Editing Jamaican English

{{Short description|Variety of the English language used in Jamaica}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Distinguish|Jamaican Patois}}

{{Use Jamaican English|date=January 2019}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=June 2007}}
{{original research|date=December 2018}}
}}
{{English language}}
{{listen|filename=Sylbourne Sydial with Nordia Teape on Integrated Diaspora Services.flac|type=speech|title=Speech example|description=An example of a woman and man with Jamaican English accents.}}
'''Jamaican English''', including '''Jamaican Standard English''', is the variety of English native to [[Jamaica]] and is the [[official language]] of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jis.gov.jm/information/parish-profiles/|title=Parish Profiles|website=Jamaica Information Service|language=en-GB|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref> A distinction exists between Jamaican English and [[Jamaican Patois]] (a [[creole language]]), though not entirely a sharp distinction so much as a gradual [[creole continuum|continuum]] between two extremes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Peter L. Patrick |title=Urban Jamaican Creole: Variation in the Mesolect |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yK7-_j4VsIEC |year=1999 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=90-272-4875-3}}</ref> Jamaican English tends to follow [[American and British English spelling differences|British English spelling conventions]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sand, A. |title=Linguistic variation in Jamaica: A corpus-based study of radio and newspaper usage |place=Tübingen |publisher=G. Narr |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8233-4943-3}}</ref>

==Sociolinguistics==
There are several [[Variety (linguistics)|language varieties]] that have significantly impacted the Jamaican dialect of English. English was introduced into Jamaica in 1655,<ref name="Justus 39">{{Cite journal |last=Justus |first=Joyce Bennett |date=January 1978 |title=Language and National Integration: The Jamaican Case |journal=Ethnology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=39–51 |doi=10.2307/3773278 |jstor=3773278}}</ref> because of British colonisation. [[British English]] was spread through post-primary education, and through British teachers that immigrated to Jamaica.<ref name="Justus 39"/> Standard English in Jamaica conflated with the British standard.<ref name="Mair 31–58">{{Cite journal|last=Mair|first=Christian|date=1 June 2002|title=Creolisms in an emerging standard: Written English in Jamaica|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233697602|journal=English World-Wide|volume=23|pages=31–58|doi=10.1075/eww.23.1.03mai}}</ref> Individuals who speak the standard variety are often considered to be of a higher social class; the people who speak more standard English than patois are known as “uptown” <ref name="Justus 39"/> Also, [[American English]] has contributed to the Jamaican English dialect. These impacts can be traced to the development of stronger social and economic ties with the United States,{{when|date=October 2024}} the popularity of U.S. cultural offerings, including film, music, and [[televised]] dramas and comedies and tourism.<ref>Rosenfelder, Ingrid (2009). [https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:9336/datastreams/FILE1/content "Sociophonetic variation in educated Jamaican English: An analysis of the spoken component of ICE-Jamaica]" (PDF). PhD dissertation, University of Freiburg.</ref> [[Jamaican Patois]] is another source of influence on Jamaican English.<ref name="Mair 31–58" /> Many rural homes are monolingually Patois.

==Grammar==
There are great similarities between standard British English and the standard variety of Jamaican English, including in grammar, idiom, and vocabulary.<ref name="Mair 31–58"/>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
Features of standard Jamaican English include the characteristic pronunciation of the {{IPA|/aʊ/}} [[diphthong]] in words like {{sc2|MOUTH}}, which is often more closed and rounded {{IPA|[ɵʊ]}} than in British [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) or [[General American]] (GA); the pronunciation of the {{Sc2|STRUT}} vowel {{IPA|/ʌ/}} to {{IPA|[ɵ~o]}} (again, more closed and rounded than the RP or GA varieties); and the very distinctive feature of "variable semi-[[Rhoticity in English|rhoticity]]".<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, p. 81.</ref> Non-rhoticity (the pronunciation of "r" nowhere except before vowels) is highly variable in Jamaican English and can depend upon the phonemic and even social context.<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, p. 95.</ref> Jamaican English accents are: non-rhotic regarding words of the {{sc2|LETTER}} [[lexical set]] (at the ends of unstressed [[syllables]]); rhotic (i.e., fully preserving the "r" sound) regarding words of the {{sc2|NEAR}} and {{sc2|FORCE}} sets; high to middling in degrees of rhoticity regarding the {{sc2|SQUARE}}, {{sc2|NURSE}}, and {{sc2|CURE}} sets; and low regarding rhoticity with most other word sets.<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, p. 89.</ref><ref>{{cite book
|isbn=0-521-28541-0
|first=J C
|last=Wells
|title=Accents of English 3: Beyond the British Isles
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=1982
|page=577
}}</ref> When "r" is followed by a consonant, non-rhoticity is more likely than when "r" is not followed by a consonant.<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, pp. 93, 176.</ref> However, overall more rhoticity is positively correlated with higher levels of education. This has been attributed to the Jamaican education system normalising and promoting a rhotic variety of English.<ref>Irvine-Sobers, G. Alison (2018). "The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation" (Studies in Caribbean Languages 1). Berlin: Language Science Press. p. 53</ref> Thus, the overall degree of rhoticity in educated Jamaican English remains very low, with rhoticity occurring  21.7% of the time.<ref>Rosenfelder, Ingrid (2009). "Rhoticity in Educated Jamaican English: An analysis of the spoken component of ICE-Jamaica." p. 68.</ref>

