Editing Jean Moulin

{{short description|French Resistance hero (1899–1943)}}
{{for|the Luxembourgian sprinter|Jean Moulin (athlete)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Moulin
| image = Moulin Harcourt 1937.jpg
| caption = Moulin in 1937
| birth_name = Jean Pierre Moulin
| birth_date = 20 June 1899
| birth_place = [[Béziers]], France
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1943|7|8|1899|6|20}}
| death_place = Near [[Metz]], occupied France
| resting_place = [[Panthéon]], [[Paris]]
| known for = First President of the [[National Council of the Resistance]]
| occupation = [[Prefect (France)|Prefect]]
| parents = Antoine-Émile Moulin<br/>Blanche Élisabeth Pègue
| website = 
| signature = Signature de Jean Moulin - Archives nationales (France).jpg
}}
'''Jean Pierre Moulin''' ({{IPA|fr|ʒɑ̃ mulɛ̃|lang}}; 20 June 1899 – 8 July 1943) was a French civil servant and hero of the [[French Resistance]] who succeeded in unifying the main networks of the Resistance in [[World War II]], a unique act in Europe. He served as the first President of the [[National Council of the Resistance]] from 27 May 1943 until his death less than two months later.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/moulin_jean.shtml|work= BBC history|title=Jean Moulin (1899–1943)|date=2014|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="chemins">{{Cite web | url=http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/en/jean-moulin |title = Jean Moulin &#124; Chemins de mémoire}}</ref>

A [[Prefect (France)|prefect]] in the [[Aveyron]] (1937–1939) and [[Eure-et-Loir]] (1939–1940) [[Departments of France|departments]], he is remembered today as one of the main heroes of the French Resistance and for his efforts to unify it under [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He was tortured by German officer [[Klaus Barbie]] while in [[Gestapo]] custody. His death was registered at [[Gare de Metz-Ville|Metz railway station]].<ref name="chemins"/><ref name="O'Reilly-2018">{{cite book |first1=Bill |last1=O'Reilly |first2=Martin |last2=Dugard |date=9 October 2018 |title=Killing the SS: The Hunt for the Worst War Criminals in History |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |page=222 |isbn=978-1-250-16555-8 |oclc=1056625645 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxpNDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>

==Early life==
[[File:Béziers maison Jean Moulin.jpg|left|thumb|Birthplace of Jean Moulin in Béziers.]]
Jean Moulin was born at 6 Rue d'Alsace in [[Béziers]], [[Hérault]], son of Antoine-Émile Moulin and Blanche Élisabeth Pègue. He was the grandson of an insurgent opposing the [[1851 French coup d'état|coup d'état of 2 December 1851]]. His father was a lay teacher at the Université Populaire and a [[Freemason]] at the [[masonic lodge|lodge]] Action Sociale.

Moulin was [[baptism|baptised]] on 6 August 1899<ref>↑ « Jean Moulin » [archive], sur saint-andiol.fr.
</ref> in the church of Saint-Vincentin in [[Saint-Andiol]] (Bouches-du-Rhône), the village his parents came from. He spent an uneventful childhood in the company of his brother, Joseph, and his sister, Laure. Joseph died of [[Peritonitis|acute peritonitis]] in 1907.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Azéma |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Jean Moulin: Le rebelle, le politique, le résistant |publisher=Perrin |year=2003 |isbn=2262013292 |pages=}}</ref><sup>:27</sup> Throughout his early years, Moulin was an average student, including at the Lycée Henri IV in Béziers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marnham |first1=Patrick |title=Resistance and Betrayal: The Death and Life of the Greatest Hero of the French Resistance |date=2012 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-1588360786 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2NBGnf9LcecC}}</ref> One of his report cards states that "he would be an excellent student, if he were ever to start working."<ref name=":5" /><sup>:33</sup>

In 1917, he enrolled at the Faculty of Law of Montpellier, where he was not a brilliant student though he did finish his legal studies with a diploma.<ref name=":5" /><sup>:33</sup> However, thanks to the influence of his father, he was appointed as attaché to the cabinet of the prefect of Hérault under the presidency of [[Raymond Poincaré]].

