Editing Johnston Atoll

{{short description|United States Minor Outlying Islands}}
{{External links|date=November 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Johnston Atoll
| settlement_type    = [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
| imagesize          = 
| image_alt          = 
| image_caption      = 
| image              = <!-- other image (specify File: or File: namespace) -->
| image_blank_emblem = 
| blank_emblem_type  = [[#Closure_and_remaining_structures|Unofficial flag]]
| image_map          = Johnston_Atoll_satellite_map.jpg
| map_caption        = Annotated satellite image of Johnston Atoll
| pushpin_map        = North Pacific
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in the North Pacific Ocean
| coordinates        = {{coord|16|44|13|N|169|31|26|W|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
<!-- location -->| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = United States
| subdivision_type1  = Status
| subdivision_name1  = [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|Unorganized, unincorporated territory]]
| established_title  = Claimed by U.S.
| established_date   = March 19, 1858
| named_for          = Captain Charles James Johnston, [[HMS Cornwallis (1805)|HMS ''Cornwallis'']]
| government_type    = Administered as a [[National Wildlife Refuge]]
| governing_body     = [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]
| leader_title1      = Superintendent
| leader_name1       = Laura Beauregard, [[Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument]]
| area_total_km2     = 2.67
| area_total_sq_mi   = 
| area_blank2_title  = [[Exclusive economic zone|EEZ]]
| area_blank2_km2    = 407,635
| area_blank2_sq_mi  = 
| elevation_max_m    = 10
| elevation_max_ft   = 
| elevation_max_point = Sand Island
| elevation_min_m    = 0
| elevation_min_ft   = 
| elevation_min_point = Pacific Ocean
| population_as_of   = 2000
| population_total   = 315
| timezone1          = [[Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone]]
| utc_offset1        = −10
| geocode            = 127
| iso_code           = UM
<!-- website, footnotes -->| website            = {{URL|https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Johnston_Atoll/|www.fws.gov/refuge/Johnston_Atoll/}}
| footnotes          = 
}}

'''Johnston Atoll''' is an [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] of the United States, under the jurisdiction of the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF). The island is closed to public entry, and limited access for management needs is only granted by a letter of authorization from the USAF. A special use permit is also required from the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS) to access the island by boat or enter the waters surrounding the island, which are designated as a [[National Wildlife Refuge]] and part of the [[Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument]]. The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge extends from the shore out to 12 nautical miles, continuing as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System out to 200 nautical miles. The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument extends from the shore out to 200 nautical miles.

The isolated [[atoll]] has been under the control of the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] since 1934.<ref name="U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity" /> During that time, it was variously used as a naval refueling depot,<ref name="Polmar2004" /> an [[Johnston Island Air Force Base|airbase]],<ref name="Bases" /> a testing site for [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=Operation HARDTACK I: Fact Sheet |url=https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/125/Documents/NTPR/newDocs/15-HARDTACK%20I%20%20-%202021.pdf |website=Defense Threat Reduction Agency |access-date=October 18, 2023 |archive-date=August 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807100906/https://www.dtra.mil/Portals/125/Documents/NTPR/newDocs/15-HARDTACK%20I%20%20-%202021.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Biological agent|biological weapons]],<ref name="rpbio" /> a secret missile base,<ref name="AFmuseum" /> and a site for the storage and disposal of [[chemical weapon]]s<ref name="Birds" /> and [[Agent Orange]].<ref name="Guam">{{cite report |title=Phase II Environmental Baseline Survey, Johnston Atoll |author=EarthTech |date=April 2005 |page=B19-B20 |access-date=August 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421032235/http://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf |archive-date=April 21, 2013 |url-status=dead |chapter=Appendix B |chapter-url=http://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf}}</ref>  Those activities left the area environmentally contaminated. The USAF completed remediating the contamination in 2004 and performs only periodic monitoring today.<ref name="Fish And Wildlife Service" />

The island is home to thriving communities of nesting seabirds and has significant marine biodiversity. USAF and USFWS teams conduct [[environmental monitoring]] and maintenance to protect the native wildlife.<ref name="Audubon-2015">{{Cite web|date=June 26, 2015|title=One Remote Island's Battle Against Acid-Spewing Ants|url=https://www.audubon.org/magazine/july-august-2015/one-remote-islands-battle-against-acid|access-date=March 27, 2021|website=Audubon|language=en|archive-date=March 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304103312/https://www.audubon.org/magazine/july-august-2015/one-remote-islands-battle-against-acid|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 21st century, one ecological problem was [[yellow_crazy_ant|yellow crazy ants]] that were killing seabirds, but by the 2020s these were eradicated. 

The atoll originally consisted of two islands, Johnston and Sand island surrounded partially by a coral reef. Over the 20th century, those two islands were expanded, and two new islands,  North (Akau) and East (Hikina) were created mostly by coral dredging. A long airstrip was built on Johnston, and there are also various channels through the coral reef.

==Geography==
[[File:Midway.jpg|thumb|left|Johnston Atoll is located between the Marshall Islands and the Hawaiian Islands.]]


Johnston Atoll is a {{convert|1300|ha|adj=mid}} atoll in the [[North Pacific Ocean]], located about {{convert|750|nmi|lk=on}} southwest of the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaiʻi]], and is grouped as one of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states-pacific-island-wildlife-refuges/ |title=United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges |access-date=September 17, 2014 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408014336/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states-pacific-island-wildlife-refuges/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The atoll, which is located on a [[coral reef]] platform, has four islands. Johnston Island and Sand Island are both enlarged natural features, while ''Akau'' (North) and ''Hikina'' (East) are two [[artificial island]]s formed by coral [[dredging]].<ref name="factbook"/> By 1964, dredge and fill operations had increased the size of Johnston Island to {{convert|596|acre|abbr=on}} from its original {{convert|46|acre|abbr=on}}, increased the size of Sand Island from {{convert|10|to|22|acre|abbr=on}}, and added the two new islands, North and East, of {{convert|25|and|18|acre|abbr=on}} respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fws.gov/refuge/johnston-atoll/about-us |title=Johnston Atoll, About the Refuge |publisher=Fish and Wildlife Service |access-date=July 4, 2022 |archive-date=July 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712084247/https://www.fws.gov/refuge/johnston-atoll/about-us |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Growth of Johnston Island.svg|thumb|Johnston Island has been significantly increased in size through coral dredging.]]
The four islands compose a total land area of {{convert|2.67|km2|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref name="factbook"/> Due to the atoll's tilt, much of the reef on the southeast portion has subsided. But even though it does not have an encircling reef crest, the reef crest on the northwest portion of the atoll does provide for a shallow [[lagoon]], with depths ranging from {{convert|3|to|10|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.

The climate is tropical but generally dry. Northeast [[trade winds]] are consistent. There is little seasonal temperature variation.<ref name="factbook"/> With elevation ranging from sea level to {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}} at Summit Peak, the islands contain some low-growing vegetation and palm trees on mostly flat terrain, and no natural freshwater resources.<ref name="factbook"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: right;"
|+Areas ([[hectare|ha]])
! Island !! 1942 !! 1964 (final)
|-
| Johnston Island || 19 || 241
|-
| Sand Island || 4 || 9
|-
| North (''Akau'') Island || data-sort-value="0" | N/A || 10
|-
| East (''Hikina'') Island || data-sort-value="0" | N/A || 7
|- class="sortbottom" style="font-weight: bold;"
| Total land area || 23 || 267
|- class="sortbottom" style="background: #CFF;"
| Johnston Atoll || 13,000 || 13,000
|}

==Climate==
Johnston Atoll has a [[Semi-arid_climate#Hot_semi-arid_climates|hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: ''BSh''; [[Trewartha climate classification|Trewartha]]: ''BSha''). It is a dry atoll with just over {{convert|26|in}} of annual rainfall.<ref>Rauzon, Mark J. (2016). ''Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands''. University of Hawai'i Press, Latitude 20. Page 136. {{ISBN|9780824846794}}.</ref>

{{Weather box
|width = 800px
|location = Johnston Atoll (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1953–2003)
|single line = yes
|collapsed = Y
|Jan record high F = 90
|Feb record high F = 89
|Mar record high F = 90
|Apr record high F = 90
|May record high F = 91
|Jun record high F = 100
|Jul record high F = 101
|Aug record high F = 100
|Sep record high F = 95
|Oct record high F = 95
|Nov record high F = 96
|Dec record high F = 89
|year record high F = 101
|Jan avg record high F = 87.3
|Feb avg record high F = 87.2
|Mar avg record high F = 87.7
|Apr avg record high F = 88.6
|May avg record high F = 89.7
|Jun avg record high F = 92.2
|Jul avg record high F = 92.4
|Aug avg record high F = 92.8
|Sep avg record high F = 92.3
|Oct avg record high F = 91.3
|Nov avg record high F = 89.2
|Dec avg record high F = 87.5
|year avg record high F = 93.5
|Jan high F = 83.8
|Feb high F = 84.1
|Mar high F = 84.4
|Apr high F = 85.6
|May high F = 87.1
|Jun high F = 88.9
|Jul high F = 89.4
|Aug high F = 89.9
|Sep high F = 89.7
|Oct high F = 88.2
|Nov high F = 85.8
|Dec high F = 84.5
|year high F = 86.8
|Jan mean F = 78.6
|Feb mean F = 78.7
|Mar mean F = 78.9
|Apr mean F = 79.9
|May mean F = 81.3
|Jun mean F = 83.0
|Jul mean F = 83.6
|Aug mean F = 84.1
|Sep mean F = 83.9
|Oct mean F = 82.9
|Nov mean F = 81.0
|Dec mean F = 79.5
|year mean F = 81.3
|Jan low F = 73.4
|Feb low F = 73.4
|Mar low F = 73.4
|Apr low F = 74.2
|May low F = 75.5
|Jun low F = 77.1
|Jul low F = 77.8
|Aug low F = 78.4
|Sep low F = 78.1
|Oct low F = 77.5
|Nov low F = 76.2
|Dec low F = 74.6
|year low F = 75.8
|Jan avg record low F = 69.1
|Feb avg record low F = 69.8
|Mar avg record low F = 69.2
|Apr avg record low F = 70.7
|May avg record low F = 71.9
|Jun avg record low F = 73.8
|Jul avg record low F = 73.9
|Aug avg record low F = 74.3
|Sep avg record low F = 74.4
|Oct avg record low F = 73.5
|Nov avg record low F = 71.7
|Dec avg record low F = 69.8
|year avg record low F = 67.1
|Jan record low F = 63
|Feb record low F = 64
|Mar record low F = 65
|Apr record low F = 65
|May record low F = 68
|Jun record low F = 69
|Jul record low F = 70
|Aug record low F = 70
|Sep record low F = 71
|Oct record low F = 68
|Nov record low F = 63
|Dec record low F = 62
|year record low F = 62
|precipitation colour= green
|Jan precipitation inch = 1.75
|Feb precipitation inch = 1.23
|Mar precipitation inch = 2.79
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.74
|May precipitation inch = 1.02
|Jun precipitation inch = 0.83
|Jul precipitation inch = 1.52
|Aug precipitation inch = 1.93
|Sep precipitation inch = 2.91
|Oct precipitation inch = 3.98
|Nov precipitation inch = 3.90
|Dec precipitation inch = 2.73
|year precipitation inch = 26.33
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 inch
|Jan precipitation days = 11.2
|Feb precipitation days = 8.9
|Mar precipitation days = 12.2
|Apr precipitation days = 12.0
|May precipitation days = 10.0
|Jun precipitation days = 10.4
|Jul precipitation days = 12.2
|Aug precipitation days = 11.9
|Sep precipitation days = 14.3
|Oct precipitation days = 16.0
|Nov precipitation days = 12.7
|Dec precipitation days = 13.9
|year precipitation days = 145.7
|source 1 = NOAA<ref>
{{cite web
|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&stations=JQW00021603&format=pdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|title = U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – JOHNSTON ISLAND, UM JQ JQW00021603
|access-date = 2024-10-17
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20241110010106/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&stations=JQW00021603&format=pdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL
|archive-date = 2024-11-10
}}
</ref>
}}

