Editing Josef Mengele

{{Short description|Nazi SS doctor at Auschwitz (1911–1979)}}
{{Redirect|Mengele}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox military person
| name          = Josef Mengele
| birth_date    = {{birth date|1911|03|16|df=yes}}
| death_date    = {{death date and age|1979|2|7|1911|3|16|df=yes}}
| birth_place   = [[Günzburg]], [[German Empire]]
| death_place   = [[Bertioga]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Brazil]]
| death_cause   = [[Drowning]]
| image         = Josef Mengele, Auschwitz. Album Höcker (cropped).jpg
| caption       = Mengele at ''[[Solahütte]]'' in 1944
| signature     = Josef Mengele Signature.svg
| birth_name    = Josef Mengele
| nickname      = {{plainlist|
* Angel of Death ({{langx|de|link=no|Todesengel}}){{sfn|Levy|2006|p=242}}
* White Angel ({{langx|de|link=no|der weiße Engel}} or {{lang|de|weißer Engel}}){{sfn|USHMM: Josef Mengele}}
* Wolfgang Gerhard (burial name){{sfn|USHMM: Josef Mengele}}
}}
| allegiance    = [[Nazi Germany]]
| branch        = [[Schutzstaffel]]
| serviceyears  = 1938–1945
| rank          = SS-''[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' (captain)
| servicenumber = {{plainlist|
* [[NSDAP]]&nbsp;#5,574,974
* SS&nbsp;#317,885
}}
| battles       = 
| unit          = 
| awards        = {{plainlist|
* [[Iron Cross First Class]]
* [[Iron Cross|Iron Cross Second Class]]
* [[War Merit Cross|War Merit Cross, 2nd class with Swords]]
* [[Wound Badge|Black Badge for the Wounded]]
* Medal for the Care of the German People
}}
| commands      = 
| spouse        = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Irene Schönbein|1939|1954|reason=divorced}}
* {{marriage|Martha Mengele|1958|<!--Per template docs, don't put "his death"-->}}
}}
| children      = Rolf Mengele
| alma_mater    = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Bonn]] 
* [[University of Munich]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
* [[Goethe University Frankfurt|University of Frankfurt]] ([[Doctor of Medicine|MD]])
}}
}}

'''Josef Mengele''' ({{IPA|de|ˈjoːzɛf ˈmɛŋələ|lang|Josef_Rudolf_Mengele.ogg}}; 16 March 1911{{spaced ndash}}7 February 1979) was a Nazi German {{lang|de|[[Schutzstaffel]]}} (SS) officer and physician during [[World War&nbsp;II]] at the Russian front and then at Auschwitz during [[the Holocaust]], where he was nicknamed the "Angel of Death" ({{langx|de|link=no|Todesengel}}).{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=242}} He performed [[Nazi human experimentation|deadly experiments on prisoners]] at the [[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz II-Birkenau|Auschwitz II-Birkenau]] concentration camp, where he was a member of the team of doctors who selected victims to be murdered in the [[Gas chamber#Nazi Germany|gas chambers]].{{efn|New arrivals that were judged able to work were admitted into the camp, while those deemed unsuitable for labor were sent to the gas chambers.}}

Before the war, Mengele received doctorates in [[anthropology]] and medicine, and began a career as a researcher. He joined the [[Nazi Party]] in 1937 and the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] in 1938. He was assigned as a battalion medical officer at the start of World War II, then transferred to the [[Nazi concentration camps]] service in early 1943. He was assigned to Auschwitz, where he saw the opportunity to conduct genetic research on human subjects. His experiments focused primarily on twins, with no regard for the health or safety of the victims.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=102}} With [[Red Army]] troops sweeping through [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|German-occupied Poland]], Mengele was transferred {{convert|280|km|miles|abbr=off}} away from Auschwitz to the [[Gross-Rosen concentration camp]] on 17 January 1945, ten days before the arrival of the [[Soviet forces]] at Auschwitz.

After the war, Mengele fled to Argentina in July 1949, assisted by a [[Ratlines (World War II)|network of former SS members]]. He initially lived in and around [[Buenos Aires]], but fled to Paraguay in 1959 and later Brazil in 1960, all while being sought by [[West Germany]], [[Israel]], and [[Nazi hunter]]s such as [[Simon Wiesenthal]], who wanted to bring him to trial. Mengele eluded capture in spite of extradition requests by the West German government and [[clandestine operation]]s by the Israeli intelligence agency [[Mossad]]. He drowned in 1979 after suffering a heart attack while swimming off the coast of [[Bertioga]], and was buried under the false name of Wolfgang Gerhard. His remains were disinterred and positively identified by forensic examination in 1985.

==Early life==
Mengele was born into a Catholic family{{sfn|Gopnik|2020}} in [[Günzburg]], [[Bavaria]] on 16 March 1911, the eldest of three sons of Walburga ({{née}} Hupfauer) and Karl Mengele.{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=12}} His two younger brothers were Karl&nbsp;Jr. and Alois. Their father was the founder of the Karl Mengele & Sons company (later renamed {{ill|Mengele Agrartechnik|de}}), which produced farming machinery.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=4–5}} Mengele was successful at school and developed an interest in music, art, and skiing.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=6–7}} He completed high school in April 1930 and went on to study philosophy in [[Munich]],{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}} where the headquarters of the [[Nazi Party]] were located.{{sfn|Kershaw|2008|p=81}} He attended the [[University of Bonn]], where he took his medical preliminary examination.{{sfn|US Justice Department|1992}} In 1931, he joined {{lang|de|[[Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten|Der Stahlhelm]]}}, a [[paramilitary]] organization that was absorbed into the Nazi {{lang|de|[[Sturmabteilung]]}} ('Storm Detachment'; SA) in 1934.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=8, 10}} In 1935, Mengele earned a [[PhD]] in anthropology from the [[University of Munich]].{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}} In January 1937, he joined the Institute for Hereditary Biology and Racial Hygiene in [[Frankfurt]], where he worked for [[Otmar Freiherr von&nbsp;Verschuer]], a German [[geneticist]] with a particular interest in researching twins.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}}

