Editing Isabella of France

{{Short description|Queen of England from 1308 to 1327}}
{{Other people|Isabella of France}}
{{redirect|The She-Wolf of France|the book|The Accursed Kings}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| consort      = yes
| image        = Isabella of France by Froissart.png
| image_size   = 191px
| caption      = 15th-century depiction<br>from [[Froissart's Chronicles|Froissart's ''Chronicles'']]
| alt          = A veiled Isabella facing right
| succession   = [[Queen consort of England]]
| reign        = 25 January 1308 – 25 January 1327
| coronation   = 25 February 1308
| succession2  = [[Regent of England]]
| reign2       = 1327–1330
| reign-type2  = Regency
| regent2      = [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]
| reg-type2    = Monarch
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[Edward II of England]]|1308|1327|reason=died}}
| issue        = {{plain list|
* [[Edward III of England]]
* [[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall]]
* [[Eleanor of Woodstock|Eleanor, Countess of Guelders]]
* [[Joan of the Tower|Joan, Queen of Scots]]
}}
| house        = [[House of Capet|Capet]]
| father       = [[Philip IV of France]]
| mother       = [[Joan I of Navarre]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|1295}}
| birth_place  = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| death_date   = 22 August 1358 (aged 62–63)
| death_place  = [[Hertford Castle]], England<ref name="Alison Weir 1999 page 90">Weir 1999, p. 90.</ref>
| burial_date  = 27 November 1358
| burial_place = [[Christ Church Greyfriars|Grey Friars' Church]] at Newgate
}}

'''Isabella of France''' ({{circa|1295}} – 22 August 1358), sometimes described as the '''She-Wolf of France''' ({{Langx|fr|Louve de France}}), was [[List of English royal consorts|Queen of England]] as the wife of [[Edward II of England|King Edward II]], and ''de facto'' [[regent]] of England from 1327 until 1330. She was the youngest surviving child and only surviving daughter of King [[Philip IV of France]] and [[Joan I of Navarre]]. Isabella was notable in her lifetime for her diplomatic skills, intelligence, and beauty. She overthrew her husband, becoming a "[[femme fatale]]" figure in plays and literature over the years, usually portrayed as a beautiful but cruel and manipulative figure.

Isabella arrived in England at age 12{{sfn|Castor|2011|p=227}} during a period of growing conflict between the king and the powerful [[baron]]ial factions. Her new husband was notorious for the patronage he lavished on his favourite, [[Piers Gaveston]], but the queen supported Edward during these early years, forming a working relationship with Piers and using her relationship with the French monarchy to bolster her own authority and power. After [[Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall#Return and death|the death of Gaveston]] at the hands of the barons in 1312, however, Edward turned to a new favourite, [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]], and attempted to take revenge on the barons, resulting in the [[Despenser War]] and a period of internal repression across England. Isabella could not tolerate Hugh Despenser, and by 1325, her marriage to Edward was at a breaking point.

Travelling to France on a diplomatic mission, Isabella may have begun an affair with [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]], and the two may possibly have agreed at this point to depose Edward and oust the Despenser family. The Queen [[Invasion of England (1326)|returned to England]] with a small [[mercenary]] army in 1326, moving rapidly across England. The King's forces deserted him. Isabella deposed Edward, becoming [[regent]] on behalf of her young son, [[Edward III]]. Some believe that Isabella then arranged the [[Edward II of England#Death (1327)|murder of Edward II]]. Isabella and Mortimer's regime began to crumble, partly because of her lavish spending, but also because the Queen successfully, but unpopularly, resolved long-running problems such as the [[First War of Scottish Independence|war with Scotland]].

In 1330, aged 18, Isabella's son, Edward III forcibly asserted his authority. Mortimer was executed, Isabella's regency was ended and she was imprisoned,{{sfn|Castor|2011|pp=312–313}} but soon released. She lived out her remaining years as a wealthy courtier and grew close again to her family especially her daughter [[Joan of the Tower|Joan, Queen of Scots]] and her grandson [[Edward the Black Prince|Edward, Prince of Wales]].

== Early life and marriage: 1295–1308 ==
[[File:Philip iv and family.jpg|thumb|300px|Isabella's French family, depicted in 1315: l-r: Isabella's brothers, [[Charles IV of France|Charles]] and [[Philip V of France|Philip]], Isabella herself, her father, [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]], her brother [[Louis X of France|Louis]], and her uncle, [[Charles of Valois]]. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]]]

Isabella was born in [[Paris]] on an uncertain date — on the basis of the chroniclers and the eventual date of her marriage, she was probably born between April 1295{{efn|Kathryn Warner states late 1295{{sfn|Warner|2016|p=11}}}} and January 1296.{{efn|Jeffery Hamilton states 1296{{sfn|Hamilton|2010|p=103}}}} She is described as born in 1292 in the Annals of Wigmore, and [[Piers Langtoft]] agrees, claiming that she was 7 years old in 1299. The French chronicler [[Guillaume de Nangis]] and English chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] describe her as 12 years old at the time of her marriage in January 1308, placing her birth between January 1295 and of 1296. A papal dispensation by [[Clement V]] in November 1305 permitted her immediate [[marriage by proxy]], despite the fact that she was probably only 10 years old. Since her brother [[Charles IV of France|Charles]] was born on 18 June 1294, and she had to reach the [[canonical age]] of 12 before her marriage in January 1308, the evidence suggests that she was born between April 1295 and January 1296.<ref>See Weir 2006, pp. 8–9.</ref> Her parents were King [[Philip IV of France]] and Queen [[Joan I of Navarre]]; her brothers [[Louis X of France|Louis]], [[Philip V of France|Philip]] and Charles became kings of France.<ref>Warner 2016, p.8</ref>