== Wildlife ==
[[File:Butterflyfish at Johnston Atoll NWR (5123998092).jpg|thumb|left|[[Butterflyfish]] swim in Johnston Atoll corals]]
About 300 species of [[fish]] have been recorded from the reefs and inshore waters of the atoll. It is also visited by [[green turtle]]s and [[Hawaiian monk seal]]s. The possibility of [[humpback whale]]s using the waters as a breeding ground has been suggested, albeit in small numbers and with irregular occurrences.<ref>Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System: Storage and Disposal of the European Munition Stock Pile: Environmental Impact Statement, Volume 2, 1990, pp.86</ref> Many other [[cetacean]]s possibly migrate through the area, including [[Cuvier's beaked whale]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mammals – Johnston Atoll – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|url=https://www.fws.gov/nwrs/threecolumn.aspx?id=2147587237|website=www.fws.gov|access-date=March 15, 2017|archive-date=March 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316024427/https://www.fws.gov/nwrs/threecolumn.aspx?id=2147587237|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Birds===
[[File:Juvenile Red-footed booby 01 USFWS.jpg|thumb|Juvenile Red-footed booby seabird on Johnston Island, 2012]]
[[File:Johnston Atoll Seabirds FWS.jpg|thumb|Great Frigate seabirds on Johnston]]
Seabird species recorded as breeding on the atoll include [[Bulwer's petrel]], [[wedge-tailed shearwater]], [[Christmas shearwater]], [[white-tailed tropicbird]], [[red-tailed tropicbird]], [[brown booby]], [[red-footed booby]], [[masked booby]], [[great frigatebird]], [[spectacled tern]], [[sooty tern]], [[brown noddy]], [[black noddy]], and [[white tern]]. It is the world's largest colony of red-tailed tropicbirds, with 10,800 nests in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rash|first=Ryan|date=March 21, 2020|title=Checklist and Images Documenting the Biodiversity of Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge|website=University of Texas Libraries|url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/81149|doi=10.26153/tsw/8162|doi-access=free|access-date=March 27, 2021|archive-date=November 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125120638/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/81149|url-status=live}}</ref> It is visited by [[bird migration|migratory]] [[wader|shorebirds]], including the [[Pacific golden plover]], [[wandering tattler]], [[bristle-thighed curlew]], [[ruddy turnstone]] and [[sanderling]].<ref>U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. ''Bird list of Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge''.[http://www.npwrc.usgs.govjohnatol.htm Version 30DEC2002 ]{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as an [[Important Bird Area]] by [[BirdLife International]] for its [[seabird]] [[bird colony|colonies]].<ref name="bli">{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated-->|date=2021|title=Johnston Atoll|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/johnston-atoll-iba-united-states-minor-outlying-islands-(to-usa)|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=BirdLife Data Zone|publisher=BirdLife International|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125114717/http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/johnston-atoll-iba-united-states-minor-outlying-islands-(to-usa)|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Flora==
The first list of plants cataloged on Johnston Atoll was published in  ''Vascular Plants of Johnston and Wake Islands'' (1931), based on the Tanager Expedition (1923) collections. Three species were described: ''[[Lepturus|Lepturus repens]]'', ''[[Boerhavia diffusa]]'', and ''[[Tribulus cistoides]]''. In the 1940s, when the island was used for aviation activities for the war, ''[[Pluchea odorata]]'' was introduced from [[Honolulu]].<ref name="Wagner Kosaki Spalding Whitton p. ">{{Cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Daniel |last2=Kosaki |first2=Randall K. |last3=Spalding |first3=Heather L. |last4=Whitton |first4=Robert K. |last5=Pyle |first5=Richard L. |last6=Sherwood |first6=Alison R. |last7=Tsuda |first7=Roy T. |last8=Calcinai |first8=Barbara |date=2014 |title=Mesophotic surveys of flora and fauna at Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific Ocean |journal=Marine Biodiversity Records |language=en |volume=7 |pages=e68 |doi=10.1017/S1755267214000785 |doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |issn=1755-2672 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014MBdR....7E..68W }}</ref>
<gallery class="center">
File:Starr 080606-6956 Lepturus repens.jpg|''[[Lepturus|Lepturus repens]]''
File:Punar-nava (Telugu- పునర్నవ) (4938290660).jpg|''[[Boerhavia diffusa]]''
File:Starr 080605-6704 Tribulus cistoides.jpg|''[[Tribulus cistoides]]''
</gallery>

==History==
===Early history===
[[File:Johnston Island Reservation EO 4467 illustration.png|thumb|Johnston and Sand island when it was a bird reserve]]
The first Western record of the atoll was on September 2, 1796, when the Boston-based American [[brig]] ''Sally'' accidentally grounded on a shoal near the islands. The ship's captain, Joseph Pierpont, published his experience in several American newspapers the following year, accurately portraying Johnston and Sand Island along with part of the reef. Still, he did not name or lay claim to the area.<ref>"DISCOVERY. In lat. 16, 45, N. long. 169, 38 W. from London, on my passage from the Sandwich Islands to China, the 2d. of Sept. 1796, at midnight, in company with the sch. Prince William Henry, William Wake, master, of London, we both ran ashore on the North-side of a reef of Coral rocks and sand, where we continued until the next day noon─at which time the weather being very clear, we saw two small Islands of Sand, bearing W by N. 4 or 5 miles distant; and from our topgallant-mast-head, we saw the shoal extending E.S.E. southerly round to W.S.W.─but how far we were not able to determine. Keep the lat. 17. N. and the shoal will not be seen. JOSEPH PIERPONT." ''The Boston Price Current and Marine Intelligencer,'' September 14, 1797. Also in the ''Philadelphia Gazette,'' September 18, and ''Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser'' (Philadelphia, Pa), September 19, 1797.</ref> The islands were not officially named until [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] Charles J. Johnston of the [[Royal Navy|Royal Naval]] ship {{HMS|Cornwallis|1805|6}} sighted them on December 14, 1807.<ref>{{cite book|first=Alexander George|last=Findlay|title=A directory for the navigation of the Pacific Ocean|url=https://archive.org/details/adirectoryforna00findgoog|year=1851|pages=[https://archive.org/details/adirectoryforna00findgoog/page/n486 1106]–}}</ref> The ship's journal recorded: "on the 14th [December] made a new discovery, viz. two very low islands, in lat. 16° 52′ N. long. 190° 26′ E., having a dangerous reef to the east of them, and the whole not exceeding four miles in extent".<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Marshall|title=Royal Naval Biography: Supplement I|location=London|publisher=Longman|date=1827|page=173}}</ref>

In 1856, the United States enacted the [[Guano Islands Act]], which allowed US citizens to take possession of uninhabited and unclaimed<ref name=LCDR>{{cite book|author=LCDR L.R. Bauer, USN|title=Historical Report of Johnston Atoll|year=1964}}</ref> islands containing [[guano]] deposits. Under this act, William Parker and R. F. Ryan chartered the schooner ''Palestine'' specifically to find Johnston Atoll. They located guano on the atoll on March 19, 1858. They proceeded to claim the island as U.S. territory.<ref name="US Insular Areas Report">{{cite web|title=GAO/OGC-98-5 – U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution|date=November 7, 1997|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GAOREPORTS-OGC-98-5/content-detail.html|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|access-date=March 23, 2013|archive-date=May 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508223051/http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GAOREPORTS-OGC-98-5/content-detail.html|url-status=live}}</ref> That same year, [[S. C. Allen]], sailing on the ''Kalama'' under a commission from [[Kamehameha IV|King Kamehameha IV]] of Hawai{{okina}}i, sailed to Johnston Atoll, removed the American flag, and claimed the atoll for the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] (June 14–19, 1858).<ref name=LCDR/> Allen named the atoll "Kalama" and the nearby smaller island "Cornwallis."<ref>{{cite book|last=Rauzon|first=Mark J.|date=2016|title=Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands|publisher=University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press/Latitude 20|pages=136–137|isbn=9780824846794}}.</ref><ref name="Memorieshistory">{{cite web|url=http://www.johnstonmemories.com/|title=Johnston Island Memories Site|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=August 3, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803173941/http://johnstonmemories.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Returning on July 22, 1858,<ref name=LCDR/> the captain of the ''Palestine'' again hoisted the American flag to re-assert US sovereignty over the island. On July 27, however, the "derelict and abandoned" atoll was declared part of the domain of Kamehameha IV.<ref name="Memorieshistory"/> On its July visit, however, the ''Palestine'' left two crew members on the island to gather [[phosphate]]. Later that year, Kamehameha revoked the lease granted to Allen when he learned the atoll had been claimed previously by the United States.<ref name="US Insular Areas Report"/> 

In 1872, Parker's widow sued for title to the island based on her husband's development work there. The US Attorney General denied that claim because Parker had sold his share several years before.<ref>US Naval Institute Proceedings, vol. 69, p. 1178</ref>

By 1890, the atoll's guano deposits had been almost entirely depleted (mined out) by U.S. interests operating under the Guano Islands Act. In 1892, {{HMS|Champion|1878|6}} surveyed and mapped the island to determine its suitability as a telegraph cable station. (This investigation was dropped when it was decided to run the cable via [[Tabuaeran|Fanning Island]]).<ref name=LCDR/> 
By 1898, the United States had taken possession,<ref>When Hawaii was annexed by the US in 1898 during the [[Spanish–American War]], the name of Johnston Island was not included in the list of 'Hawaiian Islands'.</ref> and a US Territorial Government was established. On September 11, 1909, this office leased Johnston Atoll to a private citizen, Max Schlemmen of Honolulu, for agricultural purposes. The lease stipulated planting of coconut trees, and that "lessee will not allow use of explosives . .  in the water immediately adjacent . . for the purposes of killing or capturing fish . . lessee will not allow destruction or capturing of birds . . "<ref name=LCDR/> The lessee soon abandoned the project, however, and on August 9, 1918, the lease was reassigned to a Honolulu-based Japanese fishing company. A sampan carried a work party to the island; they built a wood shed on the SE coast of the larger island and ran a small [[tramway track|tramline]] up the slope of the low hill to facilitate the removal of guano. Neither the quantity nor the quality of the guano was sufficient to cover the cost of gathering it, and the project was soon abandoned.<ref name="Memorieshistory"/>

===National Wildlife Refuge since 1926===
[[File:USS Tanager (AM-5).jpg|thumb|left|{{USS|Tanager|AM-5|6}} with members of the 1923 [[Tanager Expedition]]]]
The [[Tanager Expedition]] was a joint expedition sponsored by the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] and the [[Bishop Museum]] of [[Hawaii]], which visited the atoll in 1923. The expedition to the atoll consisted of two teams accompanied by destroyer convoys, with the first departing Honolulu on July 7, 1923, aboard the {{USS|Whippoorwill|AM-35|6}}, which conducted the first survey of Johnston Island in the 20th century. Aerial survey and mapping flights over Johnston were conducted with a [[Douglas DT-2]] [[floatplane]] carried on her fantail, which was hoisted into the water for takeoff. July 10–22, 1923, the atoll was recorded in a pioneering [[aerial photograph]]y project. The {{USS|Tanager|AM-5|6}} left Honolulu on July 16 and joined up with the ''Whippoorwill'' to complete the survey and then traveled to Wake Island to complete surveys there.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Thrum's Hawaiian Annual|Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1924]]|chapter=N. W. Pacific Exploration|author=Thos. G. Thrum|year=1923|location=Honolulu, Hawaii|pages=91–94|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4I8LAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA91|access-date=October 18, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929044504/https://books.google.com/books?id=4I8LAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Tents were pitched on the southwest beach of fine white sand, and a thorough biological survey was made. Hundreds of sea birds of a dozen kinds were the principal inhabitants, together with lizards, insects, and hermit crabs. The reefs and shallow water abounded with fish and other marine life.<ref name="Memorieshistory"/>