==Military service during World War I==
Moulin was mobilised on 17 April 1918 as part of the age class of 1919, the last class to be mobilised in France. He was assigned to the 2nd Engineer Regiment of Montpellier. At the beginning of September, after an accelerated training, he headed with his regiment to the front in the Vosges, where he was posted in the village of Socourt.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Christine Levisse-Touzé and Dominique Veillon|title=Jean Moulin: Artiste, Préfet, Résistant|publisher=Tallandier/ Ministère de La Défense-DMPA|year=2013|isbn=979-10-210-0092-6|location=Paris}}</ref><sup>:43</sup>

His regiment was preparing to go to the front lines as part of the attack planned by Foch for 13 November, but the Armistice was signed on 11 November.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:43</sup>

Although Moulin did not fight directly on the front lines, he was nevertheless in a position to observe the horrors of war. He saw its aftermath on the battle fields and the devastation of villages. He helped to bury the war dead in the region around Metz.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:47</sup> He wrote home expressing his shock at seeing the starved state of British prisoners of war who had just been freed. Nevertheless, nothing in the documented history of Jean Moulin's experience during World War I hinted at what his role would be during World War II.<ref name=":5" /><sup>:34–35</sup>

While still enlisted after the War, he was posted successively to Seine-et-Oise, Verdun and Chalon-sur-Saône. He worked as a carpenter, a digger and later a telephonist for the 7th and 9th Engineer Regiments.

He was de-mobilised in November and, on 4 November 1919, resumed his post as attaché at the préfecture of Hérault, in Montpellier.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:52</sup>

==Interwar years==
After [[World War I]], Moulin resumed his studies of law. His position as attaché at the préfecture of Hérault allowed him to finance his university studies while also providing a useful apprenticeship in politics and government. He obtained his [[law degree]] in July 1921<ref name=":0" /><sup>:52</sup>. He then entered the prefectural administration as chief of staff to the deputy of [[Savoie]] in 1922 and then ''[[Subprefectures in France|sous-préfet]]'' of [[Albertville]] from 1925 to 1930.

After his proposal of marriage to Jeanette Auran was rejected, Moulin, then aged 27, married a 19-year-old professional singer, Marguerite Cerruti, in the town of [[Betton-Bettonet]] in September 1926. The marriage did not last long. Cerruti quickly became bored and Moulin responded by offering her further singing lessons in Paris, where she disappeared for two days.<ref>[http://lavoixdu14e.blogspirit.com/archive/2008/07/10/jean-moulin-le-sacrifice-du-heros.html Jean Moulin le sacrifice du héros], La Voix du 14e</ref> Biographer [[Patrick Marnham]] cites one of the causes of the divorce being Moulin's mother-in-law, who had wanted to prevent her estate passing into Moulin's control upon Cerruti's 21st birthday. Moulin attempted to hide this rejection by excusing his wife's disappearances and not informing his family until after his divorce.<ref>Patrick Marnham: [https://books.google.com/books?id=aWMpDAAAQBAJ&dq=Patrick+Marnham+marguerite+cerruti&pg=PT74 ''Army of the Night: The Life and Death of Jean Moulin, Legend of the French Resistance''] I.B. Tauris, 2015, Google Books, accessed 21 November 2020</ref>
[[File:Georges Mandel - caricature par Romanin.jpg|left|thumb|Caricature of [[Raymond Poincaré]] by Jean Moulin, under his pseudonym, Romanin.]]
Moulin was appointed ''sous-préfet'' of [[Châteaulin]], Brittany in 1930. At the same time, he published political cartoons in the newspaper ''[[Le Rire]]'' under the pseudonym ''Romanin''. He also illustrated books by the Breton poet [[Tristan Corbière]], including an [[etching]] for ''La Pastorale de Conlie'', Corbière's poem about [[Camp Conlie]] where many Boon soldiers died in 1870 during the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. He also made friends with the Breton poets [[Saint-Pol-Roux]] in [[Camaret-sur-Mer|Camaret]] and [[Max Jacob]] in [[Quimper, Finistère|Quimper]].<ref>{{Cite book | last = Peyre | first = Alain | title = Jean Moulin dit Romanin (based on an exhibition of his work at the Galerie d'Art du Conseil General des Bouches-du-Rhone, Aix-En-Provence, 6 April – 25 June 2000) | publisher = [[Actes Sud]] | year = 2000 | location = Arles | page = 53 | isbn = 978-2-7427-2690-5}}</ref>

In 1932, [[Pierre Cot]], a [[Radical Party (France)|Radical-Socialist]] politician, named Moulin his second in command or ''chef adjoint'' when he was serving as Foreign Minister under [[Paul Doumer]]'s presidency. In 1933, Moulin was appointed ''sous-préfet'' of [[Thonon-les-Bains]], parallel to his function of head of Cot's cabinet in the Air Ministry under President [[Albert Lebrun]]. On 19 January 1934, Moulin was appointed ''sous-préfet'' of [[Montargis]], but he did not assume the office and chose to remain under Cot. In the first half of April, Moulin was appointed to the [[Seine]] ''préfecture'' and, on 1 July, he took his place as secretary general in [[Somme (department)|Somme]], in [[Amiens]]. In 1936, he was once more named chief of cabinet of Cot's Air Ministry of the Popular Front. In that capacity, Moulin was involved in Cot's efforts to assist the [[Second Spanish Republic]] by sending it planes and pilots. For the [[Istres]]-[[Damascus|Damas]]-[[Le Bourget]] race, he presented the winners with their prize; [[Benito Mussolini]]'s son was one of those winners. He became France's youngest ''[[préfet]]'' in the [[Aveyron]] ''[[département]]'', based in the [[communes of France|commune]] of [[Rodez]], in January 1937. It has been claimed that during the [[Spanish Civil War]], Moulin assisted with the shipment of arms from the [[Soviet Union]] to [[Spain]]. A more commonly-accepted version of events is that he used his position in the French air ministry to deliver planes to the Spanish Republican forces.