Isabella was born into a royal family that ruled the most powerful state in [[Western Europe]]. Her father, King Philip, known as ''"le Bel"'' (the Fair) because of his good looks, was a strangely unemotional man; one contemporary described him as "neither a man nor a beast, but a statue";<ref>Weir 2006, p. 11.</ref> modern historians have noted that he "cultivated a reputation for Christian kingship and showed few weaknesses of the flesh".<ref>Jones and McKitterick, p. 394.</ref> Philip built up [[Centralized government|centralised royal power]] in France, engaging in a sequence of conflicts to expand or consolidate French authority across the region, but remained chronically short of money throughout his reign. Indeed, he appeared almost obsessed about building up wealth and lands, something that his daughter was also accused of in later life.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 12.</ref> Isabella's mother died when Isabella was still quite young; some contemporaries suspected Philip IV of her murder, albeit probably incorrectly.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 14.</ref>

[[File:Seal of Edward II-2.jpg|thumb|left|Seal of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]]]

Isabella was brought up in and around the [[Louvre Palace]] and the [[Palais de la Cité]] in Paris.<ref name=WeirP13>Weir 2006, p. 13.</ref> Isabella was cared for by Théophania de Saint-Pierre, her nurse, given a good education and taught to read, developing a love of books.<ref name=WeirP13/> As was customary for the period, all of Philip's children were married young for political benefit. Isabella was promised in marriage by her father to [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], the son of King [[Edward I of England]], with the intention to resolve the conflicts between France and England over the latter's continental possession of [[Gascony]] and claims to [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]] and [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]].<ref>Weir 2006, pp. 13–4.</ref> [[Pope Boniface VIII]] had urged the marriage as early as 1298 but it was delayed by wrangling over the terms of the marriage contract. The renewal of the Anglo-French truce in 1299 led to the marriage of Edward I to Philip's sister Margaret, further anticipating the marriage of Isabella to Edward II.<ref name=Parsons>{{Cite ODNB |last=Parsons |first=John Carmi |title=Isabella [Isabella of France] |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-14484 |access-date=21 October 2021 |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/14484 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> In 1303, Edward I may have considered a [[Castilians|Castilian bride]] for Edward II instead of Isabella and even increased her dowry before the wedding.<ref name=Parsons/> Edward I attempted to break the engagement several times for political advantage, and only after he died in 1307 did the wedding proceed.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Isabella and Edward II were finally married at [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]] on 25 January 1308. Isabella's wardrobe gives some indications of her wealth and style — she had dresses of [[Silk|baudekyn]], [[velvet]], [[taffeta]] and cloth, along with numerous furs; she had over 72 headdresses and [[coif]]s; she brought with her two gold crowns, gold and silver dinnerware and 419 yards of linen.<ref name=WeirP25>Weir 2006, p. 25.</ref> At the time of her marriage, Isabella was probably about twelve and was described by [[Geoffrey of Paris]] as "''the beauty of beauties... in the kingdom if not in all Europe.''" This description was probably not simply flattery by a chronicler, since both Isabella's father and brothers were considered very handsome men by contemporaries, and her husband was to nickname her "Isabella the Fair".<ref name=WeirP25/> Isabella was said to resemble her father, and not her mother, [[queen regnant]] of Navarre, a plump, plain woman.<ref>Costain, p. 82; Weir 2006, p. 12.</ref> This indicates that Isabella was slender and pale-skinned, although the fashion at the time was for blonde, slightly full-faced women, and Isabella may well have followed this stereotype instead.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 26.</ref> Throughout her career, Isabella was noted as charming and diplomatic, with a particular skill at convincing people to follow her courses of action.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 243.</ref> Unusual for the medieval period, contemporaries also commented on her high intelligence.<ref>Mortimer, 2004, p. 36.</ref>

== Queenship ==
[[File:La reine en prière, entourée des armes de France et d'Angleterre.png|thumb|Isabella depicted as queen in [[Isabella Psalter|her Psalter]], c. 1303–1308]]

As queen, the young Isabella faced numerous challenges. Edward was handsome, but also possibly formed close romantic attachments first to [[Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Piers Gaveston]] and then to [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]]. Edward found himself at odds with the barons, too, in particular his first cousin [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]], whilst continuing the war against the Scots that he had inherited from Edward I. Using her own supporters at court and the patronage of her French family, Isabella attempted to find a political path through these challenges. She successfully formed an alliance with Gaveston, but after his death at the hands of the barons, her position grew increasingly precarious. Edward began to take revenge on his enemies, using an ever more brutal alliance with the Despenser family, in particular his new favourite, Hugh Despenser the Younger. By 1326, Isabella found herself increasingly at odds with both Edward and Hugh, ultimately resulting in Isabella's own bid for power and an invasion of England.<ref>For a summary of this period, see Weir 2006, chapters 2–6; Mortimer, 2006, chapter 1; Doherty, chapters 1–3.</ref>

=== Fall of Gaveston: 1308–1312 ===
[[File:Guy de Beauchamp.jpg|thumb|upright|Isabella was able to come to an understanding with her husband's first favourite [[Piers Gaveston]], shown here lying dead at the feet of [[Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick|Guy de Beauchamp]], in a 15th-century representation.]]

Edward was an unusual character by medieval standards. Edward looked the part of a [[Plantagenet]] king: he was tall, athletic, and wildly popular at the beginning of his reign.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 39.</ref> However, he rejected most of the traditional pursuits of a king for the period — [[jousting]], hunting and warfare — and instead enjoyed music, poetry and [[rural crafts]].<ref name="Weir, p. 37">Weir 2006, p. 37.</ref> Furthermore, there is the question of Edward's sexuality in a period when homosexuality was considered a serious crime, but there is no direct evidence of his sexual orientation. Contemporary chroniclers made much of his close affinity with a succession of male [[favourite]]s. Some condemned Edward for loving them "beyond measure" and "uniquely", others explicitly referring to an "illicit and sinful union".<ref name=DohertyP37>Doherty, p. 37.</ref> Nonetheless, Isabella bore four children by Edward, leading some historians to believe that Edward's affairs with his male favourites were [[Platonic love|platonic]], despite Isabella's complaints of whose bed he visited.<ref name=DohertyP37/>