[[File:Whippoorwill (AT-O--169).jpg|thumb|{{USS|Whippoorwill|AM-35|6}}]]
On June 29, 1926, by {{EO|4467}}, President [[Calvin Coolidge]] established '''Johnston Island Reservation''' as a federal bird refuge and placed it under the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]], as a "refuge and breeding ground for native birds."<ref>{{cite web|title=Johnston Island|website=[[Office of Insular Affairs]]|date=January 11, 2007|url=http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/johnstonpage.htm|access-date=March 4, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314031716/http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/johnstonpage.htm|archive-date=March 14, 2012}}</ref> Johnston Atoll was added to the [[United States National Wildlife Refuge]] system in 1926, and renamed the '''Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge''' in 1940.<ref>{{cite wikisource|author=Franklin D. Roosevelt|author-link1=Franklin D. Roosevelt|title=U.S. Presidential Proclamation 2416 – Changing the Names of Certain Federal Wildlife Refuges|wslink=Proclamation 2416|date=July 25, 1940|publisher=Federal Register}} Published in 5 FR 2677, 54 Stat. 2717.</ref> The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect the tropical ecosystem and the wildlife that it harbors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/publications.aspx?criteria=site&value=JACADS|title=JACADS Publications-U.S. Army's Chemical Materials Activity|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831142602/http://www.cma.army.mil/publications.aspx?criteria=site&value=JACADS|archive-date=August 31, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the Department of Agriculture had no ships, and the [[United States Navy]] was interested in the atoll for strategic reasons, so with {{EO|6935}} on December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed the islands under the "control and jurisdiction of the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] for administrative purposes", but subject to use as a refuge and breeding ground for native birds, under the [[United States Department of the Interior]].

On February 14, 1941, President [[Franklin Roosevelt]] issued {{EO|8682}} to create naval defense areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established the "Johnston Island Naval Defensive Sea Area", encompassing the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Johnston Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Johnston unless authorized by the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]].
[[File:Compiled image of aerial photographs taken of Sand-Johnston island, 1964. (10055259966).jpg|thumb|Aerial photos of Sand island in 1964 for the [[Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program]] ]]
In 1990, two full-time U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel, a Refuge Manager and a biologist, were stationed on Johnston Atoll to handle increased biological, contaminant, and resource conflict activities.<ref name="Baseline"/>
 
After the military mission on the island ended in 2004, the atoll was administered by the [[Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex]]. The outer islets and water rights were managed cooperatively by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with some of the actual Johnston Island land mass remaining under the control of the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) for environmental remediation and the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] (DTRA) for plutonium cleanup purposes. However, on January 6, 2009, under the authority of section 2 of the [[Antiquities Act]], the [[Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument]] was established by President [[George W. Bush]] to administer and protect Johnston Island along with six other Pacific islands.<ref>{{cite web|author=George W. Bush|author-link=George W. Bush|title=Establishment of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument: A Proclamation by the President of the United States of America|website=George W Bush White House|date=January 6, 2009|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2009/01/20090106-6.html|access-date=March 4, 2012|archive-date=November 23, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123163001/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2009/01/20090106-6.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[national monument]] includes Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge within its boundaries and contains {{convert|696|acre|km2}} of land and over {{convert|800000|acre|km2}} of water area.<ref>{{cite web|title=Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|url=http://www.fws.gov/refuges/profiles/index.cfm?id=12515|access-date=March 4, 2012|archive-date=December 6, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206224721/http://www.fws.gov/Refuges/profiles/index.cfm?id=12515|url-status=dead }}</ref> The Administration of President [[Barack Obama]] in 2014 extended the protected area to encompass the entire [[Exclusive Economic Zone]], by banning all commercial fishing activities. Under a 2017 review of all national monuments extended since 1996, then-Secretary of the Interior [[Ryan Zinke]] recommended permitting fishing outside the 12-mile limit.<ref>Eilperin, Juliet; ''Zinke Backs Shrinking More National Monuments and Shifting Management of 10,'' Washington Post, December 5, 2017.</ref>

===Military control 1934–2004===

On December 29, 1934, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] with {{EO|6935}} transferred control of Johnston Atoll to the [[United States Navy]] under the 14th Naval District, Pearl Harbor, to establish an [[Airbase|air station]], and also to the [[United States Department of the Interior]] to administer the bird refuge. In 1948, the USAF assumed control of the atoll.<ref name="U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity">{{cite web |url=http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003673801 |title=JACADS Timeline |publisher=U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414192039/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003673801 |archive-date=April 14, 2012 |access-date=August 14, 2017 }}</ref>
[[File:President Nixon's Visit, Johnston Island, July 23-24, 1969.webm|thumb|left|Video of [[Richard Nixon]]'s visit to Johnston Atoll in 1969]]
During the [[Operation Hardtack I|Operation Hardtack]] nuclear test series from April 22&nbsp;to August 19, 1958, the administration of Johnston Atoll was assigned to the Commander of [[Joint Task Force#Numbered USMCEB joint task forces|Joint Task Force 7]]. After the tests were completed, the island reverted to the command of the US Air Force.<ref name="Nautilus"/>

From 1963 to 1970, the Navy's [[Joint Task Force#Numbered USMCEB joint task forces|Joint Task force 8]] and the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) held joint operational control of the island during high-altitude nuclear testing operations.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

In 1970, operational control was handed back to the Air Force until July 1973, when [[Defense Nuclear Agency|Defense Special Weapons Agency]] was given host-management responsibility by the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]].{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} Over the years, sequential descendant organizations have been the Defense Atomic Support Agency (DASA) from 1959 to 1971, the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency|Defense Nuclear Agency]] (DNA) from 1971 to 1996, and the Defense Special Weapons Agency (DSWA) from 1996 to 1998. In 1998, Defense Special Weapons Agency and selected elements of the Office of Secretary of Defense were combined to form the [[Defense Threat Reduction Agency]] (DTRA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dtra.mil/documents/aboutdtra/DefensesNuclearAgency.pdf |title=Defense's Nuclear Agency, 1947–1997 |publisher=DTRA History Series |year=2002 |access-date=October 9, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611111956/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/aboutdtra/DefensesNuclearAgency.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2011 }}</ref> In 1999, host-management responsibility transferred from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency once again to the Air Force until the Air Force mission ended in 2004 and the base was closed.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

===Sand Island seaplane base===
[[File:Aerial view of Johnston Atoll and Sand Island.jpg|thumb|Aerial approach to the former base on Johnston Island (top). The ship channel is visible as a darker blue area starting at left and continuing up around the right side of Johnston Island, with Sand Island on the near side (bottom).]]

In 1935, personnel from the US Navy's [[Patrol Wing Two]] carried out some minor construction to develop the atoll for seaplane operation. In 1936, the Navy began the first of many changes to enlarge the atoll's land area. They erected some buildings and a boat landing on Sand Island and blasted coral to clear a {{convert|3600|ft}} seaplane landing.<ref name=Bases>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite book|title=Building the Navy's Bases in World War II History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps 1940–1946|publisher=US Government Printing Office|year=1947|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/b/building-the-navys-bases.html|pages=158–159|access-date=May 6, 2019|archive-date=December 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228142150/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/b/building-the-navys-bases.html|url-status=live}}}}</ref> Several seaplanes made flights from Hawaii to Johnston, such as that of a squadron of six aircraft in November 1935.

In November 1939, civilian contractors commenced further work on Sand Island to allow the operation of one squadron of patrol planes with tender support. Part of the lagoon was dredged, and the excavated material was used to make a parking area connected by a {{convert|2000|ft|adj=on}} causeway to Sand Island. Three seaplane landings were cleared, one {{convert|11000|ft}} by {{convert|1000|ft}} and two cross-landings each {{convert|7000|ft}} by {{convert|800|ft}} and dredged to a depth of {{convert|8|ft}}. Sand Island had barracks built for 400 men, a mess hall, an underground hospital, a radio station, water tanks, and a {{convert|100|ft}} steel control tower.<ref name=Bases/> In December 1943 an additional {{convert|10|acre|abbr=off}} of parking was added to the seaplane base.<ref name=Bases/>

On May 26, 1942, a [[United States Navy]] [[Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina]] wrecked at Johnston Atoll. The Catalina pilot made a normal power landing and immediately applied the throttle for take-off. At about 50 knots, the plane swerved to the left and continued into a violent waterloop. The plane's hull was broken open, and the Catalina sank immediately.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19420526-0|title=Aviation Safety Network Accident description 19420526|date=May 26, 1942|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=May 8, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508191133/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19420526-0|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the war, on March 27, 1949, a [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY-6A Catalina]] had to make a forced landing during a flight from [[Kwajalein]] to Johnston Island. The plane was damaged beyond repair, and the crew of 11 was rescued nine hours later by a Navy ship, which sank the plane using gunfire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19490327-0|title=Aviation Safety Network Accident description 19490327|date=March 27, 1949|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=March 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321130531/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19490327-0|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1958, a proposed support agreement for Navy Seaplane operations at Johnston Island was under discussion, though it was never completed because a requirement for the operation failed to materialize.<ref name="Baseline">{{cite web|title=Phase II Environmental Baseline Survey, Johnston Atoll, Appendix B|url=http://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421032235/http://www.guamagentorange.info/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Johnston_Atoll_History.261114404.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 21, 2013|access-date=August 19, 2012}}</ref>

===Airfield===
{{main|Johnston Island Air Force Base}}
[[File:Johnston Atoll 2.jpg|thumb|Map of Johnston Atoll from a 1970 atlas]]
By September 1941, construction of an [[Johnston Island Air Force Base|airfield]] on Johnston Island commenced. A {{convert|4000|by|500|ft|adj=mid}} runway was built with two 400-man barracks, two mess halls, a cold-storage building, an underground hospital, a fresh-water plant, shop buildings, and fuel storage. The runway was complete by December 7, 1941, though in December 1943, the [[Seabee|99th Naval Construction Battalion]] arrived at the atoll and proceeded to lengthen the runway to {{convert|6000|ft|}}.<ref name=Bases/> The runway was lengthened and improved as the island was enlarged.

During [[World War II]], Johnston Atoll was used as a refueling base for submarines and also as an aircraft refueling stop for American bombers transiting the Pacific Ocean, including the [[Boeing B-29]] [[Enola Gay]].<ref name="Polmar2004">{{cite book|author=Norman Polmar|title=The Enola Gay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2WDMKo9DqcC&pg=PA20|year=2004|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59797-506-3|pages=20–|access-date=November 7, 2015|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929044504/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2WDMKo9DqcC&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1944, the atoll was one of the busiest air transport terminals in the Pacific. [[Air Transport Command (United States Air Force)|Air Transport Command]] aeromedical evacuation planes stopped at Johnston en route to Hawaii. Following [[V-J Day]] on August 14, 1945, Johnston Atoll saw the flow of men and aircraft coming from the mainland into the Pacific turn around. By 1947, over 1,300 B-29 and [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator|B-24]] bombers had passed through the [[Marianas]], [[Kwajalein]], Johnston Island, and [[Oahu]] en route to [[Mather Field]] and civilian life.