==Experience as prefect during the early part of World War II==
[[File:Affiche Préfet Jean Moulin Eure et Loir .img.jpg|thumb|Public notice signed by Jean Moulin, urging the population of Eure-et-Loire department to be calm in the face of the German invasion.]]
In January 1939, Moulin was appointed prefect of the [[Eure-et-Loir]] department, based in [[Chartres]]. After war against Germany was declared, he asked multiple times to be demoted because "[his] place is not at the rear, at the head of a rural departement".<ref>Francis Zamponi, Nelly Bouveret et Daniel Allary, ''Jean Moulin : mémoires d'un homme sans voix'', Éditions du Chêne, 1999, 144 p. ({{ISBN|2-842772407}}).</ref><ref name=Johnson>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-sep-01-bk-johnson1-story.html Johnson, Douglas. "The Mystery of Jean Moulin"], ''Los Angeles Times'', 1 September 2002.</ref> Against the advice of the [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Minister of the Interior]], he asked to be transferred to the military school of [[Issy-Les-Moulineaux]], near Paris. The minister forced him to return to Chartres, where the War quickly made its way to him in the form of German air strikes and columns of distressed and sometimes wounded refugees. As the Germans approached Chartres, he wrote to his parents, "If the Germans – who are capable of anything –  make me say dishonorable words, you already know, it is not the truth".<ref>Francis Zamponi, Bouveret et Allary 1999, p. 75.</ref> In mid-June, German troops entered Chartres.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Moulin|first=Laure|title=Jean Moulin|publisher=Presses de la Cité|year=1982|isbn=2-258-01120-5|location=Paris|pages=151–173}}</ref>
[[File:Saint-Georges-sur-Eure La Taye cabanon Jean Moulin Eure-et-Loir (France).jpg|alt=|left|thumb|House where Moulin was tortured in La Taye, Saint-Georges-sur-Eure in the Eure-et-Loire department.]]
Moulin was arrested by the Germans on 17 June 1940 because he refused to sign a false declaration that three Senegalese ''tirailleurs'' had committed atrocities, killing civilians in La Taye. In fact, those civilians had been killed by German bombings.<ref>Raffael Scheck, Une saison noire : Les massacres de tirailleurs sénégalais, mai–juin 1940, Editions Tallandier, 2007, p. 121.</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/the-death-of-jean-moulin-the-french-resistance-gets-its-greatest-martyr/ |title = The Death of Jean Moulin: The French Resistance Gets Its Greatest Martyr}}</ref>

Beaten and imprisoned because he refused to comply, Moulin attempted suicide by cutting his own throat with a piece of broken glass. This act left him with a scar he would often hide with a scarf, giving us the image of Jean Moulin by which he often is remembered today.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} The suicide attempt did not succeed because he was discovered by a guard and taken to a hospital for treatment.<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 91">Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p. 91.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.ie/books?isbn=1483636445 The Devil's Agent: Life, Times and Crimes of Nazi Klaus Barbie] ''books.google.ie'', accessed 21 November 2020</ref>

Because he was a [[Radical Party (France)|Radical]], he was dismissed by the [[Vichy regime]], led by Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] on 2 November 1940,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://jeanmoulin.fr/Chronologie | title=Jean Moulin – Artiste, Préfet, Résistant – le site de sa famille – Chronologie}}</ref><ref name="chemins" /> along with other left-wing préfets. He then began writing his diary, First Battle, in which he relates his resistance against the Nazis in Chartres, which was later published at the [[Liberation of France|Liberation]] and prefaced by de Gaulle.

== The Resistance ==
Having decided not to [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborate]], Moulin left Chartres for his parents' home town, [[Saint-Andiol]], [[Bouches-du-Rhône]], and joined the [[French Resistance]], specifically, the organisation [[Free France]].<ref>Daniel Cordier, Jean Moulin – La République des Catacombes, Gallimard, p. 62.</ref> Under the name ''Joseph Jean Mercier,'' he went to [[Marseille]], where he met other résistants, including [[Henri Frenay]] and Antoine Sachs.