When Isabella first arrived in England following her marriage, her husband was already involved with Piers Gaveston, an "arrogant, ostentatious" soldier, with a "reckless and headstrong" personality that appealed to Edward.<ref>Doherty, p. 38.</ref> Isabella, then aged twelve, was effectively sidelined by the pair. Edward chose to sit with Gaveston rather than Isabella at their wedding celebration,<ref>Doherty, p. 46.</ref> causing grave offence to her uncles [[Louis, Count of Évreux]], and [[Charles, Count of Valois]],<ref name="Weir, p. 37"/> and then refused to grant her either her own lands or her own household.<ref name=DohertyP47>Doherty, p. 47.</ref> Edward also gave Gaveston Isabella's own jewelry, which he wore publicly.<ref>{{cite book |title=Queens Consort, England's Medieval Queens |last=Hilton |first=Lisa |author-link=Lisa Hilton (writer) |page=247 |year=2008 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nichelson |location=Great Britain |isbn=978-0-7538-2611-9}}</ref> Isabella complained to her father that Gaveston took her place next to Edward II, she received insufficient funds and Edward visited Gaveston's bed more than hers.<ref name=Parsons/> It took the intervention of Isabella's father, Philip IV before Edward began to provide for her more appropriately.<ref name=DohertyP47/>

Isabella's relationship with Gaveston was complex. For a time, her dislike of him was widely known, and she was said to be in contact with her father, the pope and cardinals in order to have him exiled.<ref name=Parsons/> Baronial opposition to Gaveston, championed by Thomas of Lancaster, increased; and Philip IV began to covertly fund this grouping, using Isabella and her household as intermediaries.<ref>Doherty, pp. 47–8.</ref> Edward was forced to exile Gaveston to Ireland for a period and began to show Isabella much greater respect, assigning her lands and patronage. In turn, Philip ceased his support for the barons. Gaveston eventually returned from [[Ireland]], and by 1309–11, the three seemed to be co-existing together relatively comfortably.<ref name=DohertyP49>Doherty, p. 49.</ref> Indeed, Gaveston's key enemy, Edward and Isabella's uncle [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster|Thomas of Lancaster]], considered her to be an ally of Gaveston.<ref name=DohertyP49/><ref>"Even her own uncle Lancaster came to regard her as an enemy." Isabella's mother, Joan of Navarre, was Thomas of Lancaster's older half-sister. [https://books.google.com/books?id=6VEdDAAAQBAJ&dq=Isabella+of+france+thomas+of+lancaster+uncle&pg=PT116]</ref> Isabella had begun to build up her own supporters at court, principally the Beaumont family, itself opposed to the Lancastrians. Similarly originating from France, the senior member of the Beaumont family, [[Isabella de Beaumont]], had been a close confidant of Edward's mother [[Eleanor of Castile]], supported by her brother [[Henry de Beaumont]].{{cn|date=August 2023}}

In 1311, Edward conducted a failed campaign against the Scots, during which he and Isabella barely escaped capture. In the aftermath, the barons rose up, signing the [[Ordinances of 1311]], which promised action against Gaveston and expelled Isabella and Henry de Beaumont from court.<ref name=WeirP58>Weir 2006, p. 58.</ref> England fully descended into civil war in 1312. Isabella stood with Edward, sending angry letters to her uncles Louis and Charles asking for support.<ref name=WeirP58/> Edward left Isabella against her will at [[Tynemouth Priory]] in Northumberland whilst he unsuccessfully attempted to fight the barons.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 63.</ref> The campaign was a disaster, and although Edward escaped, Gaveston found himself stranded at [[Scarborough Castle]] where his baronial enemies then surrounded and captured him. [[Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick|Guy de Beauchamp]] and Thomas of Lancaster ensured Gaveston's execution as he was being taken south to rejoin Edward.<ref>Doherty, p. 51.</ref>

=== Tensions grow: 1312–1321 ===
Tensions mounted steadily over the decade. In 1312, Isabella gave birth to the future [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], but by the end of the year Edward's court was beginning to change. Edward was still relying heavily upon his French in-laws, one of which was Isabella's uncle Louis who had been sent from Paris to assist him. However, [[Hugh Despenser the Elder]] now formed part of the inner circle, marking the beginning of the Despensers' increased prominence at Edward's court.<ref>Doherty, p. 54.</ref> The Despensers were opposed to both the Lancastrians and their other allies in the [[Welsh Marches]], making an easy alliance with Edward, who sought revenge for the death of Gaveston.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 68.</ref>

In 1313, Isabella travelled to Paris with Edward to garner further French support, which resulted in the Tour de Nesle affair. The journey was a pleasant one, with many festivities, although Isabella was injured when her tent burned down.<ref>Doherty, p. 56.</ref> During the visit, her brothers Louis and Charles put on a satirical [[Puppetry|puppet show]] for their guests and Isabella gave new embroidered [[Coin purse|purses]] both to her brothers and to their wives.<ref name=WeirP92>Weir 2006, p. 92.</ref> Isabella and Edward then returned to England with new assurances of French support against the English barons. Later in the year, however, when Isabella and Edward held a large dinner in London to celebrate their return, Isabella apparently noticed that the purses she had given to her sisters-in-law were now being carried by two [[Norman people|Norman]] knights: Gautier and Philippe d'Aunay.<ref name=WeirP92/> Isabella concluded that the pair must have been carrying on an illicit affair, and appears to have informed her father of this during her next visit to France in 1314.<ref>Weir 2006, pp. 92, 99.</ref> The consequence of this was the [[Tour de Nesle affair]] in [[Paris]], which led to legal action against all three of Isabella's sisters-in-law. [[Blanche of Burgundy|Blanche]] and [[Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of France|Margaret of Burgundy]] were imprisoned for life while [[Joan II, Countess of Burgundy|Joan of Burgundy]] was imprisoned for a year before being acquitted. Isabella's reputation in France suffered somewhat as a result of her perceived role in the affair.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

