte]] of [[Elam]]
|-
| [[Enlil-nadin-ahi]] || [[File:Enlil-nadin-ahe kudurru.jpg|30px]]|| {{Circa|1157}}–1155 BC || Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte II of Elam
|}

Note that the relative order of Kadashman-Turgu and Kadashman-Enlil II have been questioned.<ref>Donbaz, Veysel. "A Middle Babylonian Legal Document Raising Problems in Kassite Chronology". "'Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' vol. 41, no. 3, 1982, pp. 207–212</ref>

==Kassite language==
[[File:Caillou Michaux CdM.jpg|thumb|Babylonian [[Kudurru]] stele of the late Kassite period, in the reign of Kassite king [[Marduk-nadin-akhi]] (c. 1099–1082 BC). Found near [[Baghdad]] by the French botanist [[André Michaux]] ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Paris)]]

The [[Kassite language]] has [[Unclassified language|not been classified]]. The few extant sources consist of personal names, a few fragmented documents, and some technical terms related to horses and chariotry.<ref>Brinkman, J. A. "Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 625 B. C.: The Documentary Evidence". ''American Journal of Archaeology'' vol. 76, no. 3, 1972, pp. 271–281</ref> What is known is that their language was not related to neither the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language group, nor to [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or other [[Afro-Asiatic]] languages. It is most likely to have been a [[language isolate]], although some linguists have proposed a link to the [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] of the [[Armenian highlands]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia]].<ref>Schneider, Thomas (2003). {{lang|de|italic=no|"Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen"}}. {{lang|de|Altorientalische Forschungen}} {{in lang|de}} (30): 372–381.</ref>

It has been suggested that several Kassite leaders bore [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] names, and they might have had an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] elite similar to the [[Mitanni]]. Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty have [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] names. It has also been suggested that the first element in [[Kudur-Enlil]]'s name is derived from [[Elamite]] but that is disputed.<ref>{{ cite book | title = Languages and Cultures in Contact at the Crossroads of Civilizations in the Syro-Mesopotamia Realm | chapter = The adaptation of the Kassites to the Babylonian Civilization | author = L. Sassmannshausen | editor = K. Van Lerberghe and G. Voet | publisher = Peeters Publishers | year = 2000 | page= 413 }} footnote 22.</ref><ref>Brinkman, J. A. "Administration and Society in Kassite Babylonia". ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' vol. 124, no. 2, 2004, pp. 283–304</ref>

==Kassite art==
=== Ceramics ===

The Kassites produced a substantial amount of pottery.<ref>{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=James A. |chapter=15. Babylonian Pottery in the Kassite Period |title=Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites |volume=2 |editor1-first=Alexa |editor1-last=Bartelmus |editor2-first=Katja |editor2-last=Sternitzke |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2017 |pages=421–436}}</ref> It is found in many Mesopotamia cities including [[Eridu]] and [[Tell Khaiber]]. Archaeologists divide it into three periods, Early Kassite (before c. 1415 BC), Middle Kassite (c. 1415–1225 BC), and Late Kassite (c. 1225–1155 BC).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Armstrong |first1=James A. |first2=Hermann |last2=Gasche |year=2014 |title=Mesopotamian Pottery. A Guide to the Babylonian Tradition in the Second Millennium B.C. |series=Mesopotamian History and Environment Series II, Memoirs IV |location=Ghent and Chicago |publisher=The University of Ghent and The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago}}</ref> Many small pottery kilns, generally no bigger than 2 meters in diameter with domed tops, were found in the Babylonian city of [[Dilbat]]. Goblets and wavy sided bowls are commonly found in Kassite pottery deposits. Other ceramic goods, such as traps for small animals and vessels commonly thought to be fruit stands were found also.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=James A. |title=West of Edin: Tell al-Deylam and the Babylonian City of Dilbat |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=December 1992 |pages=221–223|doi=10.2307/3210317 |jstor=3210317 }}</ref> Kassite pottery deposits have been found as far away as [[Al Khor Island]] in the Persian Gulf area.

=== Glass works ===
Remnants of two Kassite glass beakers were found during the 1964 excavation in a (c. 800 BC) [[destruction layer]] of [[Hasanlu]], in northwest [[Iran]]. The mosaic glass beakers are thought to have been heirlooms, possibly for ritual use the find spot being a temple. The panes of glass used to create these images were very brightly colored, and closer analysis has revealed that they were bright green, blue, white, and red-orange.<ref name="Marcus">{{cite journal |last=Marcus |first=Michelle I. |title=The Mosaic Glass Vessels from Hasanlu, Iran: A Study in Large-Scale Stylistic Trait Distribution |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=73 |issue=4 |date=December 1991 |pages=535–545|doi=10.2307/3045829 |jstor=3045829 }}</ref> A Kassite text found at [[Dur-Kurigalzu]] mentions glass given to artisans for palace decoration and similar glass was found there.<ref>Taha Baqir, "Iraq Government Excavations at 'Aqar Qüf. Third Interim Report, 1944–5", Iraq, VIII, 1946</ref> Other similar glass dated 1500 BC was found at [[Tell al-Rimah]].<ref>von Saldern, Axel. "Mosaic glass from Hasanlu, Marlik, and Tell al-Rimah". ''Journal of Glass Studies'', vol. 8, 1966, pp. 9–25</ref>