Merger of the diphthongs in [[near-square merger|"fair" and "fear"]] takes place both in Jamaican Standard English and [[Jamaican Patois]], resulting in those two words (and many others, like "bear" and "beer") often becoming [[homophones]]: the sound being {{IPA|[eːɹ]}}, though often {{IPA|[iɛɹ]}} (something like "ee-air"; thus "bear/beer" as "bee-air").<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Devonish|Harry|2004|p=463}}</ref>

The short "a" sound ({{Sc2|TRAP}}, man, hat, etc.) is very open {{IPA|[a]}}, similar to its Irish variants, while {{sc2|BATH}}, {{sc2|PALM}}, and {{sc2|START}} all use this same sound too, but lengthened,<ref name="Devonish 2004 460">{{Harvcoltxt|Devonish|Harry|2004|p=460}}</ref> and perhaps slightly backed;<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, p. 146.</ref> this distinction can maintain a London-like [[trap-bath split|{{sc2|TRAP&ndash;BATH}} split]]. Both {{Sc2|LOT/CLOTH}} and {{sc2|THOUGHT}} use a rounded {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, though a [[cot-caught merger]] is theoretically avoided by the latter set of words being more lengthened;<ref name="Devonish 2004 460"/> however, in reality, a full merger (of {{Sc2|LOT/CLOTH/THOUGHT}}) is reportedly increasing in informal contexts.<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, pp. 145, 147.</ref> For Jamaican Patois speakers, the merged vowel is much lower. {{Sc2|GOAT}} and {{sc2|FACE}} vowels in the standard educated dialect are long [[monophthong]]s: respectively {{IPA|[oː]}} and {{IPA|[eː]}}.<ref name="Devonish 2004 460"/> The unstressed [[schwa]] phoneme ({{sc2|COMMA}}) appears to be normally produced in the area of {{IPA|[a~ɐ]}}.<ref>Rosenfelder, 2009, pp. 139-140.</ref>

Before the low central vowel {{IPA|[a]}}, the [[Velar consonant|velars]] {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[ɡ]}} can be realized with [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalisation]], so that ''cat'' can be pronounced [k<sup>h</sup>at ~ kjat] and ''card'' as [k<sup>h</sup>a:d ~ kja:d]); while [ɡ] and [ɡj] coexist, as in ''gap'' [ɡap ~ ɡjap] or guard [ɡa:(ɹ)d ~ ɡja:(ɹ)d]. These variations are distinct [[phoneme]]s in Jamaican Patois before [a]: [ɡja:dn̩] is ''garden'' while [ɡa:dn̩] is ''Gordon''; [kja:f] is ''calf'' while [ka:f] is ''cough''. They are not distinct phonemes in Jamaica English because these word pairs are distinguished by the vowel ([a] vs [ɔ]) instead. However, this fact hasn't stopped educated speakers from incorporating [kj] in their English at least before unlengthened "a". However, vowel length can be a relevant factor, since it is possible to hear forms like {{IPA|[kjat]}} for ''cat'', {{IPA|[kjaɹɪ]}} for ''carry'', {{IPA|[kjaɹaktʌ]}} for ''character'', and {{IPA|[kjaɹɪbiǝn]}} for ''Caribbean'', but affluent or aspiring middle-class speakers tend to avoid {{IPA|[kja:ɹ]}} for ''car'' due to its longer vowel.<ref>Irving-Sobers, G. Alison, 2018, pp. 45-46.</ref><ref>Irving-Sober, G. Alison (1994). "Dialect Variation in Jamaican English: A Study of the Phonology of Social Group Marking". English World-Wide, Volume 15(1). p. 69.</ref>

Presumably less-educated [[Jamaican Patois]] speakers may speak English with several other notable features, including a {{sc2|TRAP&ndash;LOT}} merger (e.g. with ''rat'' and ''rot'' homophones) to {{IPA|[ɔ]}} and a [[line-loin merger|{{sc2|PRIZE&ndash;CHOICE}} merger]] (e.g. with ''line'' and ''loin'' homophones) to {{IPA|[ɔi]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Devonish|Harry|2004|p=465}}</ref> [[Th-stopping]] is also common.

