Editing Kōwhai

{{short description|Eight species within the genus Sophora that are native to New Zealand}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=February 2024}}
[[File:Kowhai flowers.jpg|thumb|Kōwhai flowers]]

'''Kōwhai''' ({{IPA|mi|kɔːɸai}} or {{IPA|mi|kɔːfai|}}) are small woody [[legume]] trees within the [[genus]] ''[[Sophora]]'', in the family [[Fabaceae]], that are native to [[New Zealand]]. There are eight species, with ''[[Sophora microphylla]]'' and ''[[Sophora tetraptera]]'' being large trees. Their natural habitat is beside streams and on the edges of forest, in lowland or mountain open areas.<ref name=Enc1966_1>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kowhai |first=Alec Lindsay |last=Poole |url= http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/kowhai/1 |encyclopedia=An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |date=1966 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> Kōwhai trees grow throughout the country and are a common feature in New Zealand gardens. Outside of New Zealand, kōwhai tend to be restricted to mild temperate maritime climates. The blooms of the kōwhai are widely regarded as being one of New Zealand's unofficial [[List of national flowers|national flower]]s.

==Name==

The [[Māori language|Māori]] word ''kōwhai'' derives from the [[Central Pacific languages|Proto-East Central Pacific]] word ''kōfai'', used to refer to leguminous trees that grow pods and typically have distinct flowers. It is related to words in some other [[Polynesian languages]] that refer to different species that look superficially similar, such as {{langx|haw|'ōhai}} (''[[Sesbania tomentosa]]''), {{langx|ty|ofai}} (''[[Sesbania grandiflora]]'') and [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ''kohai'' (''[[Caesalpinia pulcherrima]]'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.temarareo.org/PPN-Kofai.html |title=*Kōfai [Proto Central Eastern Polynesian] |website= Te Māra Reo: The Language Garden |date=2022 |publisher=Benton Family Trust |access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> ''Kōwhai'' is also the Māori word for the colour yellow.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maoridictionary.co.nz/search?keywords=kowhai |title=kōwhai |work=Te Aka}}</ref><ref name="MeaningTrees"/> This is unique to Māori, as many other Polynesian languages use a word derived from [[Proto-Polynesian language|Proto-Eastern Polynesian]] ''rega-rega'', such as {{langx|smo|lega}} and {{langx|rar|renga}}, and may represent the word for the flower replacing the older word.<ref>{{cite Q|Q131748073}}</ref> The spelling ''kowhai'' (without a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]) is common in [[New Zealand English]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}

==Taxonomy==
[[Image:Kowhai in full bloom at Papakowhai School.jpg|thumb|Kōwhai tree in full bloom, before foliage has emerged]]

Kōwhai is a name that can be used to describe any of the eight currently known species of ''[[Sophora]]'' that is native to New Zealand, of which the most commonly found species are ''Sophora microphylla'' and ''Sophora tetraptera''.<ref name="MeaningTrees">{{cite q|Q118646408|pp=36-41}}</ref> While all are members of the same genus, they do not form a [[clade]].<ref name="Edwardsia ">{{cite Q|Q100381310}}</ref> ''[[Sophora microphylla]]'', for example, is more closely related to ''[[Sophora toromiro]]'', an endemic species from [[Easter Island|Easter Island / Rapa Nui]], than to ''[[Sophora prostrata]]''.<ref name="Edwardsia "/> ''[[Sophora cassioides]]'', found in [[Chile]], may represent a species that spread to South America from New Zealand.<ref name="Heenan2001"/> ''Sophora'' is one of the four genera of native legumes in New Zealand; the other three are ''[[Carmichaelia]]'', ''[[Clianthus]]'', and ''[[Montigena]]''.<ref name="taxo" />