As Von Verschuer's assistant, Mengele focused on the genetic factors that result in a [[cleft lip and palate]], or a [[cleft chin]].{{sfn|Weindling|2002|p=53}} His [[thesis]] on the subject earned him a {{lang|la|[[Latin honors|cum laude]]}} doctorate in medicine ([[Doctor of Medicine|MD]]) from the [[Goethe University Frankfurt|University of Frankfurt]] in 1938.{{sfn|Allison|2011|p=52}} (Both of his degrees were revoked by the issuing universities in the 1960s.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=234 (footnote)}}) In a letter of recommendation, Von&nbsp;Verschuer praised Mengele's reliability and his ability to verbally present complex material in a clear manner.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=340}} The American author [[Robert Jay Lifton]] notes that Mengele's published works were in keeping with the scientific mainstream of the time, and would probably have been viewed as valid scientific efforts even outside [[Nazi Germany]].{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=340}} On 28 July 1939, Mengele married Irene Schönbein, whom he had met while working as a medical resident in [[Leipzig]].{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=11}} Their only son, Rolf, was born in 1944.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=54}}

==Military career==
The ideology of [[Nazism]] brought together elements of [[antisemitism]], [[racial hygiene]], and [[eugenics]], and combined them with [[pan-Germanism]] and territorial [[expansionism]] with the goal of obtaining more {{lang|de|[[Lebensraum]]}} ("living space") for the Germanic people.{{sfn|Evans|2008|p=7}} Nazi Germany attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union, intending to deport or murder the [[Jews]] and [[Slavs]] living there, who were considered by the Nazis to be inferior to the putative "[[Aryan race|Aryan]] [[master race]]".{{sfn|Longerich|2010|p=132}}

Mengele joined the Nazi Party in 1937 and the {{lang|de|[[Schutzstaffel]]}} (SS) in 1938. He received basic training in 1938 with the {{lang|de|[[Gebirgsjäger]]}} (mountain light infantry) and was called up for service in the {{lang|de|[[Wehrmacht]]}} (Nazi armed forces) in June 1940, some months after the outbreak of World War II. He soon volunteered for medical service in the {{lang|de|[[Waffen-SS]]}}, the combat arm of the SS, where he served with the rank of SS-{{lang|de|[[Untersturmführer]]}} (second lieutenant) in a medical reserve battalion until November 1940. He was next assigned to the [[SS Race and Settlement Main Office]] in [[Poznań]], evaluating candidates for [[Germanisation in Poland (1939–1945)|Germanization]].{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=16}}{{sfn|Kubica|1998|pp=318–319}}

In June 1941, Mengele was posted to [[Ukraine]], where he was awarded the [[Iron Cross]] 2nd Class. In January 1942, he joined the [[5th SS Panzer Division Wiking]] as a battalion medical officer. After rescuing two German soldiers from a burning tank, he was decorated with the Iron Cross 1st Class, the [[Wound Badge]] in Black, and the Medal for the Care of the German People. He was declared unfit for further active service in mid-1942, when he was seriously wounded in action near [[Rostov-on-Don]]. Following his recovery, he was transferred to the headquarters of the SS Race and Settlement Main Office in [[Berlin]], at which point he resumed his association with Von&nbsp;Verschuer, who had become director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics]]. Mengele was promoted to the rank of {{lang|de|SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]]}} ([[captain (armed forces)|captain]]) in April 1943.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=319}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=16–18}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=27}}

==Auschwitz==
[[File:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|"Selection" of Hungarian Jews on the ramp at Birkenau, May/June 1944]]

In 1942, [[Auschwitz II-Birkenau]], originally intended to house slave laborers, began to be used instead as a combined [[Arbeitslager|labour camp]] and [[extermination camp]].{{sfn|Longerich|2010|pp=282–283}}{{sfn|Steinbacher|2005|pp=94, 96}} Prisoners were transported there by rail from all over Nazi-controlled Europe, arriving in daily convoys.{{sfn|Steinbacher|2005|pp=104–105}} By July 1942, SS doctors were conducting [[Selection (Holocaust)|selections]] where incoming Jews were segregated, and those considered able to work were admitted into the camp while those deemed unfit for labor were immediately murdered in the gas chambers.{{sfn|Rees|2005|p=100}} Those selected to be killed, about three-quarters of the total,{{efn|name=Hungarians|Of the Hungarians who arrived in mid-1944, 85 percent were murdered immediately.{{sfn|Steinbacher|2005|p=109}} }} included almost all children, women with small children, pregnant women, all the elderly, and all of those who appeared (in a brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor) to be not completely fit and healthy.{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=235–237}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=80}}

In early 1943, Von Verschuer encouraged Mengele to apply for a transfer to the [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] service.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=319}}{{sfn|Allison|2011|p=53}} Mengele's application was accepted and he was posted to Auschwitz, where he was appointed by SS-{{lang|de|Standortarzt}} [[Eduard Wirths]], chief medical officer at Auschwitz, to the position of chief physician of the {{lang|de|Zigeunerfamilienlager}} ([[Romani people|Romani]] family camp) at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=319}}{{sfn|Allison|2011|p=53}} He was later appointed as senior SS physician at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.{{sfn|Wachsmann|2015|p=436}} The SS doctors did not administer treatment to the Auschwitz inmates but supervised the activities of inmate doctors who had been forced to work in the camp medical service.{{sfn|Lifton|1985}} As part of his duties, Mengele made weekly visits to the hospital [[barracks]] and ordered any prisoners who had not recovered after two weeks in bed to be sent to the gas chambers.{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=78}}

Mengele's work also involved carrying out selections, visiting the selection ramp even when he was not on duty in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments, with a particular interest in locating sets of twins.{{sfn|Evans|2008|p=609}} In contrast to most of the other SS doctors, who viewed selections as one of their most stressful and unpleasant duties, he undertook the task with a flamboyant air, often smiling or whistling.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=27}}{{sfn|Lifton|1985}} He was one of the SS doctors responsible for supervising the administration of [[Zyklon B]], the [[cyanide]]-based pesticide that was used for the mass killings in the Birkenau gas chambers. He served in this capacity at the gas chambers located in crematoria IV and V.{{sfn|Piper|1998|pp=170, 172}}

When an outbreak of [[Noma (disease)|noma]]—a [[gangrenous]] bacterial disease of the mouth and face—struck the Romani camp in 1943, Mengele initiated a study to determine the cause of the disease and develop a treatment. He enlisted the assistance of prisoner [[Berthold Epstein]], a Jewish [[pediatrician]] and professor at [[Prague University]]. The patients were isolated in separate barracks.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}} The treatment involved administering vitamins and antibiotics to afflicted children, who saw significant improvement. However, once he was satisfied that it was effective, he discontinued treatment, and the children immediately fell ill again.{{sfn|Evans|2008|p=608}} Several afflicted children were killed so that their preserved heads and organs could be sent to the SS Medical Academy in [[Graz]] and other facilities for study. This research was still ongoing when the Romani camp was liquidated and its remaining occupants murdered in 1944.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}}