In the north, however, the situation was becoming worse. Edward attempted to quash the Scots in a fresh campaign in 1314, resulting in the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]]. Edward was blamed by the barons for the catastrophic failure of the campaign. Thomas of Lancaster reacted to the defeats in Scotland by taking increased power in England and turning against Isabella, cutting off funds and harassing her household.<ref>Doherty, p. 60.</ref> To make matters worse, the "[[Great Famine of 1315–1317|Great Famine]]" descended on England during 1315–17, causing widespread loss of life and financial problems.<ref name=DohertyP61>Doherty, p. 61.</ref>

Despite Isabella giving birth to her second son, [[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall|John]], in 1316, Edward's position was precarious. Indeed, [[John Deydras]], a [[Pretender|royal pretender]], appeared in [[Oxford]], claiming to have been switched with Edward at birth, and to be the real king of England himself.<ref>Doherty, pp. 60–1.</ref> Given Edward's unpopularity, the rumours spread considerably before Deydras' eventual execution, and appear to have greatly upset Isabella. Isabella responded by deepening her alliance with Lancaster's enemy, [[Henry de Beaumont]], and by taking up an increased role in government herself, including attending council meetings and acquiring increased lands.<ref>Doherty, pp. 61–2.</ref> Henry's sister, [[Isabella de Beaumont|Isabella de Vesci]], continued to remain a close adviser to the Queen.<ref name=DohertyP61/> The Scottish general [[James Douglas, Lord of Douglas|Sir James Douglas]], war leader for [[Robert I of Scotland]], made a bid to capture Isabella personally in 1319. He almost succeeded in [[James Douglas, Lord of Douglas#Myton and Byland|capturing her at York]], with Isabella only just barely escaping.<ref>Doherty, p. 62.</ref> Suspicions fell on Lancaster, and one of Edward's knights, Edmund Darel, was arrested on charges of having betrayed her location, but the charges were essentially unproven.<ref name=DohertyP64>Doherty, p. 64.</ref> In 1320, Isabella accompanied Edward to France to try and convince her brother, Philip V, to provide fresh support to crush the English barons.<ref name=DohertyP64/>

Meanwhile, Hugh de Despenser the Younger became an increasing favourite of Isabella's husband, and was believed by some to have begun a sexual relationship with him around this time.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 120.</ref> Hugh was the same age as Edward. His father, Hugh the Elder, had supported Edward and Gaveston a few years previously.<ref>Doherty, p. 65.</ref> The Despensers were bitter enemies of Lancaster, and, with Edward's support, began to increase their power base in the Welsh Marches, in the process making enemies of [[Roger Mortimer de Chirk]] and his nephew, [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer of Wigmore]], their rival [[Marcher lord|Marcher Lords]].<ref>Doherty, p. 66.</ref> Whilst Isabella had been able to work with Gaveston, Edward's previous favourite, it became increasingly clear that Hugh the Younger and Isabella could not work out a similar compromise. Unfortunately for Isabella, she was still estranged from Lancaster's rival faction, giving her little room to manoeuvre.<ref>Doherty, p. 67.</ref> In 1321, Lancaster's alliance moved against the Despensers, sending troops into London and demanding their exile. [[Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]], a moderate baron with strong French links, asked Isabella to intervene in an attempt to prevent war;<ref>Weir 2006, p. 132.</ref> Isabella publicly went down on her knees to appeal to Edward to exile the Despensers, providing him with a face-saving excuse to do so, but Edward intended to arrange their return at the first opportunity.<ref>Doherty, p. 67; Weir 2006, p. 132.</ref> Isabella's attempts, though heavily praised by the English, had very little impact and she had no lasting effect as a mediator for foreign or domestic affairs.<ref name=Parsons/>

=== Return of the Despensers, 1321–1326 ===
Despite the momentary respite delivered by Isabella, by the autumn of 1321, the tensions between the two factions of Edward, Isabella and the Despenser, opposing the baronial opposition led by Thomas of Lancaster, were extremely high, with forces still mobilised across the country.<ref>Doherty, p. 70.</ref> At this point, Isabella undertook a pilgrimage to [[Canterbury]], during which she left the traditional route to stop at [[Leeds Castle]] in [[Kent]], a fortification held by [[Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere|Bartholomew de Badlesmere]], steward of the King's household who had by 1321 joined the ranks of Edward's opponents. Some historians believe that the pilgrimage was a deliberate act by Isabella on Edward's behalf to create a ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref>Doherty, pp. 70–1; Weir 2006, p. 133.</ref> Lord Badlesmere was away at the time, having left his wife [[Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere]] in charge of the castle. When the latter adamantly refused the Queen's admittance, fighting broke out outside the castle between Isabella's guards and the garrison, marking the beginning of the [[Despenser War]].<ref name=DohertyP71>Doherty, p. 71.</ref> Whilst Edward mobilised his own faction and placed Leeds Castle under siege, Isabella was given the [[Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal]] and assumed control of the royal [[Court of Chancery#Origins|Chancery]] from the [[Tower of London]].<ref name=DohertyP71/> After surrendering to Edward's forces on 31 October 1321, Margaret, Baroness [[Badlesmere, Kent]] and her children were sent to the Tower, and 13 of the Leeds garrison were hanged. By January 1322, Edward's army, reinforced by the Despensers returning from exile, had forced the surrender of the Mortimers, and by March Lancaster himself had been captured after the [[Battle of Boroughbridge]]; Lancaster was promptly executed, leaving Edward and the Despensers victorious.<ref>Doherty, pp. 72–3.</ref>

[[File:TynemouthPriory2005-03-08 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Tynemouth Castle and Priory|Tynemouth Priory]], seen from the [[North Sea]], where Isabella sought shelter from the Scots army following the disastrous campaign of 1322]]