Moulin travelled to [[London]] in September 1941 after passing through Spain and Portugal. He was received on 24 October by [[Charles de Gaulle]], who wrote about Moulin, "A great man. Great in every way".<ref>↑ Francis Zamponi, Bouveret et Allary 1999, p. 98.</ref>

Moulin summarised the state of the French Resistance to de Gaulle. Part of the Resistance considered him too ambitious, but de Gaulle had confidence in his network and skills. He gave Moulin the assignment of co-ordinating and unifying the various Resistance groups, a difficult mission that would take time and effort to accomplish.<ref>Riviera at War: World War II on the Côte d'Azur.</ref> On 1 January 1942, Moulin parachuted into the [[Alpilles]] and met with the leaders of the resistance groups, under the codenames ''Rex'' and ''Max'':

*[[Henri Frenay]] (''[[Combat (French Resistance)|Combat]]'')
*[[Emmanuel d'Astier]] (''[[Libération-sud|Libération]]'')
*Jean-Pierre Lévy (''[[Francs-tireurs#World War II|Francs-tireurs]]'')
*[[Pierre Villon]] (''[[Front National (French Resistance)|Front national]]'', not to be confused with the later political party of the same name)
*[[Pierre Brossolette]] (''Comité d'action socialiste'')
[[File:Plaque Henri Deschamps - Jean Moulin - M.U.R - Miribel.JPG|thumb|Plaque commemorating the creation of the United Resistance Movement (MUR is French acronym) in the town of Miribel in January 1943.]]
He succeeded to the extent that the first three of these resistance leaders and their groups came together to form the United Resistance Movement ([[Mouvements Unis de la Résistance]], MUR) in January 1943. The next month, Moulin returned to [[London]], accompanied by [[Charles Delestraint]], who led the new ''[[Armée secrète]]'', which grouped together the MUR's military wings. Moulin left London on 21 March 1943, with orders to unify the French resistance by forming the National Resistance Council ([[Conseil national de la Résistance]]); CNR). Again, this was a difficult task since the other resistance movements, besides the three already in the MUR, wanted to retain their independence.

== Creation of the Conseil National de la Résistance ==
Moulin succeeded in this task by obtaining unanimous adoption of a unified ‘Program’ and recognition of Charles de Gaulle as their leader by disparate elements of the French resistance, including by various resistance units as well as by outlawed labour unions and political parties.  Because he was known as a left-wing republican, he also succeeded in obtaining the cooperation of the [[French_Resistance#Communists|Communist resistance groups]], which had been reluctant to accept de Gaulle as their leader.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cobb |first1=Matthew |title=The Resistance: the French Fight Against the Nazis |date=2009 |publisher=Simon and Schuster UK |location=London}}</ref>  The unifying Program was set forth in a document called the 'Program of the National Council of the Resistance.'<ref name=":3">{{Citation |last=R |first=C. N. |title=Les Jours Heureux, programme d'action de la Résistance |date=1944 |url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Les_Jours_Heureux,_programme_d%E2%80%99action_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance |pages=3–9 |publisher=Édité par Libération z. s. |access-date=2022-11-28}}</ref>

Adopted on March 15, 1944,:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrieu |first=Claire |title=Le programme commun de la Résistance, des idées dans la guerre |publisher=Les éditions de l'érudit |year=1984 |isbn=2868160050 |location=Paris}}</ref><sup>62–63</sup> the Program is a text of fewer than ten pages. It consists of two parts: an "immediate action plan", which concerns resistance action prior to the Liberation of France. The second part describes "measures to be applied after the territory is liberated", a kind of government program describing how Nazi influence should be purged from French society as well as longer-term measures, such as the restoration of universal suffrage, liberty of the press, the right to unionise and social security.<ref name=":3" />  The first meeting of the CNR took place in Paris on 27 May 1943. The meeting was attended by representatives of eight resistance movements, two major labour unions and the six most important political parties of the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].

This show of unity consolidated the position of de Gaulle vis-à-vis the allied forces, who were considering a plan to administer post-War France themselves. The Conseil National de la Résistance – by bringing together (both symbolically and as a context for meetings<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Granet |first=Marie |date=1959 |editor-last=Hostache |editor-first=René |title=Le Conseil National de la Résistance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25731941 |journal=Revue d'histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale |volume=9 |issue=35 |pages=82–85 |jstor=25731941 |issn=0035-2314 }}</ref>) major resistance units, labour unions and political parties – enhanced the credibility of the French Resistance as a unified movement.  With Charles de Gaulle as its recognised head, it also fortified de Gaulle’s position as a national leader who could govern France after the war. Thus, while it is not clear that the CNR actually managed to create a unified military force from the various resistance movements,<ref name=":4" /> it did play a role in consolidating the role of France as a politically and militarily viable force within post-War French society<ref name=":4" /> and as ally of the Allied Forces.

In his work in shepherding the Resistance, Moulin was aided by his private [[administrative assistant]], [[Laure Diebold]].