When a [[typhus]] epidemic began in the women's camp, Mengele cleared one block of six hundred Jewish women and sent them to be killed in the gas chambers. The building was then cleaned and disinfected and the occupants of a neighboring block were bathed, de–loused, and given new clothing before being moved into the clean block. This process was repeated until all of the barracks were disinfected. Similar procedures were used for later epidemics of [[scarlet fever]] and other diseases, with infected prisoners being murdered in the gas chambers. For these actions, Mengele was awarded the [[War Merit Cross]] (Second Class with swords) and was promoted in 1944 to First Physician of the Birkenau subcamp.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|pp=328–329}}

===Human experimentation===
{{See also|Nazi human experimentation}}

[[File:Richard Baer, Josef Mengele, Rudolf Hoess, Auschwitz. Album Höcker.jpg|thumb|(from l. to r.) [[Richard Baer]], Josef Mengele, and [[Rudolf Höss]] at ''[[Solahütte]]'' in 1944 ([[Höcker Album]])]]

Mengele used Auschwitz as an opportunity to continue his anthropological studies and research into heredity, using inmates for [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experimentation]].{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}} His medical experiments showed no consideration for the victims' health, safety, or physical and emotional suffering.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=102}} He was particularly interested in [[identical twins]], people with [[heterochromia iridum]] (eyes of two different colors), [[dwarfism|dwarves]], and people with physical abnormalities.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=320}}

Twin research was of particular interest to Mengele. One twin could serve as subject with the other as the control.{{Sfn|Thornton|2006|p=1747}} Most of the twins he studied were children between the ages of two and sixteen; historian [[Nikolaus Wachsmann]] estimates Mengele may have studied as many as a thousand sets of twins. Some were actually siblings who passed themselves off as twins to avoid being killed.{{sfn|Wachsmann|2015|p=437}} [[Miklós Nyiszli]] and others suggested that twin studies may also have been pursued to uncover strategies for 'racially desirable' Germans to produce more twins.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|pp=358–359}} A grant was later provided by the {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft]]}} ('German Research Foundation'), at the request of Von&nbsp;Verschuer, who received regular reports and shipments of specimens from Mengele. The grant was used to build a pathology laboratory attached to Crematorium&nbsp;II at Auschwitz&nbsp;II-Birkenau.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=33}} Nyiszli, who was forced to work on Mengele's behalf due to his pathologist background, prepared specimens and performed autopsies for this laboratory.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=33–34}}{{sfn|Nyiszli|2011|p=158}}

Mengele's research subjects were better fed and housed than the other prisoners, and temporarily spared from the gas chambers.{{sfn|Nyiszli|2011|p=57}} His research subjects lived in their own barracks, where they were provided with a marginally better quality of food and somewhat improved living conditions than the other areas of the camp.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|pp=320–321}} When visiting his young subjects, he introduced himself as "Uncle Mengele" and offered them sweets.{{sfn|Lagnado|Dekel|1991|p=9}} A former Auschwitz inmate doctor said of Mengele:

{{block quote|He was capable of being so kind to the children, to have them become fond of him, to bring them sugar, to think of small details in their daily lives, and to do things we would genuinely admire&nbsp;... And then, next to that,&nbsp;... the crematoria smoke, and these children, tomorrow or in a half-hour, he is going to send them there. Well, that is where the anomaly lay.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=337}} }}

In his twin experiments, Mengele generally ordered the twins to undertake weekly physical examinations.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=350}} Nyiszli recalled one occasion where Mengele killed 14 twins in a single night, first by injecting [[evipan]] to induce sleep, and then injecting their hearts with chloroform.{{sfn|Lifton|1985}} 

[[File:66935A.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|Jewish children kept alive in Auschwitz for use in Mengele's medical experiments, including twins Miriam Mozes and Eva Mozes (wearing knitted caps); they were liberated in January 1945.]]

Other experiments included forcing inmates to undergo unnecessary drug and X-ray treatments.{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=102}} Survivors were typically sent to the gas chambers within weeks. Their skeletons were sent to Berlin for further analysis.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=360}}

In his 1986 book, Lifton described Mengele as sadistic, lacking empathy, and extremely antisemitic, believing the Jews should be eliminated as an inferior and dangerous race. He also believed that he was responsible for an unknown number of deaths via other experiments, lethal injections, beatings, and shootings.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|pp=376–377}}

=== Eye studies ===
Mengele carried out eye research and experiments at Auschwitz. Prisoners and inmate physicians testified that Mengele ordered inmate physicians to drop chemicals in the eyes of subjects. Although there has been speculation that Mengele was attempting to "Aryanize" prisoner eyes by making them blue with dyes or other chemicals, this idea has been rejected by historian [[David G. Marwell]]. He argues that this is not supported by evidence, and that Mengele would not be interested in a "cosmetic change" with "no genetic meaning".{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|p=100}} According to Marwell, Mengele was most likely administering [[adrenaline]] drops into the eyes of subjects while researching the condition [[Heterochromia iridum|heterochromia]] (color differences of the [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]]) as part of his collaboration with biologist and eugenicist [[Karin Magnussen]], who carried out Reich-funded research on eye color at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology]] in Berlin. Magnussen was testing whether "pharmacologically effective substances" or hormones such as adrenaline could alter pigmentation of the eyes of rabbits, as well as studying the anatomy of the eye and the genetics underlying heterochromia.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|pp=101–102}}

Mengele's collaboration with Magnussen also included compiling genealogical records and documenting eye characteristics of prisoners.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|p=103}} He sent eyes removed from Auschwitz prisoners to her lab in Berlin for histological study. After the war, Magnussen stated she believed that the specimens were from prisoners who had died of natural causes.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|pp=103–104}} The inmate pathologist Nyiszli said that some of the samples were from the bodies of people who had been killed by lethal injection.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|p=104}}