[[Hugh Despenser the Younger]] was now firmly ensconced as Edward's new favourite and together over the next four years Edward and the Despensers imposed a harsh rule over England, a "sweeping revenge"<ref>Weir 2006, p. 138.</ref> characterised by land confiscation, large-scale imprisonment, executions and the punishment of extended family members, including women and the elderly.<ref>Doherty, pp. 74–5.</ref> This was condemned by contemporary chroniclers, and is felt to have caused concern to Isabella as well;<ref>Doherty, p. 73.</ref> some of those widows being persecuted included her friends.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 143.</ref> Isabella's relationship with Despenser the Younger continued to deteriorate; the Despensers refused to pay her monies owed to her, or return her castles at [[Marlborough Castle|Marlborough]] and [[Devizes Castle|Devizes]].<ref>Weir 2006, p. 144.</ref> Indeed, various authors have suggested that there is evidence that Hugh Despenser the Younger attempted to assault Isabella herself in some fashion.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 149.</ref> Certainly, immediately after the Battle of Boroughbridge, Edward began to be markedly less generous in his gifts towards Isabella, and none of the spoils of the war were awarded to her.<ref>Doherty, p. 75.</ref> Worse still, later in the year Isabella was caught up in the failure of another of Edward's campaigns in Scotland, in a way that permanently poisoned her relationship with both Edward and the Despensers.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Isabella and Edward had travelled north together at the start of the autumn campaign. Before the disastrous [[Battle of Old Byland]] in Yorkshire, Edward had ridden south, apparently to raise more men, sending Isabella east to [[Tynemouth Priory]].<ref>Doherty, pp. 76–7.</ref> With the Scottish army marching south, Isabella expressed considerable concern about her personal safety and requested assistance from Edward. Her husband initially proposed sending Despenser forces to secure her, but Isabella rejected this outright, instead requesting friendly troops. Rapidly retreating south with the Despensers, Edward failed to grasp the situation, resulting in Isabella finding herself and her household cut off from the south by the Scottish army, with the coastline patrolled by [[Flanders|Flemish]] naval forces allied to the Scots.<ref name=DohertyP77>Doherty, p. 77.</ref> The situation was precarious and Isabella was forced to use a group of squires from her personal retinue to hold off the advancing army whilst other of her knights commandeered a ship. The fighting continued as Isabella and her household retreated onto the vessel, resulting in the death of two of her ladies-in-waiting.<ref name=DohertyP77/> Once aboard, Isabella evaded the Flemish navy, landing further south and making her way to York.<ref name=DohertyP77/> Isabella was furious both with Edward for, from her perspective, abandoning her to the Scots, and with Despensers for convincing Edward to retreat rather than sending help.<ref name=DohertyP78>Doherty, p. 78.</ref> For his part, Edward blamed [[Lewis de Beaumont]], the [[Bishop of Durham]] and an ally of Isabella, for the fiasco.<ref name=DohertyP78/>

Isabella effectively separated from Edward from here onwards, leaving him to live with Hugh Despenser. At the end of 1322, Isabella left the court on a ten-month-long pilgrimage around England by herself.<ref name=DohertyP79>Doherty, p. 79.</ref> On her return in 1323, she visited Edward briefly, but was removed from the process of granting royal patronage.<ref name=DohertyP79/> At the end of 1324, as tensions grew with France, Edward and the Despensers confiscated all of Isabella's lands, took over the running of her household and arrested and imprisoned all of her French staff. Isabella's youngest children were removed from her and placed into the custody of the Despensers.<ref>Doherty, p. 80.</ref> At this point, Isabella appeared to have realised that any hope of working with Edward was effectively over and begun to consider radical solutions.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

== Invasion of England ==
By 1325, Isabella was facing increasing pressure from Hugh Despenser the Younger, Edward's new royal favourite. With her lands in England seized, her children taken away from her and her household staff arrested, Isabella began to pursue other options. When her brother, King Charles IV of France, seized Edward's French possessions in 1325, she returned to France, initially as a delegate of the King charged with negotiating a peace treaty between the two nations. However, her presence in France became a focal point for the many nobles opposed to Edward's reign. Isabella gathered an army to oppose Edward, in alliance with Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, whom she may have taken as a lover. Isabella and Mortimer returned to England with a mercenary army, seizing the country in a lightning campaign. The Despensers were executed and Edward was forced to abdicate — his eventual fate and possible murder remains a matter of considerable historical debate. Isabella ruled as regent until 1330 when her son Edward deposed Mortimer and began to rule directly in his own right.{{sfn|Castor|2011|pp=312–313}}

=== Tensions in Gascony, 1323–1325 ===
[[File:Isabela Karel Eda.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|An early 15th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] showing the future [[Edward III]] as a boy, giving homage to [[Charles IV of France]] at centre right, under the guidance of Edward's mother, and Charles' sister, Isabella, in September 1325<ref>Ainsworth, p. 3.</ref>]]

Isabella's husband Edward, as the [[Duke of Aquitaine]], owed [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] to the King of France for his lands in [[Gascony]].<ref name=HolmesP16>Holmes, p. 16.</ref> Isabella's three brothers each had only short reigns, and Edward had successfully avoided paying homage to Louis X, and had paid homage to Philip V only under great pressure. Once Charles IV took up the throne, Edward had attempted to avoid doing so again, increasing tensions between the two.<ref name=HolmesP16/> One of the elements in the disputes was the border province of [[Agenais]], part of Gascony and in turn part of Aquitaine. Tensions rose in November 1323 after the construction of a [[bastide]], a type of fortified town, in [[Saint-Sardos, Lot-et-Garonne|Saint-Sardos]], part of the Agenais, by a French vassal.<ref>Neillands, p. 30.</ref> Gascon forces destroyed the bastide, and in turn Charles attacked the English-held [[Montpezat, Lot-et-Garonne|Montpezat]]. The assault was unsuccessful,<ref>Neillands, p. 31.</ref> but in the subsequent [[War of Saint-Sardos]], Isabella's uncle, [[Charles, Count of Valois|Charles of Valois]], successfully wrested Aquitaine from English control.<ref>Holmes, p. 16; Kibler, p. 201.</ref> By 1324, Charles declared Edward's lands forfeit and occupied the entirety of Aquitaine apart from the coastal areas.<ref>Kibler, p. 314.</ref>