==Betrayal and death==
[[File:Maison du docteur Dugoujon à Caluire&Cuire.jpg|left|thumb|The house of Dr. Dugoujon, where Jean Moulin was arrested in 1943.]]
On 21 June 1943, Moulin was arrested by the [[Sicherheitsdienst]] (a branch of the Nazi Secret Service) while holding a meeting with fellow Resistance leaders in the home of Dr. Frédéric Dugoujon in [[Caluire-et-Cuire]], a suburb of [[Lyon]], as were Dugoujon, [[Henri Aubry]] (alias Avricourt and Thomas), [[Raymond Aubrac]], [[:fr:Bruno_Larat|Bruno Larat (alias Xavier-Laurent Parisot)]], [[André Lassagne]] (alias Lombard), Colonel Albert Lacaze and Colonel [[:fr:Émile Schwarzfeld|Émile Schwarzfeld]] (alias Blumstein). [[René Hardy]] (alias Didot), a member of the resistance movement ''Combat'' and a specialist in railroads, was also present for reasons that are not clear and in what appears to have been a breach of good security practice.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:157</sup>

Moulin and the other Resistance leaders  were sent to [[Montluc Prison]] in Lyon (but not René Hardy, who either escaped or was allowed to flee). They were detained there until the beginning of July. While there, he was tortured by [[Klaus Barbie]], head of the Gestapo in Lyon and, later, briefly in [[Paris]]. According to witnesses, Moulin and his men had their fingernails removed using hot needles as spatulas. In addition, his fingers were placed in the door frame of the interrogation cell, with the door then repeatedly closed until his knuckles were shattered. They increasingly tightened his handcuffs until they penetrated the skin, breaking the bones in his wrists. He was beaten until his face was unrecognizable and he fell into a coma.

After the torture sessions, Barbie ordered that Moulin be displayed as an object lesson to other imprisoned members of the Resistance. The last time he was seen alive he was still in a coma, his head swollen and yellow from bruising and wrapped in bandages, according to the description given by Christian Pineau, fellow prisoner and member of the Resistance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://auschwitz.dk/children/id6.htm|title=Barbie and Brunner|website=auschwitz.dk |access-date=21 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knowledgenuts.com/2014/01/31/the-friendliest-interrogator-of-world-war-ii-was-a-nazi/|title=The Friendliest Interrogator Of World War II Was A German|date=31 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SymBDwAAQBAJ&q=hot+needles&pg=PA14|title=Perpetrating the Holocaust: Leaders, Enablers, and Collaborators|first1=Paul R.|last1=Bartrop|first2=Eve E.|last2=Grimm|date= 2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440858970|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq8yDwAAQBAJ&q=jean+moulin+needles&pg=PT60|title=Spies, Lies, and Citizenship: The Hunt for Nazi Criminals|first=Mary Kathryn|last=Barbier|date= 2017|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=9781612349718|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbFEaef6YKQC&q=hot+needles&pg=PA46|title=American Civilian Counter-terrorist Manual: a fictional autobiography of Ronald Reagan|first=Alan|last=Allen|year=2008|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=9781466981829|via=Google Books}}</ref> There is some uncertainty surrounding the exact circumstances of Moulin's death, including about the view that he died while being transported by train to Germany.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|date=2014-12-19|title=Le mystère des cendres de Jean Moulin|language=fr|work=Le Monde.fr|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/m-actu/article/2014/12/19/le-mystere-des-cendres-de-jean-moulin_4544076_4497186.html|access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>  According to his death certificate (established by the occupying force), he died near or in the train station of [[Metz]],<ref>[http://education.nordnet.fr/jeanmoulin-ronchin/acte.htm ''Death certificate for Jean Moulin''](in German) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815120801/http://education.nordnet.fr/jeanmoulin-ronchin/acte.htm |date=15 August 2011 }}</ref> but there are conflicting reports as to when and where he died.<ref name=":5" /><sup>:429,</sup><ref name=":2"/> 
[[File:Klaus Barbie.jpg|thumb|[[Klaus Barbie]], head of the [[Sicherheitsdienst]] (a branch of the Nazi Secret Service) in Lyon when Jean Moulin was arrested.]]