Following World War II, [[Johnston Atoll Airport]] was used commercially by [[Continental Air Micronesia]], touching down between Honolulu and [[Majuro]]. When the aircraft landed, soldiers surrounded the aircraft, and passengers were not allowed to leave the aircraft. [[Aloha Airlines]] also made weekly scheduled flights to the island carrying civilian and military personnel. In the 1990s, there were flights almost daily. Some days saw up to three arrivals.<ref name="Airfields">{{cite web|url=https://www.airfieldsfreeman.com/HI/Airfields_W_Pacific.htm|title=Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields: Western Pacific Islands|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904085953/http://www.airfields-freeman.com/HI/Airfields_W_Pacific.htm|archive-date=September 4, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Just before movement of the chemical munitions to Johnston Atoll, the Surgeon General, Public Health Service, reviewed the shipment and the Johnston Atoll storage plans. His recommendations caused the Secretary of Defense to issue instructions in December 1970 to suspend missile launches and all non-essential aircraft flights. As a result, Air Micronesia's service was immediately discontinued, and missile firings were terminated, except for two 1975 satellite launches deemed critical to the island's mission.<ref name="Baseline"/>
 
There were many times when the runway was needed for emergency landings for civil and military aircraft. When the runway was decommissioned, it could no longer be a potential emergency landing place when planning flight routes across the Pacific Ocean. As of 2003, the airfield at Johnston Atoll consisted of an unmaintained closed single {{convert|9000|ft}} asphalt/concrete runway 5/23, a parallel taxiway, and a large paved ramp along the southeast side of the runway.<ref name="Airfields"/>

===World War II 1941–1945===
{{main|Shelling of Johnston and Palmyra}} In February 1941, Johnston Atoll was designated a Naval Defensive Sea Area and Airspace Reservation. On the day the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, {{USS|Indianapolis|CA-35|6}} was out of her home port of [[Pearl Harbor]] to make a simulated bombardment at Johnston Island. Japan's strike at Pearl Harbor occurred as the ship was unloading marines, civilians, and stores on the atoll.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ussindianapolis.org/pfinnstory.htm|title=Patrick J. Finneran,(Former) Executive Director USS INDIANAPOLIS CA-35 Survivors Memorial Organization, Inc.|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318003210/http://www.ussindianapolis.org/pfinnstory.htm|archive-date=March 18, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> On December 15, 1941, the atoll was shelled outside the reef by a Japanese submarine, which had been part of the attack on Pearl Harbor eight days earlier. Several buildings, including the power station, were hit, but no personnel were injured.<ref name=Bases/>{{rp|159}} Additional Japanese shelling occurred on December 22 and 23, 1941. On all occasions, Johnston Atoll's coastal artillery returned fire, driving off the sub.

In July 1942, the civilian contractors at the atoll were replaced by 500 men from the [[Seebee|5th and 10th Naval Construction Battalions]], who expanded the fuel storage and water production at the base and built additional facilities. The 5th Battalion departed in January 1943.<ref name=Bases/>{{rp|159}} In December 1943, the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at the atoll. It proceeded to lengthen the runway to {{convert|6000|ft}} and add {{convert|10|acres}} of parking to the seaplane base.<ref name=Bases/>{{rp|160}}

===Coast Guard mission 1957–1992===
{{main|LORAN-C transmitter Johnston Island}}
[[File:Johnston-Atoll-DF-ST-92-02431.JPEG|thumb|Sand Island in 1990 (foreground) with the U.S. Coast Guard LORAN Station.]]
On January 25, 1957, the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of Treasury]] was granted a 5-year permit for the [[United States Coast Guard]] (USCG) to operate and maintain a [[LORAN|Long Range Aid to Navigation]] (LORAN) transmitting station on Johnston Atoll. Two years later, in December 1959, the Secretary of Defense approved the Secretary of the Treasury's request to use Sand Island for U.S. Coast Guard LORAN A and C station sites. The USCG was granted permission to install a LORAN A and C station on Sand Island to be staffed by U.S. Coast Guard personnel through June 30, 1992. The permit for a LORAN station to operate on Johnston Island was terminated in 1962. On November 1, 1957, a new United States Coast Guard [[LORAN#LORAN-A and other systems|LORAN-A]] station was commissioned. By 1958, the Coast Guard LORAN Station at Johnston Island began transmitting on a 24-hour basis, thus establishing a new LORAN rate in the Central Pacific. The new rate between Johnston Island and [[French Frigate Shoals]] gave a higher order of accuracy for fixing positions in the steamship lanes from Oahu, Hawaii, to Midway Island. In the past, this was impossible in some areas along this important shipping route. The original U.S. Coast Guard LORAN-A Station on Johnston Island ceased operations on June 30, 1961, when the new station on nearby Sand Island began transmitting using a larger 180-foot antenna.

The LORAN-C station was disestablished on July 1, 1992, and all Coast Guard personnel, electronic equipment, and property departed that month. Buildings on Sand Island were transferred to other activities. LORAN whip antennas on Johnston and Sand Islands were removed, and the 625-foot LORAN tower and antenna were demolished on December 3, 1992. The LORAN A and C stations and buildings on Sand Island were then dismantled and removed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loran-history.info/Johnston_Island/johnston_island.htm|title=Loran Station Johnson Island|website=www.loran-history.info|access-date=April 14, 2018|archive-date=April 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414172306/http://www.loran-history.info/Johnston_Island/johnston_island.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Jtimeline">{{cite web|url=http://www.johnstonmemories.com/usacap/life/history/jahistory.html|title=History of Johnston Atoll Timeline|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=September 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913051539/http://www.johnstonmemories.com/usacap/life/history/jahistory.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===National nuclear weapon test site 1958–1963===
{{See also|Operation Fishbowl|Operation Dominic|Operation Hardtack I}}

====Successes====
Between 1958 and 1975, Johnston Atoll was used as an American national [[nuclear test]] site for atmospheric and extremely [[high-altitude nuclear explosion]]s in [[outer space]]. In 1958, Johnston Atoll was the location of the two "Hardtack I" nuclear tests firings. One conducted August 1, 1958, was codenamed "[[Hardtack Teak]]", and one conducted August 12, 1958, was codenamed "Orange." Both tests detonated 3.8-[[TNT equivalent|megaton]] [[Thermonuclear weapon|hydrogen bombs]] launched to high altitudes by rockets from Johnston Atoll.

Johnston Island was also used as the launch site of 124 [[sounding rocket]]s going up as high as {{convert|1,158|km|abbr=off|sp=us}}. These carried scientific instruments and [[telemetry]] equipment, either in support of the [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]] tests or in experimental [[antisatellite]] technology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/sites/johsland.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031031091141/http://astronautix.com/sites/johsland.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 31, 2003|title=Astronautix Web site, Johnston Island|access-date=September 17, 2014}}</ref><ref name="AFmuseum">{{cite web|url=http://www.afspacemuseum.org/johnston/|title=Air Force Space and Missile Museum-Johnston Island|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=March 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331011505/http://afspacemuseum.org/johnston/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:fishbowlrockets.jpg|thumb|left|Array of [[sounding rockets]] with instruments for making scientific measurements of high-altitude nuclear tests during liftoff preparations in the Scientific Row area on Johnston Island]]

Eight [[PGM-17 Thor]] missiles deployed by the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] (USAF) were launched from Johnston Island in 1962 as part of "[[Operation Fishbowl]]," a part of "[[Operation Dominic]]" nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific. The first launch in "Operation Fishbowl" was a successful research and development launch with no [[warhead]]. In the end, "Operation Fishbowl" produced four successful high-altitude detonations: "[[Starfish Prime]]," "[[Operation Fishbowl#Checkmate|Checkmate]]," "[[Operation Fishbowl#Bluegill Triple Prime|Bluegill Triple Prime]]," and "[[Operation Fishbowl#Kingfish|Kingfish]]." In addition, it produced one atmospheric nuclear explosion, "[[Operation Fishbowl#Tightrope|Tightrope]]."

On July 9, 1962, "Starfish Prime" had a 1.4-[[TNT equivalent|megaton]] explosion, using a [[W49]] warhead at an altitude of about {{convert|400|km|abbr=off|sp=us}}. It created a very brief fireball visible over a wide area, plus bright artificial auroras visible in Hawaii for several minutes. "Starfish Prime" also produced an [[nuclear electromagnetic pulse|electromagnetic pulse]] that disrupted some [[electric power]] and [[communication system]]s in Hawaii. It pumped enough radiation into the [[Van Allen belts]] to destroy or damage seven [[satellite]]s in orbit.

The final Fishbowl launch that used a Thor missile carried the "Kingfish" 400-kiloton warhead up to its {{convert|98|km|adj=mid|sp=us}} detonation altitude. Although it was officially one of the Operation Fishbowl tests, it is sometimes not listed among high-altitude nuclear tests because of its lower detonation altitude. "Tightrope" was the final test of Operation Fishbowl and detonated on November 3, 1962. It launched on a [[MIM-14 Nike-Hercules|nuclear-armed Nike-Hercules]] missile and was detonated at a lower altitude than the other tests:

"At Johnston Island, there was an intense white flash. Even with high-density goggles, the burst was too bright to view, even for a few seconds. A distinct thermal pulse was felt on bare skin. A yellow-orange disc was formed, and transformed itself into a purple doughnut. A glowing purple cloud was faintly visible for a few minutes."<ref name="dominic247">[[Defense Nuclear Agency]]. [[Operation Dominic]] I 1962. Report DNA 6040F. (First published as an unclassified document on February 1, 1983.) Page 247. {{cite web |url=http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/historical/T24298.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=January 12, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823152154/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/historical/T24298.pdf |archive-date=August 23, 2012  }}</ref> The nuclear yield was reported in most official documents as "less than 20 [[TNT equivalent|kilotons]]." One report by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]] reported the yield of the "Tightrope" test as ten kilotons.<ref name="ada995365">{{cite web|url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA995365&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |title=Operation dominic christmas and fishbowl series: Project Officers report - Project 4.1 |first=R. G. |last=Allen |date=March 30, 1965 |website=www.dtic.mil |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604025647/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA995365&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |archive-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref> Seven sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island in support of the ''Tightrope'' test, and this was the final American nuclear atmospheric test.

====Failures====
[[File:Bluegill Prime Thor Missile Explodes.JPG|thumb|Nuclear-armed Thor missile explodes and burns on the launch pad at Johnston Island during the failed "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test, July 25, 1962]]

The "Fishbowl" series included four failures, all deliberately disrupted by range safety officers when the missiles' systems failed during launch and were aborted. The second launch of the Fishbowl series, "[[Operation Fishbowl#Bluegill|Bluegill]]", carried an active warhead. Bluegill was "lost" by a defective range safety tracking radar and had to be destroyed 10 minutes after liftoff, even though it probably ascended successfully. The subsequent nuclear weapon launch failures from Johnston Atoll caused severe contamination to the island and surrounding areas with [[Weapons-grade nuclear material|weapons-grade]] [[plutonium]] and [[americium]] that remains an issue to this day.