Edward was still unwilling to travel to France to give homage due to England's precarious condition. Criminal gangs were occupying most of the country and there had been an assassination plot against Edward and Hugh Despenser in 1324, with the famous magician [[John of Nottingham]] being hired to kill the pair using [[necromancy]].<ref>Doherty, pp. 80–1.</ref> Edward was deeply concerned that, should he leave England, even for a short while, the barons would take the chance to rise up and take their revenge on the Despensers. Charles sent a message through [[Pope John XXII]] to Edward, suggesting that he was willing to reverse the forfeiture of the lands if Edward ceded the Agenais and paid homage for the rest of the lands.<ref>Sumption, p. 97.</ref> The Pope proposed Isabella as an ambassador, and Isabella saw this as a perfect opportunity to resolve her situation with Edward and the Despensers.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Having promised to return to England by the summer, Isabella reached Paris in March 1325 and rapidly agreed to a truce in Gascony, under which Prince Edward, then thirteen years old, would come to France to give homage on his father's behalf.<ref name=DohertyP81>Doherty, p. 81.</ref> Prince Edward arrived in France, and gave homage in September. At this point, however, rather than returning, Isabella remained firmly in France with her son. Edward began to send urgent messages to the Pope and to Charles IV, expressing his concern about his wife's absence, but to no avail.<ref name=DohertyP81/> Edward instructed Isabella to come home in September, but she expressed concern the young Despenser would try to kill her upon her arrival, or the Earl of Richmond.<ref name=Parsons/> She also feared her own husband might attempt to have her killed.<ref name=Parsons/> For his part, Charles replied that the, "queen has come of her own will and may freely return if she wishes. But if she prefers to remain here, she is my sister and I refuse to expel her." Charles went on to refuse to return the lands in Aquitaine to Edward, resulting in a provisional agreement under which Edward resumed administration of the remaining English territories in early 1326 whilst France continued to occupy the rest.<ref>Kibler, p. 314; Sumption, p. 98.</ref>

Meanwhile, the messages brought back by Edward's agent [[Walter de Stapledon]], [[Bishop of Exeter]] and others portrayed a steadily worsening situation. They wrote that Isabella had publicly snubbed Stapledon; Edward's political enemies were gathering at the French court and threatening his emissaries; and that Isabella was dressed as a widow, claiming that Hugh Despenser had destroyed her marriage with Edward. Additionally, Isabella surrounded herself with mostly exiles, including [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|Edmund of Kent]], [[John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond]],<ref name="DohertyP81" /> and her rumored lover Roger Mortimer.<ref name=Parsons/>

=== Roger Mortimer, 1325–1326 ===
[[File:Retour d Isabelle de France en Angleterre.jpg|thumb|Isabella landing in England with her son, the future [[Edward III]] in 1326]]

Roger Mortimer was a powerful Marcher lord, married to the wealthy heiress [[Joan de Geneville]], and the father of twelve children. Mortimer had been imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1322 following his capture by Edward during the Despenser wars. Mortimer's uncle, Roger Mortimer de Chirk finally died in prison, but Mortimer managed to escape the Tower in August 1323: making a hole in the stone wall of his cell and then escaping onto the roof, before using rope ladders provided by an accomplice to get down to the [[River Thames]]. He then crossed the river and eventually made it to safety in France.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 153.</ref> Victorian writers suggested that, given later events, Isabella might have helped Mortimer escape. Additionally, some historians continue to argue that their relationship had already begun at this point, although most believe that there is no hard evidence for their having had a substantial relationship before meeting in Paris.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 154; see Mortimer, 2004 pp. 128–9 for the alternative perspective.</ref>

Isabella was reintroduced to Mortimer in Paris by her cousin, [[Joan of Valois, Countess of Hainaut|Joan, Countess of Hainault]], who appears to have approached Isabella suggesting a marital alliance between their two families, marrying Prince Edward to Joan's daughter, [[Philippa of Hainault|Philippa]].<ref>Weir 2006, p. 194.</ref> Mortimer and Isabella may have begun a physical relationship from December 1325 onwards. If so, both Isabella and Mortimer were taking a huge risk in doing so. Female infidelity was a very serious offence in medieval Europe, as shown during the Tour de Nesle Affair. Both of Isabella's former French sisters-in-law had died by 1326 as a result of their imprisonment for charges of adultery,<ref>A point born out by Mortimer, 2004, p. 140.</ref> and their alleged lovers had been brutally executed.<ref name="Weir_P100">Weir 2006, p.100.</ref> As a result, Isabella's motivation has been the subject of discussion by historians. Some believe that there was a strong sexual attraction between the two, that they shared an interest in the [[King Arthur|Arthurian legends]], and that they both enjoyed fine art and high living.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 197.</ref> One historian has described their relationship as one of the "great romances of the Middle Ages" in spite of the fact that they are reputed to have murdered her husband.<ref>Mortimer, 2004, p. 141.</ref> They also shared a common enemy: the regime of Edward II and the Despensers.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Taking Prince Edward with them, Isabella and Mortimer left the French court in mid-1326 and travelled north to [[William I, Count of Hainaut]]. As Joan had suggested the previous year, Isabella betrothed Prince Edward to Philippa of Hainault, the daughter of the Count, in exchange for a substantial dowry.<ref>Kibler, p. 477.</ref> She then used this money, plus an earlier loan from Charles,<ref>Lord, p. 47.</ref> to raise a mercenary army, scouring [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]] for men, which were added to a small force of Hainaut troops.<ref name=WeirP221>Weir 2006, p. 221.</ref> William also provided eight [[men-of-war]] ships and various smaller vessels as part of the marriage arrangements. Although Edward was now fearing an invasion, secrecy remained key, and Isabella convinced William to detain envoys from Edward.<ref name=WeirP221/> Isabella also appears to have made a secret agreement with the Scots for the duration of the forthcoming campaign.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 222.</ref> On 22 September, Isabella, Mortimer and their modest force set sail for England.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 223.</ref>