Taxonomy of the New Zealand ''Sophora'' species is complex issue, due to shared morphological features, hybrids that can form between species, differences in juvenile stages of plants based on geography, and morphological features being insistent with genetic profiles.<ref name="Genetic">{{cite Q|Q52693055|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Heenan2001">{{cite Q|Q54488045}}</ref> ''Sophora microphylla'' that grow in the southern and eastern South Island have variable and persistent juvenile forms, something not seen in plants that found in the North Island, potentially due to gene transfer from other kōwhai species.<ref name="Heenan2001"/> Three major species complexes exist in New Zealand that facilitate gene transfer. In the North Island, ''Sophora microphylla'', ''[[Sophora chathamica]]'', ''[[Sophora fulvida]]'', ''[[Sophora godleyi]]'' and ''[[Sophora tetraptera]]'' can form hybrids, while ''Sophora microphylla'', ''Sophora longicarinata '' and ''Sophora prostrata'' can hybridise in the South Island. Additionally, ''[[Sophora tetraptera]]'', ''[[Sophora molloyi]]'' and ''[[Sophora godleyi]]'' can also form hybrids.<ref name="Heenan2001"/><ref name="Genetic"/> As many species thrive in specific environments, hybrid forms may often struggle to persist in the wild,<ref name="Heenan2001"/> though areas with persistent hybrid forms of plants persist.<ref name="Genetic"/> Due to this hybridisation, specific species names can often be difficult to assign to individual plants.<ref name="Genetic"/>

===Species===

The eight currently accepted species of kōwhai are:<ref name=DOC /><ref name="MeaningTrees"/><ref name="Genetic"/>
* ''[[Sophora chathamica]]'', coastal kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora fulvida]]'', Waitākere kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora godleyi]]'', Godley's kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora longicarinata]]'', limestone kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora microphylla]]'', small-leaved kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora molloyi]]'', Cook Strait kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora prostrata]]'', prostrate kōwhai
* ''[[Sophora tetraptera]]'', large-leaved kōwhai<ref>{{ITIS |id=26957 |taxon=''Sophora''}}</ref><ref name="taxo">{{cite web |title=Taxonomy of New Zealand Native Legumes |first=Bevan |last=Weir |date= |url= https://www.rhizobia.co.nz/taxonomy/legume |work=NZ Rhizobia |publisher= |access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>

==Description and ecology==
[[Image:Sophora-tetraptera-foliage2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Sophora tetraptera'' foliage]]
[[File:Plants of New Zealand (1906) (14781835954).jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Sophora tetraptera'' flowers, foliage and seed pods]]
Most species of kōwhai grow to around {{cvt|8|m}} high and have fairly smooth bark with small leaves. ''Sophora microphylla'' has smaller leaves ({{cvt|0.5–0.7|cm}} long by {{cvt|0.3–0.4| cm}} wide) and flowers ({{cvt|2.5–3.5|cm}} long) than ''Sophora tetraptera'', which has leaves of {{cvt|1–2|cm}} long and flowers that are {{cvt|3–5|cm}} long.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

The very distinctive seed pods that appear after flowering are almost segmented, and each contains six or more smooth, hard seeds. Most species have yellow seeds, but ''Sophora prostrata'' has black ones. The seeds of ''Sophora microphylla'' can be very numerous and the presence of many hundreds of these distinctively yellow seeds on the ground quickly identifies the presence of a nearby kōwhai tree. Many species of kōwhai are [[semi-deciduous]] and lose most of their leaves immediately after flowering in October or November, but quickly produce new leaves. Flowering of kōwhai is staggered from July through to November, meaning each tree will get attention from birds such as [[tūī]], [[New Zealand pigeon|kererū]] and [[New Zealand bellbird|bellbird]].<ref>{{cite thesis |first=Kirsten L. |last=Campbell |title=A study of home ranges, movements, diet and habitat use of {{As written|kereru}} (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) in the southeastern sector of Banks Peninsula, New Zealand |publisher=Lincoln University |year=2006 |hdl=10182/347 |degree=MSc |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10182/347}}</ref> The specific form and yellow petals of most kōwhai found in New Zealand is likely an adaptation to [[Ornithophily|bird pollination]] from tūī and bellbirds.<ref name="Genetic"/> Tūī are very attracted to kōwhai and will fly long distances to get a sip of its nectar.<ref name="MeaningTrees"/>