Marwell suggests that the side effects associated with adrenaline administration may have contributed to widespread confusion about these experiments:
{{Quote|text=If adrenaline was, in fact, the substance that Mengele introduced into children’s eyes, it is instructive to understand its side effects: rise in blood pressure, disturbance in heart rhythm, feeling of weakness, faintness, perspiration, shaking, and pallor. These symptoms would have been frightening, and not only for a small child, and it is understandable why twin survivors recall these experiments with such horror and dread. And it is also understandable why the motivation behind them has been so misunderstood.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|p=107}} }}

=== Myths and rejected anecdotes ===
Some rumors regarding Mengele have been rejected or challenged by historians, including the claim that Mengele sewed two twins together to create [[conjoined twins]].{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|p=115}} Agnieszka Kita, a historian at the [[Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum]], suggested that the twin-sewing myth perhaps arose due to confusion about blood transfusion work, in which twins were "connected" with needles and tubes.{{Sfn|Auschwitz Museum|2024}} Historian [[David G. Marwell]] has rejected other rumors about Mengele, including the suggestion that he surgically "connected the urinary tract of a 7-year-old girl to her own colon", or that he attempted to "make boys into girls and girls into boys" using "cross transfusions", or that he attempted to change people's eye color.{{Sfn|Marwell|2020|pp=100, 115}}

== After Auschwitz ==
Along with several other Auschwitz doctors, Mengele transferred to [[Gross-Rosen concentration camp]] in [[Lower Silesia]] on 17 January 1945, taking with him two boxes of specimens and the records of his experiments at Auschwitz. Most of the camp medical records had already been destroyed by the SS{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=255}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=57}} by the time the [[Red Army]] liberated Auschwitz on 27 January.{{sfn|Steinbacher|2005|p=128}} Mengele fled Gross-Rosen on 18 February, a week before the Soviets arrived there, and traveled westward to [[Žatec]] in [[Czechoslovakia]], disguised as a {{lang|de|Wehrmacht}} officer. There he temporarily entrusted his incriminating documents to a nurse with whom he had struck up a relationship.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=255}} He and his unit then hurried west to avoid being captured by the Soviets, but were taken [[prisoners of war]] by the Americans in June 1945. Although Mengele was initially registered under his own name, he was not identified as being on the major war criminal list due to the disorganization of the Allies regarding the distribution of wanted lists, and the fact that he did not have the usual [[SS blood group tattoo]].{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=63}} He was released at the end of July and obtained false papers under the name "Fritz Ulmann", documents he later altered to read "Fritz Hollmann".{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=64, 68}}

After several months on the run, including a trip back to the Soviet-occupied area to recover his Auschwitz records, Mengele found work near [[Rosenheim]] as a farmhand.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=68, 88}} He eventually escaped from Germany on 17 April 1949,{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=87}}{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=263}} convinced that his capture would mean a trial and death sentence. Assisted by a network of former SS members, he used the [[Ratlines (World War II aftermath)|ratline]] to travel to [[Genoa]], where he obtained a passport from the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] under the [[Pseudonym|alias]] "Helmut Gregor", and sailed to Argentina in July 1949.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=264–265}} His wife refused to accompany him, and they divorced by proxy in [[Düsseldorf]] in 1954.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=88,108}}{{sfn|Blumenthal, June 1985}}

==In South America==
[[File:WP Josef Mengele 1956.jpg|thumb|Photograph from Mengele's Argentine identification document in 1956]]
Mengele worked as a carpenter in [[Buenos Aires]], Argentina, while lodging in a [[boarding house]] in the suburb of [[Vicente López Partido|Vicente López]].{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=95}} After a few weeks, he moved to the house of a Nazi sympathizer in the neighborhood of [[Florida Este, Buenos Aires|Florida Este]]. He next worked as a salesman for his family's farm equipment company, Karl Mengele & Sons, and in 1951 he began making frequent trips to [[Paraguay]] as a regional sales representative.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=104–105}} He moved into an apartment in central Buenos Aires in 1953, used family funds to buy a part interest in a carpentry concern, and then rented a house in the suburb of [[Olivos, Buenos Aires|Olivos]] in 1954.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=107–108}} Files released by the Argentine government in 1992 indicate that Mengele may have practiced medicine without a license while living in Buenos Aires, including performing abortions.{{sfn|Nash|1992}}

After obtaining a copy of his birth certificate through the West German embassy in 1956, Mengele was issued an Argentine foreign residence permit under his real name. He used this document to obtain a West German passport using his real name and embarked on a trip to Europe.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=267}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=166}} He met with his son Rolf (who was told Mengele was his "Uncle Fritz"){{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=2}} and his widowed sister-in-law Martha, for a ski holiday in Switzerland; he also spent a week in his home town of Günzburg.{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=167}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=111}} When he returned to Argentina in September 1956, Mengele began living under his real name. Martha and her son Karl Heinz followed about a month later, and the three began living together. Josef and Martha were married in 1958 while on holiday in [[Uruguay]], and they bought a house in Buenos Aires.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=267}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=112}} Mengele's business interests now included part ownership of Fadro Farm, a [[pharmaceutical]] company.{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=167}} Along with several other doctors, he was questioned in 1958 on suspicion of practicing medicine without a license when a teenage girl died after an abortion, but he was released without charge. Aware that the publicity could lead to his Nazi background and wartime activities being discovered, he took an extended business trip to Paraguay and was granted citizenship there in 1959 under the name "José Mengele".{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=269–270}} He returned to Buenos Aires several times to settle his business affairs and visit his family. Martha and Karl lived in a boarding house in the city until December 1960, when they returned to West Germany.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=273}}

Mengele's name was mentioned several times during the [[Nuremberg trials]] in the mid-1940s, but the Allied forces believed that he was probably already dead.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=76, 82}} Irene Mengele and the family in Günzburg also claimed that he had died.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=261}} Working in West Germany, [[Nazi hunter]]s [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and [[Hermann Langbein]] collected information from witnesses about Mengele's wartime activities. In a search of the public records, Langbein discovered Mengele's divorce papers, which listed an address in Buenos Aires. He and Wiesenthal pressured the West German authorities into starting extradition proceedings, and an arrest warrant was drawn up on 5&nbsp;June 1959.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=271}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=121}} Argentina initially refused the extradition request because the fugitive was no longer living at the address given on the documents; by the time extradition was approved on 30&nbsp;June, Mengele had already fled to Paraguay and was living on a farm in [[Hohenau, Paraguay|Hohenau]], near the Argentine border.{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=269–270, 272}}{{sfn|Brooke|1993}} Mengele reportedly worked as a [[veterinary surgeon]] under the alias of 'Francisco Fischer' while living in Hohenau, before leaving Paraguay for Brazil sometime in 1964.{{sfn|Gibbs|2024}} After a request from Paraguayan Attorney General Clotildo Jimenez, the [[Supreme Court of Justice of Paraguay|Supreme Court of Paraguay]] annulled Mengele's citizenship in August 1979.{{sfn|Belnap|1979}}