== Theories about who betrayed Moulin ==
The question of who betrayed Jean Moulin has attracted a great deal of research, speculation, judicial scrutiny and media coverage. Many members of the [[French Resistance]] who could have provided a first-hand account of what happened died during the War. Furthermore, internecine tensions within the Resistance movement are well documented and have left fertile ground for speculation about who within the movement might have provided the information to the Nazis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perrier|first=Guy|title=Le Général Pierre de Bénouville|publisher=Edition du Rocher|year=2005|isbn=2-268-05631-7|pages=101–107}}</ref> 

Regarding Moulin's arrest, suspicions have focused on Resistance member [[René Hardy]], who, prior to accusations that he betrayed Mouline, was known to be a reliable Resistance fighter. Hardy was arrested on 7 June 1943 by the Sicherheitsdienst on the Paris-Lyon night train. This arrest took place in the context of a wave of arrests of resistance fighters, including Resistance leader General [[Charles Delestraint]]. After his arrest, Hardy was subjected to torture or threats of torture. It is suspected, and some Nazi documentation supports this, that he became a Nazi agent after his arrest. In any case, at the insistence of many of his colleagues in the Resistance, Hardy was present at the house in [[Caluire-et-Cuire]] at the time of Moulin's arrest.<ref name=":5" /><sup>:404–409</sup> However, either Hardy escaped or was allowed to flee.<ref name=":1" />  He was injured during the escape (though some suspected that the wound was self-inflicted), and he also managed to escape from his hospital, scaling a high wall despite having his arm in a cast. In two post-war trials that examined his alleged role in the arrest, Hardy was acquitted for lack of evidence.<ref name=":5" /><sup>:404–409</sup>

Communists have also been the target of allegations, though no hard evidence has ever backed up that claim. Marnham looked into these assertions but found no evidence to support them (although Communist Party members could easily have seen Moulin as a "fellow traveller" because he had communist friends and supported the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War). As ''préfet'', Moulin even ordered the repression of communist 'agitators' and went so far as to have police keep some of them under surveillance.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Marnham | first=Patrick | title=The Death of Jean Moulin: Biography of a Ghost | publisher=Pimlico | isbn=978-0-7126-6584-1 | year=2001 }} p. 104</ref> At the trial of [[Klaus Barbie]] in 1987, his lawyer, [[Jacques Vergès]], made much out of speculation that Moulin was betrayed by either Communists and/or Gaullists as part of an attempt to distract attention away from the actions of his client, by making the true authors of Moulin's arrest his fellow ''résistants'', rather than Barbie.<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, pp. 203–204.</ref> Vergès failed in his effort to acquit Barbie but succeeded in creating a vast industry of various conspiracy theories, many very fanciful, about who betrayed Moulin.<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 204">Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p. 204.</ref> Leading historians, such as Henri Noguères and [[Jean-Pierre Azéma]], rejected Vergès's conspiracy theories under which Barbie was somehow less culpable than the supposed traitors who tipped him off.<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 204" />

The British intelligence officer [[Peter Wright (MI5 officer)|Peter Wright]], in his 1987 book ''[[Spy Catcher]]'', wrote that [[Pierre Cot]] was an "active Russian agent" and called his protégé Moulin a "dedicated Communist".<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 205">Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p. 205.</ref> Clinton wrote that Wright based his allegations against Moulin entirely on secret documents that he claimed to have seen but which no historian has ever seen, and on conversations that he is supposed to have had decades ago with others long dead, which made his case against Moulin very "dubious".<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 205"/> Henri-Christian Giraud, the grandson of General [[Henri Giraud]] (who had been outmaneuvered by de Gaulle for the leadership of the Free French movement), hit back in his two-volume work ''De Gaulle et les communistes'', published in 1988 and 1989, which outlined a conspiracy theory suggesting that de Gaulle had been "manipulated" by the "Soviet agent" Moulin into following the PCF's line of "national insurrection" and thereby eclipsed his grandfather, who, he maintained, should have been the rightful leader of [[Free France]].<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, pp. 205–206.</ref> Taking up Giraud's theories, the lawyer Charles Benfredj argued in his 1990 book ''L'Affaire Jean Moulin: Le contre-enquête'' that Moulin was a Soviet agent who had not been killed by Barbie but allowed by the German government to go to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1943, where Moulin supposedly died sometime after the war.<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 206">Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p, 206.</ref> Benfredj's book was published with an introduction with [[Jacques Soustelle]], the archaeologist of [[Mexico]] and wartime Gaullist whose commitment to ''[[Algérie française]]'' had made him a bitter enemy of de Gaulle by 1959.<ref name="Clinton, Alan page 206" /> The essence of all theories about Moulin, the alleged Soviet agent, was that because de Gaulle had agreed to co-operate with the Communists during the war, all of which was Moulin's work, he had set France on the wrong course and led to him granting Algeria independence in 1962, instead of keeping Algeria in France.<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p. 201.</ref>[[File:Jean Moulin commemorative plate, Metz.jpg|thumb|Tribute to Jean Moulin in the [[Gare de Metz-Ville|Rail station]] of [[Metz]].]]