The wood of kōwhai is dense and strong, and has been used in the past for tools and machinery.<ref name=Enc1966_1/>

Studies of accumulated dried vegetation in the pre-human mid-late [[Holocene]] period suggests a low ''Sophora microphylla'' forest ecosystem in [[Central Otago]] that was used and perhaps maintained by giant [[moa]] birds, for both nesting material and food. The forests and moa no longer existed when European settlers came to the area in the 1850s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pole|first=Mike|date=2021-12-31|title=A vanished ecosystem: Sophora microphylla (Kōwhai) dominated forest recorded in mid-late Holocene rock shelters in Central Otago, New Zealand |url=https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2022/3503-vanished-ecosystem |journal=Palaeontologia Electronica |language=English|volume=25|issue=1 |pages=1–41 |doi=10.26879/1169|s2cid=245807815 |issn=1094-8074|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
Kōwhai can be grown from seed or tip cuttings in spring and autumn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Native Plants at Piha |url=http://www.piha.co.nz/natives.htm#kowhai |access-date=2009-01-17|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081014054154/http://www.piha.co.nz/natives.htm#kowhai |archive-date=2008-10-14}}</ref> The dark or bright yellow seeds germinate best after chitting and being soaked in water for several hours. They can also benefit from a several minute submersion in boiling water to soften the hard shell and then being kept in the same water, taken off boil, for several hours to soak up the water.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hbrc.govt.nz/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=agysH%2BBO92c%3D&tabid=244&mid=1231 |title= Raising Native Plants From Seed |publisher=Hawke's Bay Regional Council |year=2004 |access-date=2009-05-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081014185100/http://www.hbrc.govt.nz/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=agysH+BO92c%3D&tabid=244&mid=1231 |archive-date=2008-10-14 }}</ref> Young kōwhai are quite frost tender, so cuttings or seedlings should be planted in their second year when they are 30 cm or higher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Native plant information |website=Trees for Survival |url=http://www.tfsnz.org.nz/resources.cfm#kowhai |access-date=2009-01-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208145110/http://tfsnz.org.nz/resources.cfm#kowhai|archive-date=2009-02-08}}</ref>

If grown from seed, kōwhai can take many years to flower, the number of years varies depending on the species.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Melody |date=2017 |title=How to Plant Kowhai |url=http://www.gardenguides.com/84037-plant-kowhai.html |website=Garden Guides}}</ref>

''Sophora prostrata'', sometimes called "little baby", is used as a [[bonsai]] tree. It grows up to {{cvt|2|m}} high, has divaricating<ref>{{cite thesis |url= https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/8773 |title=The Development and Genetic Variation of Sophora prostrata – A New Zealand Divaricating Shrub |degree=MSc |access-date=30 December 2022|date=2014}}</ref> stems, and sparse smallish leaves.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=Denis |date=2002 |title=Sophora – The Kowhais of New Zealand |url=http://www.ipps.org/Papers/NewZealand%5CHughes.PDF |journal=Combined Proceedings International Plant Propagators' Society |volume=52 |access-date=5 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130329125551/http://www.ipps.org/Papers/NewZealand/Hughes.PDF |archive-date=29 March 2013}}</ref>

==Toxicity==
All parts of the kōwhai, particularly the seeds, are poisonous to humans, due to the presence of [[cytisine]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Poisonous Plants at the Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture|url=http://www.rnzih.org.nz/pages/poison.html |access-date=2008-05-20}}</ref><ref name="MeaningTrees"/> However, there do not appear to have been any confirmed cases in humans of severe poisoning following ingestion of kōwhai in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poisonous plants in New Zealand: a review of those most commonly enquired about to the National Poisons Centre |first1=Robin |last1=Slaughter |first2=Michael |last2=Beasley |first3=Bruce |last3=Lambie |first4=Gerard |last4=Wilkins |first5=Leo |last5=Schep |url=http://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal/abstract.php?id=5483 |access-date=2013-03-27 |year=2012 |work=The New Zealand Medical Journal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109171029/http://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal/abstract.php?id=5483 |archive-date=2013-01-09 }}</ref> Some reports exist of people becoming ill after using cutlery made from kōwhai wood, or from consuming [[New Zealand pigeon|kererū]] that had fed on the plant.<ref name="MeaningTrees"/>