===Efforts by Mossad===
In May 1960, [[Isser Harel]], director of the Israeli intelligence agency [[Mossad]], personally led the successful effort to capture [[Adolf Eichmann]] in Buenos Aires. He was hoping to track down Mengele so that he too could be brought to trial in Israel.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=139}} Under interrogation, Eichmann provided the address of a boarding house that had been used as a [[safe house]] for Nazi fugitives. [[Surveillance]] of the house did not reveal Mengele or any members of his family, and the neighborhood postman claimed that although Mengele had recently been receiving letters there under his real name, he had since relocated without leaving a forwarding address. Harel's inquiries at a machine shop where Mengele had been part owner also failed to generate any leads, so he was forced to abandon the search.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=142–143}}

Despite having provided Mengele with legal documents using his real name in 1956 (which had enabled him to formalize his permanent residency in Argentina), West Germany was now offering a reward for his capture. Continuing newspaper coverage of his wartime activities, with accompanying photographs, led Mengele to relocate again in 1960. Former pilot [[Hans-Ulrich Rudel]] put him in touch with the Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard, who helped Mengele cross the border into Brazil.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=273}}{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=162}} He stayed with Gerhard on his farm near [[São Paulo]] until a more permanent accommodation could be found, which came about with Hungarian [[expatriates]] Géza and Gitta Stammer. The couple bought a farm in [[Nova Europa]] with the help of an investment from Mengele, who was given the job of managing for them. The three bought a coffee and cattle farm in [[Serra Negra]] in 1962, with Mengele owning a half interest.{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=279–281}} Gerhard had initially told the Stammers that the fugitive's name was "Peter Hochbichler", but they discovered his true identity in 1963. Gerhard persuaded the couple not to report Mengele's location to the authorities by convincing them that they themselves could be implicated for harboring a fugitive.{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=280, 282}} In February 1961, West Germany widened its extradition request to include Brazil, having been tipped off to the possibility that Mengele had relocated there.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=168}}

Meanwhile, [[Zvi Aharoni]], one of the Mossad agents who had been involved in the Eichmann capture, was placed in charge of a team of agents tasked with tracking down Mengele and bringing him to trial in Israel. Their inquiries in Paraguay revealed no clues to his whereabouts, and they were unable to intercept any correspondence between Mengele and his wife Martha, who by this time was living in Italy. Agents who were following Rudel's movements also failed to produce any leads.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=166–167}} Aharoni and his team followed Gerhard to a rural area near São Paulo, where they identified a European man whom they believed to be Mengele.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=184–186}} This potential breakthrough was reported to Harel, but the logistics of staging a capture, the budgetary constraints of the search operation, and the priority of focusing on Israel's deteriorating relationship with Egypt led the Mossad chief to call off the manhunt in 1962.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=184, 187–188}}{{sfn|Horovitz|2018}}

===Later life and death===
In 1969, Mengele and the Stammers jointly purchased a farmhouse in [[Caieiras]], with Mengele as half owner.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=223}} When Wolfgang Gerhard returned to Germany in 1971 to seek medical treatment for his ailing wife and son, he gave his [[Identity document|identity card]] to Mengele.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=289}} The Stammers' friendship with Mengele deteriorated in late 1974, and when they bought a house in São Paulo, he was not invited to join them.{{efn|name=relationship|Based on entries in Mengele's journals and interviews with his friends, historians such as [[Gerald Posner]] and Gerald Astor believe that Mengele had a sexual relationship with Gitta Stammer.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=178–179}}{{sfn|Astor|1985|p=224}} }} The Stammers later bought a bungalow in the Eldorado neighborhood of [[Diadema, São Paulo]], which they rented out to Mengele.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=242–243}} Rolf, who had not seen his father since the ski holiday in 1956, visited him at the bungalow in 1977; he found an "unrepentant Nazi" who claimed he had never personally harmed anyone and [[Superior orders|only carried out his duties]] as an officer.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=2, 279}}

Mengele's health had been steadily deteriorating since 1972. He suffered a [[stroke]] in 1976,{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=289, 291}} experienced high blood pressure, and developed an ear infection which affected his balance. On 7&nbsp;February 1979, while visiting his friends Wolfram and Liselotte Bossert in the coastal resort of [[Bertioga]], Mengele had a heart attack while swimming and drowned.{{sfn|Evans|2008|p=746}} His body was buried in Our Lady of the Rosary cemetery in [[Embu das Artes]] under the name "Wolfgang Gerhard",{{sfn|Montalbano|1985}} whose identification Mengele had been using since 1971.{{sfn|Blumenthal, July 1985|p=1}} Other aliases used by Mengele in his later life included "Dr. Fausto Rindón" and "S. Josi Alvers Aspiazu".{{sfn|Zentner|Bedürftig|1991|p=586}}

==Exhumation==
[[File:Mengele US Navy Medicine (page 10 crop).jpg|thumb|upright|Forensic anthropologists examine Mengele's skull in 1986. The skeleton is stored at the São Paulo Institute for Forensic Medicine in Brazil.{{sfn|''The Guardian''|2017}}]]
Sightings of Mengele were being reported all over the world in the decades following the war. Wiesenthal claimed to have information that placed Mengele on the Greek island of [[Kythnos]] in 1960,{{sfn|Segev|2010|p=167}} in [[Cairo]] in 1961,{{sfn|Walters|2009|p=317}} in Spain in 1971,{{sfn|Walters|2009|p=370}} and in Paraguay in 1978, eighteen years after he had left the country.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=296}} He insisted as late as 1985 that Mengele was still alive—six years after he had died—having previously offered a reward of [[USD|US$]]100,000 ({{Inflation|US|100,000|1982|fmt=eq|r=-5}}) in 1982 for the fugitive's capture.{{sfn|Levy|2006|pp=297, 301}} Worldwide interest in the case was heightened by a mock trial held in [[Jerusalem]] in February 1985, featuring the testimonies of over one hundred victims of Mengele's experiments. Shortly afterwards, the West German, Israeli, and U.S. governments launched a coordinated effort to determine Mengele's whereabouts. The West German and Israeli governments offered rewards for his capture, as did ''[[The Washington Times]]'' and the [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]].{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=306–308}}