=== Seizure of power, 1326 ===
{{Main|Invasion of England (1326)|Parliament of 1327}}
[[File:Bristol1326.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Isabella (left, wearing crown) directing the [[Siege of Bristol (1326)|Siege of Bristol]] in October 1326]]

Having evaded Edward's fleet, which had been sent to intercept them,<ref name=DohertyP90>Doherty, p. 90.</ref> Isabella and Mortimer landed at [[River Orwell|Orwell]] on the east coast of England on 24 September with a small force; estimates of Isabella's army vary from between 300 and around 2,000 soldiers, with 1,500 being a popular middle figure.<ref>Mortimer, 2004, pp. 148–9.</ref> After a short period of confusion during which they attempted to work out where they had actually landed, Isabella moved quickly inland, dressed in her widow's clothes.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 225.</ref> The local levies mobilised to stop them immediately changed sides, and by the following day Isabella was in [[Bury St Edmunds]] and shortly afterwards had swept inland to [[Cambridge]].<ref name=DohertyP90/> [[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Thomas, Earl of Norfolk]], joined Isabella's forces and [[Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster|Henry of Lancaster]] – the brother of the late Thomas, and Isabella's uncle – also announced he was joining Isabella's faction, marching south to join her.<ref name=DohertyP90/>

By the 27th, word of the invasion had reached the King and the Despensers in London.<ref name=DohertyP90/> Edward issued orders to local sheriffs to mobilise opposition to Isabella and Mortimer, but London itself was becoming unsafe because of local unrest and Edward made plans to leave.<ref name=DohertyP90/> Isabella struck west again, reaching Oxford on 2 October where she was "greeted as a saviour" – [[Adam Orleton]], the [[Bishop of Hereford]], emerged from hiding to give a lecture to the university on the evils of the Despensers.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 227.</ref> Edward fled London on the same day, heading west towards Wales.<ref>Doherty, p. 91.</ref> Isabella and Mortimer now had an effective alliance with the Lancastrian opposition to Edward, bringing all of his opponents into a single coalition.<ref>Doherty, p. 92</ref>

[[File:Isabella's invasion route (1326).svg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|Isabella and [[Edward II of England|Edward]]'s [[Invasion of England (1326)|campaign in 1326]]<ref>From Weir 2006, chapter 8; Mortimer, 2006, chapter 2; and Myers's map of Medieval English transport systems, p. 270.</ref>]]

Isabella now marched south towards London, pausing at [[Dunstable]], outside the city on 7 October.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 228.</ref> London was now in the hands of the mobs, although broadly allied to Isabella. [[Walter de Stapledon|Bishop Stapledon]] failed to realise the extent to which royal power had collapsed in the capital, and tried to intervene militarily to protect his property against rioters; a hated figure locally, he was promptly attacked and killed — his head was later sent to Isabella by her local supporters.<ref>Weir 2006, pp. 228–9; p. 232.</ref> Edward, meanwhile, was still fleeing west, reaching [[Gloucester]] by 9 October. Isabella responded by marching swiftly west herself in an attempt to cut him off, reaching Gloucester a week after Edward, who slipped across the border into Wales the same day.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 232.</ref>

Hugh Despenser the Elder continued to hold [[Bristol]] against Isabella and Mortimer, who placed it under siege between 18–26 October; when it fell, Isabella was able to recover her daughters [[Eleanor of Woodstock|Eleanor]] and [[Joan of The Tower|Joan]], who had been kept in the Despensers' custody.<ref>Doherty, p. 92; Weir 2006, pp. 233–4.</ref> By now desperate and increasingly deserted by their court, Edward and Hugh Despenser the Younger attempted to sail to [[Lundy]], a small island in the [[Bristol Channel]], but the weather was against them and after several days they were forced to land back in Wales.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 233.</ref> With Bristol secure, Isabella moved her base of operations up to the border town of [[Hereford]], from where she ordered Henry of Lancaster to locate and arrest her husband.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 236.</ref> After a fortnight of evading Isabella's forces in South Wales, Edward and Hugh were finally caught and arrested near [[Llantrisant]] on 16 November.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

[[File:Isabela spol.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|left|[[Hugh Despenser the Younger]] and [[Edmund Fitzalan, 2nd Earl of Arundel|Edmund Fitzalan]] brought before Isabella for trial in 1326; the pair were gruesomely executed.]]

The retribution began immediately. Hugh Despenser the Elder had been captured at Bristol, and despite some attempts by Isabella to protect him, was promptly executed by his Lancastrian enemies – his body was hacked to pieces and fed to the local dogs.<ref>Doherty, p. 93.</ref> The remainder of the former regime were brought to Isabella. [[Edmund Fitzalan, 2nd Earl of Arundel|Edmund Fitzalan]], a key supporter of Edward II and who had received many of Mortimer's confiscated lands in 1322, was executed on 17 November. Hugh Despenser the Younger was sentenced to be brutally executed on 24 November, and a huge crowd gathered in anticipation at seeing him die. They dragged him from his horse, stripped him, and scrawled Biblical verses against corruption and arrogance on his skin. He was then dragged into the city, presented to Queen Isabella, Roger Mortimer and the Lancastrians. Despenser was then condemned to hang as a thief, be castrated, and then to be [[drawn and quartered]] as a traitor, his quarters to be dispersed throughout England. Simon of Reading, one of the Despensers' supporters, was hanged next to him, on charges of insulting Isabella.<ref>Mortimer The Greatest Traitor, pp. 159–162.</ref> Once the core of the Despenser regime had been executed, Isabella and Mortimer began to show restraint. Lesser nobles were pardoned and the clerks at the heart of the government, mostly appointed by the Despensers and Stapledon, were confirmed in office.<ref>Doherty, p. 107.</ref> All that was left now was the question of Edward II, still officially Isabella's legal husband and lawful king.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 242.</ref>