It has also been suggested, principally in Marnham's biography, that Moulin was betrayed by communists. Marnham points the finger specifically at [[Raymond Aubrac]] and possibly his wife, Lucie. He alleges that communists at times betrayed non-communists to the Gestapo and that Aubrac was linked to harsh actions during the purge of collaborators after the war. In 1990, Barbie, by then "a bitter dying [[Nazi]]", named Aubrac as the traitor.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/9198381/Raymond-Aubrac.html|title=Obituary:Raymond Aubrac|newspaper=Daily Telegraph|date=11 Apr 2012|access-date=11 Apr 2012}}</ref> To counteract the accusations levelled at Moulin, [[Daniel Cordier]], his personal secretary during the war, wrote a biography of his former leader.<ref name="Clinton, Alan pages 202-203">Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, pp. 202–203.</ref> In April 1997, Vergès produced a "Barbie Testament", which he claimed that Barbie had given him ten years earlier and purported to show the Aubracs had tipped off Barbie.<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p.209.</ref> It was timed for the publication of the book ''Aubrac Lyon 1943'' by Gérard Chauvy, who meant to prove that the Aubracs were the ones who informed Barbie about the fateful meeting at Caluire on 21 June 1943.<ref name="Clinton, Alan pages 202-203" /> On 2 April 1998, following a civil suit launched by the Aubracs, a Paris court fined Chauvy and his publisher, Albin Michel, for "public defamation".<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, pp. 209–210.</ref> In 1998, the French historian Jacques Baynac, in his book ''Les Secrets de l'affaire Jean Moulin'', claimed that Moulin was planning to break with de Gaulle to recognise General Giraud, which led the Gaullists to tip off Barbie before that could happen.<ref>Clinton, Alan ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943 The French Resistance and the Republic'', London: Macmillan, 2002, p. 210.</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Jean Moulin with a scarf and fedora by Marcel Bernard.jpg|thumb|right|A famous photograph of Jean Moulin with a scarf and fedora, taken in 1940 by Marcel Bernard]]
[[File:Resistance.jpg|thumb|right|Drawing of Jean Moulin based on the iconic photograph with a fedora and scarf and a [[Cross of Lorraine#Symbol in France|cross of Lorraine]] in the background.]]
[[File:Jean Moulin. Monument.jpg|left|thumb|Monument to Jean Moulin at Aix-les-Bains.]]
Ashes that are thought to be those of Jean Moulin were buried in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris and later transferred to the [[Panthéon]] on 19 December 1964. The speech given at the transfer site by [[André Malraux]], a writer and cabinet minister, is one of the most famous speeches in French history.

France's French education curriculum commemorates Moulin as a symbol of the French resistance and a model of civic virtue, moral rectitude and patriotism. As of 2015, Jean Moulin was the fifth most popular name for a French school,<ref>[http://www.lemonde.fr/les-decodeurs/article/2015/04/18/de-jules-ferry-a-pierre-perret-l-etonnant-palmares-des-noms-d-ecoles-de-colleges-et-de-lycees-en-france_4613091_4355770.html#partie1 De Jules Ferry à Pierre Perret, l'étonnant palmarès des noms d'écoles, de collèges et de lycées en France], Le Monde (''tr. From Jules Ferry to Pierre Perret, the surprising list of names of schools, colleges and high schools in France''), accessed 21 November 2020</ref> and as of 2016 his is the third most popular French street name<ref name="ladepeche.fr">{{cite web | url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2016/04/16/2326668-noms-de-rues-jaures-et-moulin-les-plus-donnes.html | title=Noms de rues : Jaurès et Moulin les plus donnés | date=16 April 2016 | publisher=Ladepeche.fr | access-date=24 March 2019 }}</ref> of which 98 percent are male.<ref name="ladepeche.fr"/> Lyon 3 university and a Paris tramway station have also been named after him.

[[File:Memorial Jean Moulin Saint-Gingolph.jpg|thumb|right|Jean Moulin memorial in [[Saint-Gingolph,_Haute-Savoie|Saint-Gingolph]]]]

The photograph with a fedora and scarf has become a popular representation of Jean Moulin and more generally the Resistance movement; in it, Jean Moulin seems to hide from onlookers to protect his clandestine life.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jean Moulin photographié par son ami Marcel Bernard / hiver 1939–1940 |url=https://www.museeliberation-leclerc-moulin.paris.fr/ressources/ressource-pour-les-scolaires/jean-moulin-photographie-par-son-ami-marcel-bernard-hiver |website=Musée de la Libération de Paris – Musée du Général Leclerc – Musée Jean Moulin |access-date=10 August 2022|language=fr|quote=Cette photographie a fortement participé à fixer l’image du résistant entré dans la clandestinité, et qui cherche à se cacher des regards. }}</ref> However, the photograph itself was taken in Montpellier in February 1940 during a family visit,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Levisse-Touzé |first1=Christine |title=Jean Moulin |url=https://histoire-image.org/etudes/jean-moulin |website=L’Histoire par l’image |access-date=10 August 2022 |quote=Venu passer quelques jours chez sa mère et sa sœur à Montpellier mi-février 1940, Jean Moulin est pris en photo par son ami d’enfance Marcel Bernard, aux Arceaux, près de la Promenade du Peyrou.}}</ref> before his first arrest in June 1940 and subsequent decision to join the Resistance.