On 31 May 1985, acting on intelligence received by the West German prosecutor's office, police raided the house of Hans Sedlmeier, a lifelong friend of Mengele and sales manager of the family firm in Günzburg.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=89, 313}} They found a coded address book and copies of letters sent to and received from Mengele. Among the papers was a letter from Wolfram Bossert notifying Sedlmeier of Mengele's death.{{sfn|Levy|2006|p=302}} German authorities alerted the police in São Paulo, who then contacted the Bosserts. Under interrogation, they revealed the location of Mengele's grave{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=315, 317}} and the remains were exhumed on 6 June 1985. Extensive [[forensic]] examination indicated with a high degree of probability that the body was indeed that of Josef Mengele.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|pp=319–321}} Rolf Mengele issued a statement on 10 June confirming that the body was his father's and that news of his father's death had been concealed to protect people who had sheltered him.{{sfn|Posner|Ware|1986|p=322}}

In 1992, [[DNA test]]ing confirmed Mengele's identity beyond doubt,{{sfn|Saad|2005}} but family members refused repeated requests by Brazilian officials to repatriate the remains to Germany.{{sfn|Simons|1988}} The skeleton is stored at the São Paulo Institute for Forensic Medicine, where it is used as an educational aid during forensic medicine courses at the [[University of São Paulo]]'s medical school.{{sfn|''The Guardian''|2017}}

==Later developments==
<!--PLEASE DO NOT ADD TO THIS SECTION: (1) Boys from Brazil book/film or (2) Angel of Death track by Slayer. Both are trivial popular culture items that do not belong in this article, as discussed on Talk page and deprecated in [[WP:MILPOP]]-->
In 2007, the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] received as a donation the [[Höcker Album]], an album of photographs of Auschwitz staff taken by [[Karl-Friedrich Höcker]]. Eight of the photographs include Mengele.{{sfn|USHMM: SS Auschwitz album}} In February 2010, a 180-page volume of Mengele's diary was sold by [[Alexander Autographs]] at auction for an undisclosed sum to the grandson of a Holocaust survivor. The unidentified previous owner, who acquired the journals in Brazil, was reported to be close to the Mengele family. A Holocaust survivors' organization described the sale as "a cynical act of exploitation aimed at profiting from the writings of one of the most heinous Nazi criminals".{{sfn|Oster|2010}} Rabbi [[Marvin Hier]] of the Simon Wiesenthal Center was glad to see the diary fall into Jewish hands, calling the acquisition significant.{{sfn|Hier|2010}} In 2011 (centenary of Mengele's birth), a further 31 volumes of Mengele's diaries were sold—again amidst protests—by the same auction house to an undisclosed collector of World War II memorabilia for US$245,000.{{sfn|Aderet|2011}}

==Publications==
* ''Racial-Morphological Examinations of the Anterior Portion of the Lower Jaw in Four Racial Groups''. This dissertation, completed in 1935 and first published in 1937, earned him a PhD in anthropology from Munich University. In this work Mengele sought to demonstrate that there were structural differences in the [[Human mandible|lower jaws]] of individuals from different ethnic groups, and that racial distinctions could be made based on these differences.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}}{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=339}}
* ''Genealogical Studies in the Cases of Cleft Lip-Jaw-Palate'' (1938), his medical dissertation, earned him a doctorate in medicine from Frankfurt University. Studying the influence of genetics as a factor in the occurrence of this deformity, Mengele conducted research on families who exhibited these traits in multiple generations. The work also included notes on other abnormalities found in these family lines.{{sfn|Kubica|1998|p=318}}{{sfn|Lifton|1986|pp=339–340}}
* ''Hereditary Transmission of Fistulae Auris''. This journal article, published in {{lang|de|Der Erbarzt}} ('The Genetic Physician'), focuses on [[Preauricular sinus and cyst|fistula auris]] (an abnormal fissure on the external ear) as a hereditary trait. Mengele noted that individuals who have this trait also tend to have a [[dimple]] on their chin.{{sfn|Lifton|1986|p=340}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Angel of Death (Slayer song)]]
* [[Aribert Heim]]
* [[Carl Clauberg]]
* [[Eva Mozes Kor]]
* [[Grigory Mairanovsky]]
* [[Hans Münch]]
* [[Kurt Blome]]
* [[Nazi eugenics]]
* [[Shirō Ishii]]
* [[The Boys from Brazil (film)|''The Boys from Brazil'' (film)]]
* [[The Boys from Brazil (novel)|''The Boys from Brazil'' (novel)]]
*''[[The German Doctor]]''
* [[Son of Saul]]
{{div col end}}