The failure of the "Bluegill" launch created in effect a [[dirty bomb]] but did not release the nuclear warhead's plutonium debris onto Johnston Atoll as the missile fell into the ocean south of the island and was not recovered. However, the "Starfish", "Bluegill Prime", and "Bluegill Double Prime" test launch failures in 1962 scattered radioactive debris over Johnston Island contaminating it, the lagoon, and Sand Island with plutonium for decades.<ref name="Nautilus">{{cite web|url=http://nautilus.org/apsnet/cleaning-up-johnston-atoll/|title="Cleaning up Johnston Atoll", APSNet Special Reports, November 25, 2005|work=Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability|date=November 25, 2005|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=July 19, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719075527/http://nautilus.org/apsnet/cleaning-up-johnston-atoll/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Birds"/>

[[File:Contaminated Johnston Island Launch Emplacement 1, Bluegill Prime, Thor failure, July 25, 1962..jpg|thumb|Johnston Island Launch Emplacement One (LE1) after a Thor missile launch failure and explosion contaminated the island with plutonium during the Operation "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test, July 1962]]

"[[Operation Fishbowl#Starfish|Starfish]]", a high altitude Thor launched nuclear test scheduled for June 20, 1962, was the first to contaminate the atoll. The rocket with the 1.45-megaton Starfish device (W49 warhead and the [[W76|MK-4]] [[Atmospheric entry|re-entry vehicle]]) on its nose was launched that evening, but the Thor missile engine cut out only 59 seconds after launch. The range safety officer sent a destruct signal 65 seconds after launch, and the missile was destroyed at approximately {{convert|10.6|km|abbr=off|sp=us}} altitude—the warhead high explosive detonated in a 1-point safe fashion, destroying the warhead without producing nuclear yield. Large pieces of the plutonium-contaminated missile, including fragments of the warhead, booster rocket, engine, re-entry vehicle, and missile parts, fell back on Johnston Island. More wreckage, along with plutonium contamination, was found on nearby Sand Island.

"[[Operation Fishbowl#Bluegill Prime|Bluegill Prime]]," the second attempt to launch the payload, which failed last time, was scheduled for 23:15 (local) on July 25, 1962. It, too, was a genuine disaster and caused the most severe plutonium contamination on the island. The Thor missile carried one pod, two re-entry vehicles, and the [[W50 (nuclear warhead)|W50]] nuclear warhead. The missile engine malfunctioned immediately after ignition, and the range safety officer fired the destruct system while the missile was still on the launch pad. The Johnston Island launch complex was demolished in the subsequent explosions and fire, which burned through the night. The launch emplacement and portions of the island were contaminated with radioactive plutonium spread by the blast, fire, and wind-blown smoke.

[[File:Dominic Bluegill Prime radiation cleanup.jpg|thumb|left|Inspection of Thor rocket engine remains on Johnston Island after failure of "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test attempt, July 1962]]

Afterward, the Johnston Island launch complex was heavily damaged and contaminated with plutonium. Missile launches and nuclear testing halted until the radioactive debris was dumped, soils were recovered, and the launch emplacement rebuilt. Before tests could resume, three months of repairs, decontamination, and rebuilding of the LE1 and the backup pad LE2 were necessary. To continue with the testing program, U.S. troops were sent in to do a rapid cleanup. The troops scrubbed down the revetments and launch pad, carted away debris, and removed the top layer of coral around the contaminated launch pad. The plutonium-contaminated rubbish was dumped in the lagoon, polluting the surrounding marine environment. Over 550 drums of contaminated material were dumped in the ocean off Johnston from 1964 to 1965. At the time of the Bluegill Prime disaster, a bulldozer and grader scraped the top fill around the launch pad. It was then dumped into the lagoon to make a ramp so the rest of the debris could be loaded onto the landing craft to be dumped into the ocean. An estimated 10 percent of the plutonium from the test device was in the fill used to make the ramp. Then, the ramp was covered and placed into a {{convert|25|acre|m2|abbr=on}} landfill on the island during 1962 dredging to extend the island. The lagoon was again dredged in 1963–1964 and used to expand Johnston Island from {{convert|220|to|625|acre|abbr=on}}, recontaminating additional portions of the island.

[[File:Thor missile at Johnston Island.jpg|thumb|upright|PGM-17 Thor missile at Johnston Island]]
On October 15, 1962, the "[[Operation Fishbowl#Bluegill Double Prime|Bluegill Double Prime]]" test also misfired. During the test, the rocket was destroyed at a height of 109,000 feet after it malfunctioned 90 seconds into the flight. U.S. Defense Department officials confirm that the rocket's destruction contributed to the radioactive pollution on the island.

In 1963, the U.S. Senate ratified the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Limited Test Ban Treaty]], which contained a provision known as "Safeguard C". Safeguard C was the basis for maintaining Johnston Atoll as a "ready to test" above-ground nuclear testing site should atmospheric nuclear testing ever be deemed necessary again. In 1993, Congress appropriated no funds for the Johnston Atoll "Safeguard C" mission, ending it.

===Anti-satellite mission 1962–1975===
{{main|Program 437}}
Program 437 turned the [[PGM-17 Thor]] into an operational anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon system, a capability that was kept top secret even after it was deployed. The Program 437 mission was approved for development by U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] on November 20, 1962, and based at the atoll. Program 437 used modified Thor missiles that had been returned from deployment in Great Britain and was the second deployed U.S. operational nuclear anti-satellite operation. Eighteen more suborbital Thor launches took place from Johnston Island from 1964 to 1975 in support of Program 437. In 1965–1966, four Program 437 Thors were launched with 'Alternate Payloads' for satellite inspection. This was an elaboration of the system to allow visual verification of the target before destroying it. These flights may have been related to the late 1960s Program 922, a non-nuclear version of Thor with infrared homing and a high-explosive warhead. Thors were active near the two Johnston Island launch pads after 1964. However, partly because of the [[Vietnam War]], in October 1970, the Department of Defense transferred Program 437 to standby status as an economic measure. The [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] led to [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] that prohibited 'interference with national means of verification', which meant that ASATs were not allowed, by treaty, to attack Soviet spy satellites. Thors were removed from Johnston Atoll and were stored in mothballed war-reserve condition at [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] from 1970 until the anti-satellite mission of Johnston Island facilities ceased on August 10, 1974. The program was officially discontinued on April 1, 1975, when any possibility of restoring the ASAT program was finally terminated. Eighteen Thor launches in support of the Program 437 Alternate Payload (AP) mission took place from Johnston Atoll's Launch emplacements.<ref name="AFmuseum"/>
Two Thor missiles were launched from the Island in late 1975, months after the "officially discontinued" date.

===Baker–Nunn satellite tracking camera station===
{{see also|Project Space Track|United States Space Surveillance Network}}
The [[Space Detection and Tracking System]] or SPADATS<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/norad-chron.htm |title=NORAD Selected Chronology |website=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=August 3, 2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305074340/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/norad-chron.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> was operated by [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] ([[NORAD]]) along with the [[Project Space Track|U.S. Air Force Spacetrack system]], The [[Air Force Space Surveillance System#History|Navy Space Surveillance System]] and [[Canadian Forces Air Defence Command#History|Canadian Forces Air Defense Command]] [[RCAF Station St. Margarets#CFB Chatham, St. Margarets Detachment|Satellite Tracking Unit]]. The [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory]] also operated a dozen 3.5 ton [[Baker-Nunn camera#Baker-Nunn|Baker-Nunn Camera]] systems (none at Johnston) for cataloging of artificial satellites. The U.S. Air Force had ten Baker-Nunn camera stations worldwide, mostly from 1960 to 1977, with a phase-out beginning in 1964.<ref name="Peebles1997">{{cite book|author=Curtis Peebles|title=High Frontier: The U.S. Air Force and the Military Space Program|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cMgdYypcPc8C&pg=PA39|date=June 1, 1997|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-0-7881-4800-2|pages=39–|access-date=November 7, 2015|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929044504/https://books.google.com/books?id=cMgdYypcPc8C&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Baker-Nunn space camera station was constructed on Sand Island. It was functioning by 1965.<ref name="Baseline"/> [[18th Space Control Squadron|USAF 18th Surveillance Squadron]] operated the Baker-Nunn camera at a station built along the causeway on Sand Island until 1975 when a contract to operate the four remaining Air Force stations was awarded to [[Bendix Corporation|Bendix Field Engineering Corporation]]. In about 1977, the camera at Sand Island was moved to [[Daegu]], [[South Korea]].<ref name="Memorieshistory"/> Baker-Nunn were rendered obsolete with the Initial Operational Capability of 3 GEODSS optical tracking sites at Daegu, Korea; [[Haleakalā|Mount Haleakala]], Maui and [[White Sands Missile Range]]. A fourth site was operational in 1985 at [[Diego Garcia]], and a proposed fifth site in Portugal was canceled. The Daegu, Korea site was closed due to encroaching city lights. GEODSS tracked satellites at night, though the [[MIT Lincoln Laboratory]] test site, co-located with Site 1 at White Sands, did track asteroids in the daytime as proof of concept in the early 1980s.<ref name="Peebles1997"/>

===Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center===
{{see also|SAMOS (satellite)|Mid-air retrieval}}

[[File:KH film recovery.jpg|thumb|left|A USAF [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|JC-130]] aircraft retrieving a SAMOS film capsule]]

[[Samos (satellite)|Satellite and Missile Observation System Project]] (SAMOS-E) or "E-6" was a relatively short-lived series of [[United States]] visual [[spy satellite|reconnaissance satellites]] in the early 1960s. SAMOS was also known by the unclassified terms Program 101 and Program 201.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planet4589.org/space/book/programs/nro/usafnro/samos.html|title=The history of spaceflight: SAMOS|publisher=Planet4589.org|author=Jonathan McDowell|access-date=June 9, 2007|archive-date=February 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215214946/http://www.planet4589.org/space/book/programs/nro/usafnro/samos.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Air Force program was used as a cover for the initial development of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s [[Key Hole]] (including [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]] and [[KH-7 Gambit|Gambit]]) reconnaissance satellites systems.<ref name="SAMOS_Program">{{cite web|url=http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/GAMHEX/GAMBIT%20and%20HEXAGON%20Histories/2.PDF|title=Development of the GAMBIT and HEXAGON Satellite Reconnaissance Systems|publisher=National Reconnaissance Office|year=1997|author=Gerald K. Haines|access-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713055616/http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/GAMHEX/GAMBIT%20and%20HEXAGON%20Histories/2.PDF|archive-date=July 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Imaging was performed with film cameras and television surveillance from polar [[low Earth orbit]]s with film canisters returning via capsule and parachute with [[mid-air retrieval]]. SAMOS was first launched in 1960 but not operational until 1963, with all of the missions being launched from Vandenberg AFB.<ref name="Yenne">{{cite book|last=Yenne |first= Bill|title=''The Encyclopedia of US Spacecraft''|publisher=Exeter Books (A Bison Book), New York|year=1985|isbn=0-671-07580-2}}p.130 SAMOS</ref>