=== Seal impressions ===
{{See also|Cylinder Seal}}
[[File:Kassite - Cylinder Seal with Human Figures and Inscriptions - Walters 42688 - Side C.jpg|thumb|Kassite cylinder seal]]
Seals were used widely across the Near Eastern kingdoms during the Kassite rule. They were used to mark official items and ownership.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yalçın |first=Serdar |chapter=People Praying on Stone: Identity in Kassite Babylonian Seals, ca. 1415–1155 BCE |title=Selves Engraved on Stone: Seals and Identity in the Ancient Near East, ca. 1415–1050 BCE |publisher=Brill |pages=42–122 |year=2022}}</ref> The images created by these seals were unique to each seal, but many shared the same subject matter. Bearded men, religious symbols, horned quadrupeds, and fauna are often shown in these images.<ref>Matthews, Donald M. [https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/151992/1/Matthews_1990_Principles_of_composition_in_near_eastern_glyptic_of_the_later_second_millennium_bc.pdf ''Principles of composition in Near Eastern glyphic of the later second millennium BC'']. Vol. 8. Universitätsverlag/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990</ref> The seals were generally made of stone, glass, or clay. The images were made by stamping or rolling the seals into wet clay.<ref>Buchanan, Briggs. "On the Seal Impressions on Some Old Babylonian Tablets". ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'' vol. 11, No. 2 (1957), pp. 45–52</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Male head from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I. Iraq Museum.jpg|Male head from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, Kassite, reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I. Iraq Museum
File:Door socket from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Kassite period, 14th century BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum.jpg|Door socket from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Kassite period, 14th century BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum
File:Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg|Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum
File:Statue of a lion, Kassite, Iraq Museum.jpg|Statue of a lion, Kassite, Iraq Museum
File:Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Kassite. Iraq Museum.jpg|Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Kassite. Iraq Museum
File:Terracotta plaque of a seated goddess, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Kassite period. Ancient Orient Museum.jpg|Terracotta plaque of a seated goddess, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Kassite period. Ancient Orient Museum
File:Duck-shaped weight mentioning the name of the priest Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Babylon. Ancient Orient Museum.jpg|Duck-shaped weight mentioning the name of the priest Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Babylon. Ancient Orient Museum
File:Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum.jpg|Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum
File:Kudurru mentioning the name of the Kassite king Kurigalzu II, from Nippur, Iraq, Ancient Orient Museum.jpg|Kudurru mentioning the name of the Kassite king Kurigalzu II, from Nippur, Iraq, Ancient Orient Museum
File:Babylonian cuneiform tablet with a map from Nippur 1550-1450 BCE.jpg|Babylonian cuneiform tablet with a map from Nippur, Kassite period, 1550-1450 BCE

File:Centaur hunting animals Kassite period Louvre Museum AO 22355.jpg|Winged [[centaur]] hunting animals. Kassite period. Louvre Museum, reference AO 22355
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia}}
*[[Chronology of the ancient Near East]]
*[[List of Mesopotamian dynasties]]
*[[Cities of the ancient Near East]]
*[[Early Kassite rulers]]
*[[Kassite deities]]
*[[Kassite language]]
*[[Kudurru]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|group=i}}

== Sources ==
{{Babylon dynasties sidebar|expanded=none}}
{{History of Iraq}}
{{refbegin}}
*Abraham, K. (2013). Kaštiliašu and the Sumundar Canal: A New Middle Babylonian Royal Inscription. Zeitschrift Für Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Archäologie, 103(2), 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2013-0012
*Almamori, Haider Oraibi and Bartelmus, Alexa. "New Light on Dilbat: Kassite Building Activities on the Uraš Temple “E-Ibbi-Anum” at Tell al-Deylam" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 111, no. 2, 2021, pp.&nbsp;174–190
*K. Balkan, ''Die Sprache der Kassiten'', (''The Language of the Kassites''), ''American Oriental Series'', vol. 37, New Haven, Conn., 1954.
*Bass, George F., et al. "The Bronze Age Shipwreck at Ulu Burun: 1986 Campaign." American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 93, no. 1, 1989, pp.&nbsp;1–29
*Brinkman, J. A.. "The Names of the Last Eight Kings of the Kassite Dynasty" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 59, no. Jahresband, 1969, pp.&nbsp;231–246
*Brinkman, J. A. “Mu-Ús-Sa Dates in the Kassite Period.” Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 6, no. 2, 1971
*Ferrara, A. J. “A Kassite Cylinder Seal from the Arabian Gulf.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 225, 1977, pp.&nbsp;69–69
*Albrecht Goetze, "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," ''Journal of Cuneiform Studies'', vol. 18, No. 4, pp.&nbsp;97–101, 1964
*[[A. Leo Oppenheim]], ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization'', 1964.
*Walter Sommerfield, ''The Kassites of Ancient Mesopotamia: Origins, Politics, and Culture'', vol 2 of J. M. Sasson ed. ''Civilizations of the Ancient Near East'', Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kassites}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060719073459/http://home.uchicago.edu/~nev2/prospectus.html Daniel A. Nevez, 'Provincial administration at Kassite Nippur'] abstract of a dissertation gives details of Kassite Nippur and Babylonia.

{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Early Rulers of Mesopotamia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kassites}}
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