==Informational notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite news |last=Aderet |first=Ofer |title=Ultra-Orthodox man buys diaries of Nazi doctor Mengele for $245,000 |date=22 July 2011 |newspaper=Haaretz |url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/ultra-orthodox-man-buys-diaries-of-nazi-doctor-mengele-for-245-000-1.374642 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924163812/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/ultra-orthodox-man-buys-diaries-of-nazi-doctor-mengele-for-245-000-1.374642 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead |access-date=20 May 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Allison |first=Kirk C. |editor1-last=Friedman |editor1-first=Jonathan C |title=Routledge History of the Holocaust |year=2011 |chapter=Eugenics, race hygiene, and the Holocaust: Antecedents and consolidations |pages=45–58 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Milton Park; New York |isbn=978-0-415-77956-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Astor |first=Gerald |title=Last Nazi: Life and Times of Dr Joseph Mengele |publisher=Donald I. Fine |location=New York |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-917657-46-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/lastnazilifetime00asto}}
* {{Cite web |author=Auschwitz Museum |date=9 December 2024 |title=Doctor Josef Mengele and his experiments in the camp (transcript of the podcast) |url=https://www.auschwitz.org/en/education/e-learning/podcast/doctor-josef-mengele-and-his-experiments-in-the-camp/ |access-date=12 May 2025 |website=auschwitz.org}}
* {{cite news |last1=Belnap |first1=David F. |author1-link=David Belnap |title=Mengele Hunt Focuses on Paraguay |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/08/10/mengele-hunt-focuses-on-paraguay/101ad31d-e3a0-480c-bfea-7b116792ed2a/ |date=10 August 1979 |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |language=en |access-date=20 December 2024}}
* {{cite news |last1=Blumenthal |first1=Ralph |author-link=Ralph Blumenthal |title=Investigators Turn Attention to Mengele Family Contacts |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/11/world/investigators-turn-attention-to-mengele-family-contacts.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=26 January 2024 |language=English |date=11 June 1985 |ref={{sfnRef|Blumenthal, June 1985}} }}
* {{Cite news |last=Blumenthal |first=Ralph |title=Scientists Decide Brazil Skeleton Is Josef Mengele |work=The New York Times |date=22 July 1985 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/22/world/scientists-decide-brazil-skelton-is-josef-mengele.html |access-date=1 February 2014 |ref={{sfnRef|Blumenthal, July 1985}} }}
*{{cite news|last=Brooke |first=James |author-link=James Brooke (journalist)|title=Hohenau Journal; Sure, Mengele Was at Home Here, but Bormann?|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York|date=1 June 1993|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/01/world/hohenau-journal-sure-mengele-was-at-home-here-but-bormann.html|access-date=31 May 2024}}
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* {{Cite news |last=Gibbs |first=Stephen |title=
Shadow of Josef Mengele still hangs over his Paraguayan bolthole |url=https://www.thetimes.com/world/latin-america/article/josef-mengele-nazi-war-criminal-paraguay-gssdw3p77|newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=19 December 2024 |language=en |access-date=20 December 2024 }}
* {{cite magazine |last1=Gopnik |first1=Adam |author-link=Adam Gopnik |title=Revisiting Mengele's Malignant "Race Science" |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/22/revisiting-mengeles-malignant-race-science |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=1 January 2023 |date=15 June 2020}}
* {{cite web |last=Hier |first=Marvin |author-link=Marvin Hier |title=Wiesenthal Center Praises Acquisition of Mengele's Diary |year=2010 |publisher=Simon Wiesenthal Center |url=http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=5711859&ct=7985857 |access-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508051147/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=5711859&ct=7985857 |archive-date=8 May 2017 |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite news |last1=Horovitz |first1=David |title=Mossad chose not to nab Mengele, didn’t hunt down Munich terrorists, book claims |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/mossad-chose-not-to-nab-mengele-didnt-hunt-down-munich-terrorists-book-claims/ |work=[[Times of Israel]] |date=26 January 2018 |access-date=20 December 2024}}
* {{cite web |title=In the Matter of Josef Mengele: A Report to the Attorney General of the United States |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/criminal-hrsp/legacy/2011/06/06/10-30-92mengele-exhibits.pdf |publisher=US Department of Justice, Office of Special Investigations Criminal Division |access-date=24 June 2022 |date=October 1992 |page=206 |ref={{sfnRef|US Justice Department|1992}}}}
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* {{cite book |last=Kubica |first=Helena |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 |url-access=limited |chapter=The Crimes of Josef Mengele |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1/page/317 317]–337 |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-20884-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lagnado |first1=Lucette Matalon |author-link1=Lucette Lagnado |last2=Dekel |first2=Sheila Cohn |title=Children of the Flames: Dr Josef Mengele and the Untold Story of the Twins of Auschwitz |year=1991 |publisher=William Morrow |location=New York |isbn=978-0-688-09695-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofflames00mata}}
* {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Levy |title=Nazi Hunter: The Wiesenthal File |edition=Revised 2002 |year=2006 |orig-year=1993 |publisher=Constable & Robinson |location=London |isbn=978-1-84119-607-7}}
* {{Cite news |last=Lifton |first=Robert Jay |author-link=Robert Jay Lifton |date=21 July 1985 |title=What Made This Man? Mengele |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/21/magazine/what-made-this-man-mengele.html |archive-date=30 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630052408/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/21/magazine/what-made-this-man-mengele.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 May 2025}}
* {{cite book |last=Lifton |first=Robert Jay |title=The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide |year=1986 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-465-04905-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/nazidoctorsmedic0000lift}}
* {{cite book |last=Longerich |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Longerich |title=Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-280436-5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford; New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Marwell |first=David G. |author1-link=David G. Marwell |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Mengele_Unmasking_the_Angel_of_Death/JCCfDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT5&printsec=frontcover |title=Mengele: Unmasking the "Angel of Death" |date=2020 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-60953-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite news |last1=Montalbano |first1=William D. |title='Gerhard' Was Anxious, Feared Jews: Man Thought to Be Mengele Called Shy |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-08-mn-7187-story.html |access-date=12 May 2025 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=8 June 1985}}
* {{Cite news |last=Nash |first=Nathaniel C. |title=Mengele an Abortionist, Argentine Files Suggest |date=11 February 1992 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/11/world/mengele-an-abortionist-argentine-files-suggest.html |access-date=31 August 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Nyiszli |first=Miklós |author-link=Miklós Nyiszli |title=Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account |year=2011 |orig-year=1960 |publisher=Arcade Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-61145-011-8}}
* {{cite news |last=Oster |first=Marcy |title=Survivor's grandson buys Mengele diary |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |url=http://www.jta.org/2010/02/03/news-opinion/united-states/survivors-grandson-buys-mengele-diary |access-date=2 February 2014}}