[[File:Corona recovery sequence.PNG|thumb|Corona film capsule recovery sequence. Credit: CIA Directorate of Science and Technology]]
During the early months of the SAMOS program, it was essential not only to hide the Corona and GAMBIT technical efforts under a screen of SAMOS activity but also to make the orbital vehicle portions of the two systems resemble one another in outward appearance. Thus, some of the configuration details of SAMOS were decided less by engineering logic than by the need to camouflage GAMBIT. Hence, theoretically, a GAMBIT could be launched without alerting many people to its real nature.
Problems relative to tracking networks, communications, and recovery were resolved with the decision in late February 1961 to use Johnston Island as the program's film capsule descent and recovery zone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/mapping1.pdf|title=HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution|publisher=[[National Reconnaissance Office]]|access-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202044155/http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/mapping1.pdf|archive-date=December 2, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
On July 10, 1961, work was initiated on four buildings of the Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center for the [[National Reconnaissance Office]]. Men from the Johnston Atoll facility would recover the parachuting film canister capsules with a radar-equipped [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|JC-130]] aircraft by capturing them in the air with a specialized recovery apparatus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/WS117L_Records/268.PDF|title=HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY 1 July 1961 – 31 December 1961 Weapon System 117L|publisher=[[National Reconnaissance Office]]|website=nro.gov|access-date=April 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525211238/http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/WS117L_Records/268.PDF|archive-date=May 25, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The recovery center was also responsible for collecting the radioactive scientific data pods dropped from missiles following launch and [[nuclear detonation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fFYmcwNr_hs| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/fFYmcwNr_hs| archive-date=December 11, 2021 | url-status=live|title=Declassified U.S. Nuclear Test Film #65|work=YouTube| date=October 2, 2007|access-date=September 17, 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
{{clear left}}

===Biological warfare test site 1965–1968===
{{See also|Project SHAD|Project 112|Deseret Test Center}}
The atoll was subject to large-scale bioweapons testing over four years starting in 1965. The American strategic tests of bioweapons were as expensive and elaborate as the tests of the first hydrogen bombs at [[Eniwetok Atoll]]. They involved enough ships to have made the world's fifth-largest independent navy. One experiment involved several barges with hundreds of [[rhesus monkeys]]. It is estimated that one jet with bioweapon spray "would probably be more efficient at causing human deaths than a ten-megaton hydrogen bomb."<ref name="rpbio">{{cite magazine |last1=Preston |first1=Richard |title=The Bioeweaponeers |pages=52–65 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=March 9, 1998}}</ref>

In the lead-up to biological warfare testing in the Pacific under [[Project 112]] and [[Project SHAD]], a new virus was discovered during the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program by teams from the Smithsonian's Division of Birds aboard a [[United States Army]] [[tugboat]] involved in the program. Initially, the effort's name was the Pacific Ocean Ornithological Project; however, it was changed once someone noted the natural acronym "POOP".<ref name="Regis2000">{{cite book|author=Ed Regis|title=The Biology of Doom: America's Secret Germ Warfare Project|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HWQ1uzybFwC&pg=PA41|date=October 1, 2000|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|isbn=978-0-8050-5765-2|page=188|access-date=November 7, 2015|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929044505/https://books.google.com/books?id=8HWQ1uzybFwC&pg=PA41|url-status=live}}</ref> First isolated in 1964 the [[tick]]-borne virus was discovered in ''Ornithodoros capensis'' ticks, found in a nest of [[common noddy]] (''Anous stolidus'') at Sand Island, Johnston Atoll. It was designated [[Johnston Atoll virus|Johnston Atoll Virus]] and is related to influenza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Johnston Atoll Virus|url=http://influenza-news.blogspot.com/2014/01/johnston-atoll-virus.html|access-date=April 24, 2014|archive-date=April 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424172911/http://influenza-news.blogspot.com/2014/01/johnston-atoll-virus.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February, March, and April 1965, Johnston Atoll was used to launch biological attacks against U.S. Army and Navy vessels {{convert|100|mi}} south-west of Johnston island in vulnerability, defense, and decontamination tests conducted by the [[Deseret Test Center]] during Project SHAD under Project 112. Test DTC 64-4 (Deseret Test Center) was initially called "RED BEVA" (Biological EVAluation), though the name was later changed to "Shady Grove", likely for operational security reasons. The biological agents released during this test included ''[[Francisella tularensis]]'' (formerly called ''Pasteurella tularensis'') (Agent UL), the causative agent of [[tularemia]]; ''[[Coxiella burnetii]]'' (Agent OU), the causative agent of [[Q fever]]; and ''[[Bacillus globigii]]'' (Agent BG).<ref name="Shady">{{Cite web |url=http://mcm.fhpr.osd.mil/Libraries/CBexposuresDocs/shady_grove_revised.sflb.ashx |title=Deseret Test Center, Project SHAD, Shady Grove revised fact sheet |access-date=December 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225185512/http://mcm.fhpr.osd.mil/Libraries/CBexposuresDocs/shady_grove_revised.sflb.ashx |archive-date=December 25, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> During Project SHAD, ''Bacillus globigii'' was used to simulate biological warfare agents (such as [[anthrax]]), because it was then considered a contaminant with little health consequence to humans; however, it is now considered a human pathogen.<ref name=napshad>{{Cite report |author=The National Academies |author2=The Center for Research Information, Inc. |date=2004 |title=Health Effects of Project Shad Biological Agent: Bacillus globigii, (Bacillus licheniformis), (Bacillus subtilis var. niger), (Bacillus atrophaeus) |url=http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2007/Long-Term-Health-Effects-of-Participation-in-Project-SHAD-Shipboard-Hazard-and-Defense/BACILLUSGLOBIGII.pdf |publisher=Prepared for the National Academies |docket=Contract No. IOM-2794-04-001 |access-date=January 14, 2014 }}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ships equipped with the E-2 multi-head disseminator and [[Douglas A-4|A-4C aircraft]] equipped with Aero 14B spray tanks released live pathogenic agents in nine aerial and four surface trials in phase B of the test series from February 12 to March 15, 1965, and in four aerial trials in phase D of the test series from March 22 to April 3, 1965.<ref name="Shady"/>

According to Project SHAD veteran Jack Alderson, who commanded the Army tugs, area three at Johnston Atoll was located at the most downwind part of the island and consisted of a collapsible [[Nissen hut]] for weapons preparation and some communications.<ref name=alderson>[http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Veterans/SHADII/Alderson%20Comments%20for%20Presentation.pdf Notes for Project SHAD presentation by Jack Alderson given to Institute of Medicine on April 19, 2012 for SHAD II study] {{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Chemical weapon storage 1971–2001===

In 1970, Congress redefined the island's military mission as the storage and destruction of chemical weapons. The [[United States Army]] leased {{convert|41|acres|0|abbr=on}} on the atoll to store chemical weapons held in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], Japan. Johnston Atoll became a chemical weapons storage site in 1971, holding about 6.6 percent of the U.S. military [[chemical weapon]] arsenal.<ref name="Birds">{{cite news|title=The Army's disarming site Johnston Atoll once again soon will be strictly for the birds|first=Gregg K.|last=Kakesako|url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/98/05/22/news/story2.html|access-date=June 26, 2012|work=[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]|archive-date=March 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320121037/http://archives.starbulletin.com/98/05/22/news/story2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The chemical weapons were brought from Okinawa under [[Operation Red Hat]] with the re-deployment of the [[267th Chemical Company]]. They consisted of rockets, mines, artillery projectiles, and bulk 1-ton containers filled with [[Sarin]], [[VX (nerve agent)|Agent VX]], vomiting agent, and blister agent such as [[Sulfur mustard|mustard gas]]. Chemical weapons from [[West Germany]] and World War II era weapons from the [[Solomon Islands]] were also stored on the island after 1990.<ref name="cma.army.mil">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003674797 |title=A Success Story, JACADS -U.S. Army's Chemical Materials Activity |access-date=August 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915144606/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?DocID=003674797 |archive-date=September 15, 2012 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Chemical agents were stored in the high-security Red Hat Storage Area (RHSA) which included hardened igloos in the [[weapon storage area]], the Red Hat building (#850), two Red Hat [[hazardous waste]] warehouses (#851 and #852), an open storage area, and security entrances and guard towers.

Some of the other weapons stored at the site were shipped from U.S. stockpiles in West Germany in 1990. These shipments followed a 1986 agreement between the U.S. and West Germany to move the munitions.<ref name="Broadus">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6t8cDhn0_MC&q=%23+Johnston+Atoll+Chemical+Agent+Disposal+System&pg=PA103|title=''The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared U.S. and Russian Perspectives''|isbn=9781559632355|access-date=September 17, 2014|last1=Broadus|first1=James|last2=Vartanov|first2=Rafaėlʹ Vramovich|last3=Vartanov|first3=Raphael V.|date=November 1994|publisher=Island Press|archive-date=September 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929044505/https://books.google.com/books?id=X6t8cDhn0_MC&q=#+Johnston+Atoll+Chemical+Agent+Disposal+System&pg=PA103|url-status=live}}</ref> Merchant ships carrying the munitions left West Germany under [[Operation Steel Box|Operation Golden Python]] and [[Operation Steel Box]] in October 1990 and arrived at Johnston Island November 6, 1990. Although the ships were unloaded within nine days, the unpacking and storing of munitions continued into 1991.<ref name=Memories>{{cite web| title=267th Unit History via Johnston Island Memories website| url=http://www.johnstonmemories.com/usarmy.htm| access-date=September 9, 2012| archive-date=August 29, 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829203333/http://www.johnstonmemories.com/usarmy.htm| url-status=dead}}{self}</ref> The remainder of the chemical weapons was a small number of World War II era weapons shipped from the Solomon Islands.<ref name="Success">{{cite web|title=A Success Story: Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System|url=http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003674797|access-date=August 11, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915144606/http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?DocID=003674797|archive-date=September 15, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Agent Orange storage 1972–1977===
[[File:Leaking Agent Orange Barrels at Johnston Atoll.jpg|thumb|Leaking [[Agent Orange]] Barrels in storage at Johnston Atoll, circa 1973]]
{{See also|Operation Pacer IVY|Agent Orange#Johnston Atoll}}
[[Agent Orange]] was brought to Johnston Atoll from [[South Vietnam]] and [[Gulfport, Mississippi]] in 1972 under [[Operation Pacer IVY]]. It was stored on the northwest corner of the island known as the Herbicide Orange Storage site, dubbed the "Agent Orange Yard". The Agent Orange was eventually destroyed during [[Operation Pacer HO]] on the Dutch incineration ship [[MT Vulcanus|MT ''Vulcanus'']] in the Summer of 1977.<ref name="Guam" /> The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) reported that 1,800,000 gallons of Herbicide Orange were stored at Johnston Atoll and that an additional 480,000 gallons stored at Gulfport, Mississippi, was brought to Johnston Atoll for destruction.<ref name=Sierra>{{cite web |url=http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/910096MY.PDF |title=Final report of the Federal Task Force for Hazardous Materials Management of the Western Federal Regional Council Region IX, August 1, 1973 to June 30, 1977 |last1=Bourns |first1=Charles T. |date=March 1, 1978 |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=February 16, 2013 |archive-date=January 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110002238/http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/910096MY.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> Leaking barrels during storage, and spills during re-drumming operations, contaminated both the storage area and the lagoon with herbicide residue and its toxic contaminant [[2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin]].<ref name="Young-agent-orange">{{cite book|last1=Young|first1=Alvin Lee|title=The History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange|date=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-87486-9|url=https://www.springer.com/br/book/9780387874852|access-date=September 2, 2017|archive-date=November 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110225450/https://www.springer.com/br/book/9780387874852|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK195087/|title=Exposure to the Herbicides Used in Vietnam|first1=Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides (Ninth Biennial|last1=Update)|first2=Board on the Health of Select|last2=Populations|first3=Institute of|last3=Medicine|date=March 6, 2014|publisher=National Academies Press (US)|access-date=April 14, 2018|via=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308103209/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK195087/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Chemical weapon demilitarization mission 1990–2000===
[[File:JACADS prior to demolition.jpg|thumb|left|Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) building]]
{{main|JACADS}}
The Army's [[Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System]] (JACADS) was the first full-scale chemical weapons disposal facility. Built to incinerate chemical munitions on the island, planning started in 1981, construction began in 1985, and it was completed five years later. Following construction and facility characterization, JACADS began operational verification testing (OVT) in June 1990. From 1990 until 1993, the Army conducted four planned periods of Operational Verification Testing (OVT), required by Public Law 100–456. OVT was completed in March 1993, demonstrating that the reverse assembly incineration technology was adequate and that JACADS operations met all environmental parameters. The transition to full-scale operations started in May 1993, but the facility did not begin full-scale operations until August 1993.