==Traditional Māori use==
Traditionally the [[Māori people|Māori]] used the flexible branches as a construction material in their houses and to [[snare trap|snare]] birds. The kōwhai flowers were a source of yellow dye. The blooming of kōwhai flowers late winter and early spring was used as a seasonal indicator as a time to plant [[Sweet potato cultivation in Polynesia|kūmara (sweet potato)]], and to begin harvesting [[Evechinus chloroticus|kina (sea urchins)]].<ref name="terrain">{{cite web|title=Sophora microphylla (Kowhai)|url=http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/kowhia.html|access-date=31 August 2012|publisher=Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network|archive-date=25 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825191009/http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/kowhia.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="MeaningTrees"/>

Kōwhai are an important tree for [[rongoā]] (traditional medicine practices) for many [[iwi]], particularly bark used to create an infusion known as ''wai kōwhai''.<ref name="MeaningTrees"/> The bark was heated in a [[calabash]] with hot stones, and made into a poultice to treat wounds or rubbed on a sore back<ref name="TeAraRongoa">{{cite encyclopedia |url= http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/rongoa-medicinal-use-of-plants/4 |title=Rongoā – medicinal use of plants – Other medicinal plants |last1=Jones |first1=Rhys|date=2 March 2009 |encyclopedia=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=8 November 2010}}</ref> or made into an infusion to treat bruising or muscular pains.<ref name="Durie">{{cite journal |last1=Durie  |first1=Sir Mason |date=June 2010 |title=Te whakahaumanutanga me te oranga hinengaro o mua – Ka mātaia ngā huanga o te rongoā – Traditional healing and mental health: measuring the effectiveness of rongoā |journal=Best Practice Journal |publisher=Best Practice Advocacy Centre |issue=28 |pages=5–7 |url=http://www.bpac.org.nz/magazine/2010/june/docs/BPJ_28_rongoa_pages5-7.pdf }}</ref> If someone was bitten by a seal, an infusion was prepared from kōwhai and applied to the wounds and the patient was said to recover within days.<ref name="TeAraRongoa"/>

Additionally, wedges made of kōwhai stem were used to split wood, it was used for fences and in whare (Māori hut) construction, implements and weapons.<ref>Kowhai • Tāne's Tree Trust (tanestrees.org.nz)</ref> 

The currently dispersal of kōwhai around New Zealand likely represents deliberate plantings by Māori, such as [[Te Āti Awa]] bringing [[Taranaki]] species of kōwhai to [[Wellington]] when some members of the iwi migrated to the area.<ref name="MeaningTrees"/>

==Modern New Zealand iconography==

Kōwhai's distinct yellow flowers are common in New Zealand-related iconography, and have been depicted on stamps and coins,<ref name="MeaningTrees"/> are widely regarded as being one of New Zealand's unofficial [[List of national flowers|national flower]]s.<ref>"[http://www.newzealandatoz.com/index.php/page/display/164/ Kowhai]" in ''New Zealand A to Z''.</ref><ref name=DOC>{{cite web |title=Kōwhai |url= https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/kowhai/ |publisher=Department of Conservation |access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref><ref>"[http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/9 Nationhood and identity]", in ''Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand''.</ref> As such, it is often incorporated as a visual shorthand for the country, such as in [[Meghan Markle|Meghan Markle's]] [[Wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle|wedding]] veil, which included distinctive flora representing all [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royal.uk/wedding-dress-bridesmaids%E2%80%99-dresses-and-page-boys-uniforms|title=The Wedding Dress: Clare Waight Keller for Givenchy|date=19 May 2018|publisher=The Royal Household, UK}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kowhai}}
[[Category:Sophora]]
[[Category:Trees of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Māori medicine]]
[[Category:National symbols of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Plant common names]]