* {{cite book |last=Piper |first=Franciszek |author-link=Franciszek Piper |editor1-last=Gutman |editor1-first=Yisrael |editor1-link=Yisrael Gutman |editor2-last=Berenbaum |editor2-first=Michael |title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1 |url-access=limited |chapter=Gas Chambers and Crematoria |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofauschwi00gutm_1/page/157 157]–182 |year=1998 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-20884-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Posner |first1=Gerald L. |author-link1=Gerald Posner |last2=Ware |first2=John |author-link2=John Ware (TV journalist) |title=Mengele: The Complete Story |year=1986 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-050598-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/mengelecompletes00posn }}
* {{cite book |last=Rees |first=Laurence |author-link=Laurence Rees |title=Auschwitz: A New History |year=2005 |publisher=Public Affairs |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58648-303-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/auschwitznewhist00rees}}
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* {{Cite news |last=Simons |first=Marlise |title=Remains of Mengele Rest Uneasily in Brazil |journal=The New York Times |date=17 March 1988 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/14/world/remains-of-mengele-rest-uneasily-in-brazil.html |access-date=2 February 2014}}
* {{cite web |author=Staff |title=Josef Mengele |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2024 |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/josef-mengele |access-date=17 May 2025 |ref={{sfnRef|USHMM: Josef Mengele}}}}
* {{cite news |author=Staff |title=Nazi doctor Josef Mengele's bones used in Brazil forensic medicine courses |date=11 January 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jan/11/josef-mengele-bones-brazil-forensic-medicine |access-date=24 August 2019 |ref={{sfnRef|''The Guardian''|2017}}}}
* {{cite web |author=Staff |title=SS Auschwitz album |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2007 |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn518658 |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref={{sfnRef|USHMM: SS Auschwitz album}}}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Wachsmann |first1=Nikolaus |author1-link=Nikolaus Wachsmann |title=KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps |date=2015 |publisher=Farrar, Straus andGiroux |location=New York |isbn=978-0-374-11825-9 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Weindling |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Weindling |editor1-last=Burley |editor1-first=Justine |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=John |title=A Companion to Genethics |year=2002 |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |chapter=The Ethical Legacy of Nazi Medical War Crimes: Origins, Human Experiments, and International Justice |pages=[https://archive.org/details/companiontogenet0000unse/page/53 53–69] |publisher=Blackwell |location=Malden, MA; Oxford |isbn=978-0-631-20698-9 |doi=10.1002/9780470756423.ch5 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/companiontogenet0000unse/page/53}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zentner |first1=Christian |last2=Bedürftig |first2=Friedemann |title=The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich |year=1991 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-0-02-897502-3}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Benzenhöfer |first1=Udo |last2=Ackermann |first2=Hanns |last3=Weiske |first3=Katja |year=2007 |chapter=Wissenschaft oder Wahn? Bemerkungen zur Münchener Dissertation von Josef Mengele aus dem Jahr 1935 [Science or madness? Comments on Josef Mengele's Munich dissertation from 1935] |editor1-last=Benzenhöfer |editor1-first=Udo |title=Studien zur Geschichte und Ethik der Medizin mit Schwerpunkt Frankfurt am Main |trans-title=Studies on the history and ethics of medicine with a focus on Frankfurt am Main |language=German |pages=31–41 |location= |publisher=Wetzlar |url=http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/35003 |isbn=978-3-9811345-4-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Benzenhöfer | first1 = Udo | last2 = Weiske | first2 = Katja | date =2010 | chapter =Bemerkungen zur Frankfurter Dissertation von Josef Mengele über Sippenuntersuchungen bei Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumenspalte [Comments on Josef Mengele's Frankfurt dissertation on family examinations for cleft lip and palate]| url = http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/57212 | title = Mengele, Hirt, Holfelder, Berner, von Verschuer, Kranz: Frankfurter Universitätsmediziner der NS-Zeit | editor1-last = Benzenhöfer | editor1-first = Udo |publisher=Klemm & Oelschläger | location = Münster | pages = 9–20 | language = German|trans-title= Mengele, Hirt, Holfelder, Berner, von Verschuer, Kranz: Frankfurt university doctors of the Nazi era| isbn = 978-3-932577-97-0 | ref = none}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Benzenhöfer | first1 = Udo | date = April 2011 | title = Bemerkungen zum Lebenslauf von Josef Mengele unter besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Frankfurter Zeit | url = https://www.laekh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Heftarchiv/PDFs_ganze_Hefte/2011/HAEBL_04_2011.pdf | journal = Hessisches Ärzteblatt | volume = 72 | issue = | pages = 228–230, 239–240 | language = German|trans-title=Comments on Josef Mengele's curriculum vitae with special reference to his time in Frankfurt | ref = none}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Halioua |first1=Bruno |last2=Marmor |first2=Michael F. |date=2020 |title=The eyes of the angel of death: Ophthalmic experiments of Josef Mengele |journal=Survey of Ophthalmology |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=744–748 |doi=10.1016/j.survophthal.2020.04.007 |pmid=32387532 |s2cid=218586577 | issn = 0039-6257 | ref = none}}
* {{cite book |last=Harel|first=Isser |title=The House on Garibaldi Street: the First Full Account of the Capture of Adolf Eichmann |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |location=New York |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-670-38028-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/houseongaribaldi00isse | ref = none}}
* {{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Herbert A. |title=The Climate of Hell |url=https://archive.org/details/climateofhell00lieb |url-access=registration |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-671-82236-1 | ref = none}}<!-- [[Climate of Hell]] redirects here -->
* {{Cite book |last=Weindling |first=Paul |title=Victims and Survivors of Nazi Human Experiments: Science and Suffering in the Holocaust |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4725-7993-5 |language=en | ref = none}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{cite web | last1 = Belnap | first1 = David F. | title = Mengele Hunt Focuses on Paraguay | date = 10 August 1979 | website = [[Los Angeles Times]] | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/08/10/mengele-hunt-focuses-on-paraguay/101ad31d-e3a0-480c-bfea-7b116792ed2a/?noredirect=on | ref = none}}
* {{cite web | last = Breitman | first = Richard | title = Historical Analysis of 20 Name Files from CIA Records | date = April 2001 | publisher = US National Archives | url = https://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified-records/rg-263-cia-records/rg-263-report.html | ref = none}}
* {{cite web | last = Papanayotou | first = Vivi | title = Skeletons in the Closet of German Science | date = 18 September 2005 | website = [[Deutsche Welle]] | url = http://www.dw.de/skeletons-in-the-closet-of-german-science/a-1587766-1 | ref = none}}
* {{cite web | last1 = Posner | first1 = Gerald | last2 = Ware | first2 = John | title = How Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele cheated justice for 34 years | date = 18 May 1986 | work = [[Chicago Tribune|Chicago Tribune Magazine]]| url = http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-05-18/features/8602040597_1_josef-mengele-field-hospital-red-army | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140218223706/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-05-18/features/8602040597_1_josef-mengele-field-hospital-red-army | url-status = dead | archive-date = 18 February 2014 | ref = none}}
* {{cite web | last1 = Siegert | first1 = Alice | title = His secret out, Rolf Mengele talks about his father | date = 30 June 1985 | work = Chicago Tribune Magazine | url = https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-06-30-8502120086-story.html | ref = none}}

{{Holocaust Poland}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Mengele, Josef}}

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