All of the chemical weapons once stored on Johnston Island were demilitarized, and the agents incinerated at JACADS, with the process completed in the year 2000. Later, the destruction of legacy hazardous waste material associated with chemical weapon storage and cleanup was completed. JACADS was demolished by 2003, and the island was stripped of its remaining infrastructure and environmentally remediated.<ref name="cma.army.mil"/>
{{Clear}}

===Closure and remaining structures===
[[File:ISS012-E-17436 - View of the Johnston Atoll.jpg|thumb|Johnston Atoll as seen from the ISS in 2006. (South is up in this image)]]
<!-- [[File:Flag of Johnston Atoll (local).svg|thumb|The unofficial flag of Johnston Atoll, designed by Cheryl Velk, was chosen in a contest among the island's residents organized by the Air Force in 2000. The double bird holding four stars represents the Air Force and the Fish and Wildlife Service, while the four stars denote the atoll's islands; the white is for coral, and the blue represents the surrounding ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klimeš|first=Roman|date=March 2011|title=Lesser-Known Symbols of Minor U.S. Possessions|url=https://nava.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/NAVANews_2011_no209.pdf|journal=NAVA News|volume=209|access-date=March 14, 2021|archive-date=June 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606112859/https://nava.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/NAVANews_2011_no209.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] File was deleted from Wikimedia Commons - November 29, 2023   -->
In 2003, structures and facilities, including those used in JACADS, were removed, and the runway was marked closed. The last flight out for official personnel was June 15, 2004. After this date, the base was completely deserted, with the only structures left standing being the Joint Operations Center (JOC) building at the east end of the runway, chemical bunkers in the weapon storage area, and at least one [[Quonset hut]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mark in the Pacific – The Last Day|url=http://home.earthlink.net/~markinthepacific/id5.html|access-date=April 7, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816133756/http://home.earthlink.net/~markinthepacific/id5.html|archive-date=August 16, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Built in 1964, the JOC is a four-floor concrete and steel administration building for the island that has no windows and was built to withstand a [[Saffir–Simpson scale|category IV]] [[tropical cyclone]] as well as atmospheric nuclear tests. The building remains standing but was gutted entirely in 2004 during an [[asbestos abatement]] project. All doors of the JOC except one have been welded shut. The ground floor has a side building attached that serves as a facility for decontamination. It contains three long snaking corridors and 55 shower heads one could walk through during decontamination.<ref name="Hurricane"/>

Rows of bunkers in the Red Hat Storage Area remain intact; however, an agreement was established between the U.S. Army and EPA Region IX on August 21, 2003, that the Munitions Demilitarization Building (MDB) at JACADS would be demolished and the bunkers in the RHSA used for disposal of construction rubble and debris. After placement of the debris inside the bunkers, they were secured, and the entries were blocked with a concrete block barrier (a.k.a. King Tut Block) to prevent access to the bunker interior.<ref name="Baseline"/>

===Contamination and cleanup===

Over the years, leaks of Agent Orange, as well as chemical weapon leaks in the weapon storage area, occurred where caustic chemicals such as [[sodium hydroxide]] were used to mitigate toxic agents during cleanup. Larger spills of nerve and mustard agents within the MCD at JACADS also took place. The EPA cited small releases of chemical weapon components from JACADS. Multiple studies of the Johnston Atoll environment and ecology have been conducted, and the atoll is likely the most studied island in the Pacific.<ref name="Baseline"/>

Studies at the atoll on the effect of [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] contamination in reef [[damselfish]] (''Abudefduf sordidus'') demonstrated that [[embryo]]nic abnormalities could be used as a metric for comparing contaminated and uncontaminated areas.<ref name=Lobel2011>{{cite journal |last=Lobel |first= Lisa K |title=Toxic Caviar: Using Fish Embryos to Monitor Contaminant Impacts |journal=In: Pollock NW, ed. Diving for Science 2011. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences 30th Symposium. Dauphin Island, AL: AAUS |year=2011 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10137 |access-date=March 8, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531002202/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/10137 |archive-date=May 31, 2013 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Some PCB contamination in the lagoon was traced to Coast Guard disposal practices of [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]]-laden [[electrical transformer]]s.

In 1962, plutonium pollution following three failed nuclear missile launches was heaviest near the destroyed launch emplacement, in the lagoon offshore of the launch pad, and near Sand Island. The contaminated launch site was stripped, and the debris gathered and buried in the island's 1962 expansion. A comprehensive radiological survey was completed in 1980 to record transuranic contamination from the 1962 THOR missile aborts. The Air Force also initiated research on methods to remove dioxin contamination from soil resulting from leakage of the stored herbicide Agent Orange.<ref name="Baseline"/> Since then, U.S. defense authorities have surveyed the island in a series of studies.

Contaminated structures were dismantled and isolated within the former Thor Launch Emplacement No. 1 (LE-1) as a start for the cleanup program. About 45,000 tons of soil contaminated with radioactive isotopes was collected and placed into a fenced area covering {{convert|24|acres|abbr=on}} on the island's north. The area was known as the Radiological Control Area and heavily contaminated with highly radioactive Plutonium.<ref name="Nautilus"/><ref>{{cite news |last= TenBruggencate |first=Jan |date=March 3, 2002 |title=Feds want to bury Johnston Island's radioactive matter |url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2002/Mar/03/ln/ln12a.html|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406031628/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2002/Mar/03/ln/ln12a.html |archive-date=April 6, 2005 |access-date=January 9, 2014 }}</ref> The Pluto Yard is on the site of the LE1 where the 1962 missile explosion occurred, and also where a highly contaminated loading ramp was buried that was made for loading plutonium contaminated debris onto small boats that was dumped at sea. Remediation included a plutonium "mining" operation called the Johnston Atoll Plutonium Contaminated Soil Cleanup Project. The collected radioactive soil and other debris were buried in a landfill created within the former LE-1 area from June 2002 through November 11, 2002. Remediation at the Radiation Control Area included the construction of a 61-centimeter-thick cap of coral sealing the landfill. Permanent markers were placed at each corner of the landfill to identify the landfill area.<ref name="Baseline"/>

===After closing===
[[File:Sooty terns on flight at Johnston Atoll NWR.jpg|thumb|Sooty terns in flight, 2019]]
[[File:A dog sniffs for invasive crazy ants at Johnston Atoll Refuge.png|thumb|Dog searches for crazy ants, 2021]]
The atoll was placed up for auction via the U.S. [[General Services Administration]] (GSA) in 2005 before it was withdrawn. The stripped Johnston Island was briefly offered for sale with several deed restrictions in 2005 as a "residence or vacation getaway," with potential usage for "eco-tourism" by the GSA's Office of Real Property Utilization and Disposal. The proposed sale included the unique postal zip code 96558, formerly assigned to the Armed Forces in the Pacific. The proposed sale did not include running water, electricity, or activation of the closed runway. The details of the offering were outlined on GSA's website and in a newsletter of the Center for Land Use Interpretation as unusual real estate listing # 6384, Johnston Island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://great-hikes.com/blog/island-for-sale/|title=A Kaua'i Blog-Island for sale|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-date=January 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109052525/http://great-hikes.com/blog/island-for-sale/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://clui.org/clui_4_1/lotl/v29/o.html |title=Unusual Real Estate Listing # 6384-Johnston Island |access-date=September 17, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629010219/http://clui.org/clui_4_1/lotl/v29/o.html |archive-date=June 29, 2006 }}</ref>

On August 22, 2006, Johnston Island was struck by [[Hurricane Ioke]]. The eastern eye-wall passed directly over the atoll, with winds exceeding {{convert|100|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}. Twelve people were on the island when the hurricane struck, and part of a crew was sent to deliver a USAF contractor who sampled groundwater contamination levels. All 12 survived, and one wrote a first-hand account of taking shelter from the storm in the JOC building.<ref name="Hurricane">{{cite web|title=Hurricane Island|url=http://www.travelbughawaii.com/Ioke.htm|access-date=April 7, 2012|archive-date=March 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030333/http://www.travelbughawaii.com/Ioke.htm|url-status=live}}{{self-published source|date=October 2023}}</ref>

On December 9, 2007, the United States Coast Guard swept the runway at Johnston Island of debris and used the runway in the removal and rescue of an ill Taiwanese fisherman to [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]]. The fisherman was transferred from the Taiwanese fishing vessel ''Sheng Yi Tsai No. 166'' to the Coast Guard buoy tender ''Kukui'' on December 6, 2007. The fisherman was transported to the island, and then picked up by a Coast Guard [[HC-130 Hercules]] rescue plane from [[Kodiak, Alaska]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uscghawaii.com/go/doc/800/185575|title=Coast Guard Successful on Risky Medevac from Johnston Island|access-date=September 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717175222/http://www.uscghawaii.com/go/doc/800/185575|archive-date=July 17, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the base was closed, the atoll has been visited by many vessels crossing the Pacific, as the deserted atoll has a strong lure due to the activities once performed there. Visitors have blogged about stopping there during a trip or have posted photos of their visits.<ref>{{cite web|title=Blog Post from SV Sand Dollar|url=http://www.tripsailor.com/sailing-blogs/2259-blog-honolulu-to-marshall-islands/posts/10364-day-7|access-date=April 7, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308023215/http://www.tripsailor.com/sailing-blogs/2259-blog-honolulu-to-marshall-islands/posts/10364-day-7|archive-date=March 8, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2010, a Fish and Wildlife survey team identified a swarm of ''[[Anoplolepis]]'' ants that had invaded the Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. The [[Yellow crazy ant|crazy ant]]s threatened vital seabird colonies and needed eradication.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 27, 2020|title=Biological Volunteers Needed - Johnston Atoll|url=https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Johnston_Atoll/what_we_do/get_involved/CAST.html|access-date=June 25, 2021|website=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|archive-date=June 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616052107/https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Johnston_Atoll/what_we_do/get_involved/CAST.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The "Crazy Ant Strike Team" project was led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who achieved a 99% reduction in ant numbers by 2013. The team camped in a bunker previously used as a fallout shelter and office.<ref name="Fish And Wildlife Service">{{cite web |title=Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Volunteer Powerpoint |publisher=Fish And Wildlife Service |url=http://www.jobmann.com/amanda/photos/VolunteerPowerpoint.pdf |access-date=April 7, 2012 |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117042524/http://www.jobmann.com/amanda/photos/VolunteerPowerpoint.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Yellow Crazy Ant Eradication, Johnston Atoll Update, May 2011|url=http://americaswildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Poster-23.pdf|publisher=Project Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=April 7, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617185514/http://americaswildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Poster-23.pdf|archive-date=June 17, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Full eradication of the species from the atoll was achieved in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Yamamoto|first=Kacie|date=June 24, 2021|title=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service eradicates yellow crazy ants from seabird wildlife refuge|url=https://news.yahoo.com/u-fish-wildlife-eradicates-yellow-161200600.html|access-date=June 25, 2021|work=The Honolulu Star-Advertiser|via=Yahoo News|language=en-US|archive-date=June 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625130939/https://news.yahoo.com/u-fish-wildlife-eradicates-yellow-161200600.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2025, it was announced as a planned location for the Air Force Research Laboratory to test delivering cargo by reusable rocket under the Air Force's Rocket Cargo program. The program's intent is to support the delivery of military cargo anywhere in the world within hours. The Air Force will build two landing pads supporting up to ten reentry vehicle landings per year over a four year period. This testing phase is designed to demonstrate and evaluate the capabilities of the program.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Erwin |first=Sandra |date=2025-03-02 |title=Air Force selects Pacific landing sites to test space cargo deliveries |url=https://spacenews.com/air-force-selects-pacific-landing-sites-to-test-space-cargo-deliveries/ |access-date=2025-03-03 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>