One of the most salient sounds of [[Caribbean English]] to speakers of outside English dialects is its unique rhythm and intonation. Linguists debate whether this system centres mostly on stress, tone, or a mixture in which the two interact. Sometimes, Jamaican English is perceived as maintaining less of a contrast between [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed and unstressed syllables]], in other words, making all syllables sound relatively-equally stressed: thus ''kitchen'' not {{IPA|/ˈkɪtʃɪn/}} so much as {{IPA|/kɪtʃɪn/}} (perhaps even perceived by a non-Caribbean as having second-syllable stress: {{IPA|/kɪˈtʃɪn/}}). In Jamaican English, normally reduced English vowels are sometimes not reduced, and other times are hyper-reduced, so that ''token'' is not  {{IPA|*[ˈtuokn̩]}} but {{IPA|[ˈtuoken]}}, yet ''cement'' can be as reduced as {{IPA|[sment]}}; the exact nuances of the rules at play here are also highly debated.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Devonish|Harry|2004|pp=462, 468}}</ref>

==Language use: Jamaican Standard English versus Patois==

Jamaican Standard English and [[Jamaican Patois]] exist together in a [[post-creole speech continuum]]. Jamaican (Creole/Patois) is used by most people for everyday, informal situations; it is the language most Jamaicans use at home and are most familiar with, as well as the language of most local popular music. Jamaican Patois has begun to be used on the radio as well as the news.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bryan|first=Beverley|date=2004|title=Jamaican Creole: in the process of becoming|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=27|issue=4|pages=641–659|doi=10.1080/01491987042000216753|s2cid=145631532}}</ref> Standard English, on the other hand, is the language of education, [[high culture]], government, the media and official/formal communications. It is also the native language of a small minority of Jamaicans (typically upper-class and upper/traditional middle-class). Most Creole-dominant speakers have a fair command of English and Standard English, through schooling and exposure to official culture and mass media; their receptive skills (understanding of Standard English) are typically much better than their productive skills (their own intended Standard English statements often show signs of Jamaican Creole influence).

Most writing in Jamaica is done in English (including private notes and correspondence). Jamaican Patois has a standardised orthography as well,<ref>Dynamics of orthographic standardisation in Jamaican Creole and Nigerian Pidgin, Dagmar Deuber and Lars Hinrichs, ''World Englishes'' '''26''', No. 1 (February 2007), pp. 22&ndash;47, {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-971X.2007.00486.x}}.</ref> but has only recently been taught in some schools, so the majority of Jamaicans can read and write standard English only, and have trouble deciphering written Patois (in which the writer tries to reflect characteristic structures and pronunciations to differing degrees, without compromising readability). Written Patois appears mostly in literature, especially in folkloristic "dialect poems"; in humoristic newspaper columns; and most recently, on internet chat sites frequented by younger Jamaicans, who seem to have a more positive attitude toward their own language use than their parents.<ref>Lars Hinrichs (2006), ''Codeswitching on the Web: English and Jamaican Patois in E-Mail Communication''. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.</ref>

While, for the sake of simplicity, it is customary{{by whom|date=October 2011}} to describe Jamaican speech in terms of standard English versus Jamaican Creole, a clear-cut [[dichotomy]] does not describe the actual language use of most Jamaicans.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}} Between the two extremes—"broad Patois" on one end of the spectrum, and "perfect" Standard English on the other—there are various in-between varieties. This situation typically results when a Creole language is in constant contact with Standardised English (superstrate or lexifier language) and is called a [[post-creole speech continuum|creole speech continuum]]. The least prestigious (most Creole) variety is called the [[basilect]]; Standard English (or high prestige) variety, the [[acrolect]]; and in-between versions are known as [[mesolect]]s.

Consider, for example, the following forms:

*"im/(h)ihn de/da/a wok úoba désò" (basilect)
*"im workin ova deso" (low mesolect)
*"(H)e (h)is workin' over dere" (high mesolect)
*"He is working over there." (acrolect)

(As noted above, the "r" in "over" is not pronounced in any variety, but the one in "dere" or "there" is.)

Jamaicans choose from the varieties available to them according to the situation. A Creole-dominant speaker may choose a higher variety for formal occasions like official business or a wedding speech, and a lower one for relating to friends; a standard English-dominant speaker is likely to employ a lower variety when shopping at the market than at their workplace. [[Code-switching]] can also be [[Metacommunication|metacommunicative]] (as when a Standard-dominant speaker switches to a more heavily basilect-influenced variety in an attempt at humor or to express solidarity).

==See also==
* [[Regional accents of English speakers]]
* [[Nation language]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Citation
|last1=Devonish
|first1=Hubert
|last2=Harry
|first2=Otelemate G.
|editor-last=Schneider
|editor-first=Edgar W.
|editor2-last=Burridge
|editor2-first=Kate
|editor3-last=Kortmann
|editor3-first=Bernd
|editor4-last=Mesthrie
|editor4-first=Rajend
|editor5-last=Upton
|editor5-first=Clive
|year=2004
|title=A handbook of varieties of English
|chapter=Jamaican Creole and Jamaican English: phonology
|volume=1: Phonology
|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter
|pages=964–984
|isbn=3-11-017532-0
}}
{{Jamaica topics}}
{{English dialects by continent}}
{{English official language clickable map}}

[[Category:Caribbean English]]
[[Category:Dialects of English]]
[[Category:Culture of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Languages of Jamaica|English]]