In 1967, the [[Centre national Jean-Moulin de Bordeaux]] was created in [[Bordeaux]]. Its archives contain documents on the Second World War and the Resistance. The Centre provides pedagogical supports and research material on the involvement of Jean Moulin in the Resistance. Another member of the resistance, [[Antoinette Sasse]], created a bequest in her will to found The [[Musée Jean Moulin]] in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historia.fr/expositions/antoinette-sasse-artiste-et-r%C3%A9sistante|title=Antoinette Sasse, artiste et résistante|website=www.historia.fr|language=fr|access-date=2017-02-18}}</ref>

The 1969 [[Jean Pierre Melville]] fictional film ''[[Army of Shadows]]'', based on a book of the same name, depicts, through the character of [[Luc Jardie]], played by [[Paul Meurisse]], several events in Moulin's war experience but with some inaccuracy; in the film, his homosexual male secretary is replaced by a female assistant. Two French made-for-television films deal with Jean Moulin: in 2002, ''Jean Moulin'', by [[Yves Boisset]] and, in 2003, ''Jean Moulin, une affaire française'', by Pierre Aknine.

[[File:French 2 Franc coin Jean Moulin 1993.png|left|thumb|Commemorative 2 franc coin.]]In 1993, commemorative French 2, 100 and 500 franc coins were issued, showing a partial image of Moulin against the [[Croix de Lorraine]] and using a fedora-and-scarf photograph, which is well recognised in France.

==See also==
*[[Hôtel Terminus]]
*[[Lionel Floch]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*Baynac, Jacques. ''Les secrets de l'affaire Jean Moulin: Contexte, Causes Et Circonstances''. Seuil: Paris, 1998. {{ISBN|2-02-033164-0}}
*Clinton, Alan. ''Jean Moulin, 1899–1943: the French Resistance and the Republic''. Palgrave: New York, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-333-76486-2}}
*Daniel Cordier. ''Jean Moulin. La République des catacombes''. Gallimard: Paris, 1999. {{ISBN|2-07-074312-8}}
*Hardy, René. ''Derniers mots: Mémoires''. Fayard: Paris, 1984. {{ISBN|2-213-01320-9}}
*Marnham, Patrick. ''The Death of Jean Moulin: Biography of a Ghost''. John Murray: New York, 2001. {{ISBN|0-7126-6584-6}}. Also published as ''Resistance and Betrayal'' {{ISBN|0-375-50608-X}}. 2015 edition published as ''Army of the Night'', Tauris. {{ISBN|9781784531089}}
*Moulin, Laure. ''Jean Moulin''. Presses de la Cité: Paris, 1982. (En préface le discours de [[André Malraux]]). {{ISBN|2-258-01120-5}}
*Noguères, Henri. ''La vérité aura le dernier mot''. Seuil: Paris, 1985 {{ISBN|2-02-008683-2}}
*Péan, Pierre. ''Vies et morts de Jean Moulin''. Fayard: Paris, 1998. {{ISBN|2-213-60257-3}}
*Storck-Cerruty, Marguerite. ''J'étais la femme de Jean Moulin''. Régine Desforges: Paris, 1977. (Avec lettre-préface de [[Robert Aron]], de l'Académie française). {{ISBN|2-901980-74-0}}
*Sweets, John F.. ''The Politics of Resistance in France, 1940–1944: A History of the Mouvements Unis de la Résistance''. Northern Illinois University Press: De Kalb, 1976. {{ISBN|0-87580-061-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Taussat|first1=Robert|author-link=Robert Taussat|title=Jean Moulin : la constance et l'honneur de la République|date=1998|publisher=Fil d'Ariane|location=Rodez|isbn=9782912470263|oclc=49281909}}

==External links==
* [http://www.oocities.org/resistancehistory Jean Moulin and the French Resistance] (English)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829060952/http://geocities.com/resistancehistory/malraux.html English translation of Malraux's speech]
* [http://www.faubourg.occitan.net/jean_moulin.htm Brief list of important dates in the life of Jean Moulin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223134216/http://www.faubourg.occitan.net/jean_moulin.htm |date=23 December 2007 }} (English)
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120211114342/http://www.midivacance.com/beziers/moulin.htm Jean  Moulin (1899–1943) – famous son of Béziers]}}
* [http://www.camden.tv/movies/Moulin.mp4 Short film about Jean Moulin] (English)

{{French Resistance}}
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