==Demographics==
{{Historical populations
|type = USA
|1970|1007
|1980|327
|1990|173
|2000|1100
|2004|396
|2005|361
|2006|40
|2020|10|}}

Johnston Atoll has never had any indigenous inhabitants. However, during the late part of the 20th century, averages of about 300 American military personnel and 1,000 civilian contractors were present at any given time.<ref name="factbook"/> Today, it is uninhabited except for a handful of workers with the Crazy Ant Strike Team project, who live on the island for six months at a time with little outside contact.<ref name="Audubon-2015" />

The primary means of transportation to this island was the airport, which had a paved military runway, or by ship via a pier and ship channel through the atoll's coral reef system. The islands were wired with 13 outgoing and 10 incoming commercial telephone lines, a 60-channel submarine cable, 22 DSN circuits by satellite, an [[Autodin]] with standard remote terminal, a digital telephone switch, the [[Military Auxiliary Radio System|Military Affiliated Radio System]] (MARS station), a UHF/VHF air-ground radio, and a link to the Pacific Consolidated Telecommunications Network (PCTN) satellite. [[Amateur radio]] operators occasionally transmitted from the island, using the KH3 [[Call sign|call-sign]] prefix.<ref name="Memorieshistory"/> The United States Undersea Cable Corporation was awarded contracts to lay underwater cables in the Pacific. A cable called "Wet Wash C" was laid in 1966 between Makua, Hawaii, and the Johnston Island Air Force Base. {{USNS|Neptune|ARC-2|6}} surveyed the route and laid {{convert|769|nmi|}} of cable and 45 repeaters. The Simplex Wire and Cable Company manufactured these cables, with the repeaters being supplied by Felten and Guilleaume. In 1993, a satellite communication ground station was added to augment the atoll's communications capability.

Johnston Atoll's economic activity was limited to providing services to American military and contractor personnel on the island. The island was regularly resupplied by ship or barge, and all foodstuffs and manufactured goods were imported. The base had six 2.5-megawatt electrical generators using diesel engines. The runway was also available to commercial airlines for emergency landings (a fairly common event). It was a regular stop on Continental Micronesia airline's "island hopper" service for many years between Hawaii and the Marshall Islands.

There were no official license plates issued for use on Johnston Atoll. U.S. government vehicles were issued U.S. government license plates, and private vehicles retained the plates from which they were registered. According to reputable license plate collectors, some Johnston Atoll license plates were created as souvenirs and have even been sold [[Online and offline|online]] to collectors, but they were not officially issued.<ref>[http://www.worldlicenseplates.com/world/PA_JOHN.html World License Plates: License Plates of Johnston Atoll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061223163206/http://www.worldlicenseplates.com/world/PA_JOHN.html |date=December 23, 2006 }} (Accessed July 25, 2009)</ref><ref>[http://www.plateshack.com/y2k/Johnston_Atoll/johnatolly2k.html Plateshack.com: Johnston Atoll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021121250/http://www.plateshack.com/y2k/Johnston_Atoll/johnatolly2k.html |date=October 21, 2006 }} (Accessed July 25, 2009)</ref>

==Areas==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;margin: 1em auto;"
! Site
! Location
! Alternative name
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.723704&lon=-169.537829&z=17&m=b&show=/24826997/Red-Hat-Storage-Area Red Hat Storage Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.723704&lon=-169.537829&z=17&m=b&show=/24826997/Red-Hat-Storage-Area |date=January 29, 2015 }}  
|{{Coord|16.7234 |N| 169.5393 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Red Hat Storage Area}}
|"Red Hat Area"
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.730865&lon=-169.535866&z=17&m=b&show=/5189398/-The-Pluto-Yard- Radiological Control Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.730865&lon=-169.535866&z=17&m=b&show=/5189398/-The-Pluto-Yard- |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord| 16.7303 |N| 169.5371 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Radiological Control Area}} 
|"Pluto' Yard" (Plutonium Yard)
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.727125&lon=-169.545672&z=17&m=b&show=/23043805/Agent-Orange-Yard-(site) Site Herbicide Orange Storage Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.727125&lon=-169.545672&z=17&m=b&show=/23043805/Agent-Orange-Yard-(site) |date=January 29, 2015 }} 
|{{Coord|  16.7304|N| 169.5359 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Herbicide Orange Storage Site}}
|Agent Orange Yard
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.735633&lon=-169.522938&z=17&m=b&show=/10029566/Joint-Operations-Center-Building Joint Operations Center building] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.735633&lon=-169.522938&z=17&m=b&show=/10029566/Joint-Operations-Center-Building |date=January 29, 2015 }} (JOC)
|{{Coord|16.7355 |N|169.5233|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Joint Operations Center building}}
|JOC
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.724927&lon=-169.538312&z=16&m=b&show=/24829501/Scientific-Row Scientific Row] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.724927&lon=-169.538312&z=16&m=b&show=/24829501/Scientific-Row |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord| 16.7246 |N| 169.5399 |W|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Scientific Row}}
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.729571&lon=-169.530244&z=16&m=b&show=/21717568/Runway-5-23-(closed) Runway 5/23 (closed)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.729571&lon=-169.530244&z=16&m=b&show=/21717568/Runway-5-23-(closed) |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord| 16.7271|N| 169.5384|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Runway 5/23 (closed)}}
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.736044&lon=-169.527969&z=16&m=b&show=/24821805/Navy-Pier Navy Pier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.736044&lon=-169.527969&z=16&m=b&show=/24821805/Navy-Pier |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord| 16.7359 |N| 169.5279 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Navy Pier}} 
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.734051&lon=-169.530598&z=17&m=b&show=/24826981/Wharf-Area-Demilitarization-Zone-L Wharf Area and Demilitarization Zone L] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.734051&lon=-169.530598&z=17&m=b&show=/24826981/Wharf-Area-Demilitarization-Zone-L |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord|16.7342 |N|169.5310|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Wharf Area and Demilitarization Zone L}} 
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.730413&lon=-169.522176&z=16&m=b&show=/24829512/Hama-Point Hama Point] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.730413&lon=-169.522176&z=16&m=b&show=/24829512/Hama-Point |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord|16.7304 |N|169.5212|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Hama Point}}
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.725291&lon=-169.536574&z=19&m=b&show=/24829521/Bunkers Bunker buildings 746 through 761] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.725291&lon=-169.536574&z=19&m=b&show=/24829521/Bunkers |date=January 29, 2015 }}
|{{Coord|16.7250 |N|169.5367 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Bunker buildings 746 through 761}}
|
|-
|Southwest Area 
|{{Coord| 16.7209 |N| 169.5444 |W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Southwest Area}}
|
|-
|[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.735779&lon=-169.525177&z=17&m=b Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) building] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129213056/http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=16.735779&lon=-169.525177&z=17&m=b |date=January 29, 2015 }}
| {{coord|16|44|8|N|169|31|31|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) building}}
|
|}

==Launch facilities==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;margin: 1em auto;"
! Component
! Location
|-
|Johnston Island LC1 [[PGM-11 Redstone|Redstone]] launch complex. Pad 1 
|{{Coord|16.7365 |N|169.5222|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=LC2 Redstone launch complex Pad 2 }}
|-
|Johnston Island LC2 Redstone launch complex. Pad 2 
|{{Coord|16.7369 |N|169.5226|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=LC2 Redstone launch complex Pad 2 }}
|-
|Johnston Island HAD23 [[TE-416 Tomahawk|Tomahawk Sandia]] launch complex. HAD Launcher 23
|{{Coord|16.7375 |N|169.5258|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=HAD23 launch complex}}
|-
|Johnston Island UL6 [[Sandhawk]] launch complex. Universal Launcher 6
|{{Coord|16.7374 |N|169.5257|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=UL6 launch complex}}
|-
|Johnston Island LE1 [[Thor (rocket family)|Thor-Delta]] launch complex. Launch Emplacement 1 
|{{Coord|16.7288 |N|169.5398|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=LE1 launch complex}}
|-
|Johnston Island LE2 Thor-Delta launch complex. Launch Emplacement 2 
|{{Coord|16.7288 |N|169.5398|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=LE2 launch complex}}
|-
|Johnston Island S Johnston Island [[Operation Dominic]] south launchers  
|{{Coord|16.7370|N|169.5240|W|region:US-UM_type:landmark|display=inline|name=south launchers}}
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Guano Island claims]]

==References==
* {{USGovernment}}
* {{CIA World Factbook}}
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Johnston Atoll}}
{{GeoGroup}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080929220933/http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/video/tanager.php Video from 1923 USS ''Tanager'' Expedition] Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project of the University of Hawaii
* [http://nautilus.org/apsnet/cleaning-up-johnston-atoll/ "Cleaning up Johnston Atoll"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719075527/http://nautilus.org/apsnet/cleaning-up-johnston-atoll/ |date=July 19, 2014 }} (2005), Plutonium contamination on the Island.
* [http://www.johnstonmemories.com Johnston Island Memories Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803173941/http://johnstonmemories.com/ |date=August 3, 2014 }} – the personal website of an [[Armed Forces Radio and Television Service|AFRTS]] serviceman stationed there in 1975 to 1976
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717175533/http://www.uscghawaii.com/go/doc/800/185723 Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island] – photo from December 2007 medevac operation
* [http://cybersarges.tripod.com/johnstoniland.html CyberSarge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061115034752/http://cybersarges.tripod.com/johnstoniland.html |date=November 15, 2006 }} – Pictorial evidence of chemical weapons disposal
* [https://www.fws.gov/refuge/johnston-atoll U.S. Fish & Wildlife Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301142754/https://www.fws.gov/refuge/johnston-atoll |date=March 1, 2022 }} – Contains additional information on wildlife and clean-up efforts
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~markinthepacific/index.html Mark in the Pacific] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160621195248/http://home.earthlink.net/~markinthepacific/index.html archive version]) – website about the end of Johnston Atoll
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/naomit/sets/72157629048515587 Flickr: Laysan at Johnston Island] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525212231/https://www.flickr.com/photos/naomit/sets/72157629048515587 |date=May 25, 2017 }} – Photographs of stop-over on abandoned Johnston Atoll in 2012
* [https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/b3266546-ba11-41ea-b0ad-df1b40106580/content The Sovereignty of Guano Islands in the Pacific Ocean] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310150255/https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/b3266546-ba11-41ea-b0ad-df1b40106580/content |date=March 10, 2023 }}, U.S. Department of State Legal Advisor, January 9, 1933.

{{Protected areas of the United States Minor Outlying Islands}}
{{National Wildlife Refuges of the United States}}
{{United States political divisions}}
{{Territories of the United States}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Johnston Atoll| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
[[Category:Pacific Ocean atolls of the United States]]
[[Category:United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
[[Category:American nuclear test sites]]
[[Category:Bird sanctuaries of the United States]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Oceania]]
[[Category:Geography of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Islands of Oceania]]
[[Category:Pacific islands claimed under the Guano Islands Act]]
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges in the United States insular areas]]
[[Category:Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2009]]
[[Category:Uninhabited Pacific islands of the United States]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of Oceania]]
[[Category:Seabird colonies]]