=== Death of Edward, 1327 ===
[[File:Eduard2 arest.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An imaginative medieval interpretation of [[Edward II of England|Edward's]] arrest by Isabella, seen watching from the right]]

As an interim measure, Edward II was held in the custody of Henry of Lancaster, who surrendered Edward's Great Seal to Isabella.<ref>Doherty, p. 108.</ref> The situation remained tense, however; Isabella was clearly concerned about Edward's supporters staging a counter-coup, and in November she seized the Tower of London, appointed one of her supporters as mayor and convened a council of nobles and churchmen in [[Wallingford, Oxfordshire|Wallingford]] to discuss the fate of Edward.<ref>Doherty, p. 109.</ref> The council concluded that Edward would be legally deposed and placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. This was then confirmed at the [[Parliament of 1327|next parliament]], dominated by Isabella and Mortimer's followers. The session was held in January 1327, with Isabella's case being led by her supporter [[Adam Orleton]], [[Bishop of Hereford]]. Isabella's son, Prince Edward, was confirmed as [[Edward III of England]], with his mother appointed regent.<ref>Doherty, pp. 114–15.</ref> Isabella's position was still precarious, as the legal basis for deposing Edward was doubtful and many lawyers of the day maintained that Edward II was still the rightful king, regardless of the declaration of the Parliament. The situation could be reversed at any moment and Edward II was known to be a vengeful ruler.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Edward II's subsequent fate, and Isabella's role in it, remains hotly contested by historians. The minimally agreed version of events is that Isabella and Mortimer had Edward moved from [[Kenilworth Castle]] in the [[Midlands]] to the safer location of [[Berkeley Castle]] in the Welsh borders, where he was put into the custody of [[Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley|Lord Berkeley]]. On 23 September, Isabella and Edward III were informed by messenger that Edward had died whilst imprisoned at the castle, because of a "fatal accident". Edward's body was apparently buried at [[Gloucester Cathedral]], with his heart being given in a casket to Isabella. After the funeral, there were rumours for many years that Edward had survived and was really alive somewhere in Europe, some of which were captured in the famous [[Fieschi Letter]] written in the 1340s, although no concrete evidence ever emerged to support the allegations. There are, however, various historical interpretations of the events surrounding this basic sequence of events.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

[[File:Berkeley Castle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Berkeley Castle]] in [[Gloucestershire]], where [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] was popularly said to have been murdered on the orders of Isabella and Mortimer; some current scholarship disputes this interpretation.]]

According to legend, Isabella and Mortimer famously plotted to murder Edward in such a way as not to draw blame on themselves, sending a famous order (in {{langx|la|Eduardum occidere nolite timere bonum est}}) which, depending on where the comma was inserted, could mean either "Do not be afraid to kill Edward; it is good" or "Do not kill Edward; it is good to fear". In actuality, there is little evidence of anyone deciding to have Edward assassinated, and none whatsoever of the note having been written. Similarly, accounts of Edward being killed with a red-hot [[Fireplace poker|poker]] have no strong contemporary sources to support them. The conventional 20th-century view has been that Edward did die at Berkeley Castle, either murdered on Isabella's orders or of ill-health brought on by his captivity, and that subsequent accounts of his survival were simply rumours, similar to those that surrounded [[Joan of Arc]] and other near contemporaries after their deaths.

Three recent historians, however, have offered an alternative interpretation of events. [[Paul C. Doherty|Paul Doherty]], drawing extensively on the Fieschi Letter of the 1340s, has argued that Edward in fact escaped from Berkeley Castle with the help of William Ockle, a knight whom Doherty argues subsequently pretended to be Edward in disguise around Europe, using the name "William the Welshman" to draw attention away from the real Edward himself. In this interpretation, a look-alike was buried at Gloucester.<ref>Doherty, pp. 213–15.</ref> [[Ian Mortimer (historian)|Ian Mortimer]], focusing more on contemporary documents from 1327 itself, argues that Roger de Mortimer engineered a fake "escape" for Edward from Berkeley Castle; after this Edward was kept in Ireland, believing he was really evading Mortimer, before finally finding himself free, but politically unwelcome, after the fall of Isabella and Mortimer. In this version, Edward makes his way to Europe, before subsequently being buried at Gloucester.<ref>Mortimer, 2004, pp. 244–264; Mortimer, 2006, appendix 2.</ref> Finally, [[Alison Weir (historian)|Alison Weir]], again drawing on the Fieschi Letter, has recently argued that Edward II escaped his captors, killing one in the process, and lived as a hermit for many years; in this interpretation, the body in Gloucester Cathedral is of Edward's dead captor. In all of these versions, it is argued that it suited Isabella and Mortimer to publicly claim that Edward was dead, even if they were aware of the truth. Other historians, however, including [[David Carpenter (historian)|David Carpenter]], have criticised the methodology behind this revisionist approach and disagree with the conclusions.<ref>See Carpenter 2007a, Carpenter 2007b.</ref>

== Later years ==
Isabella and Mortimer ruled together for four years, with Isabella's period as regent marked by the acquisition of huge sums of money and land. When their political alliance with the Lancastrians began to disintegrate, Isabella continued to support Mortimer. Isabella fell from power when her son, Edward III deposed Mortimer in a coup, taking back royal authority for himself. Unlike Mortimer, Isabella survived the transition of power, remaining a wealthy and influential member of the English court, albeit never returning directly to active politics.<ref>For a summary of this period, see Weir 2006, chapter 11; Doherty, chapter 8; Mortimer, 2006, chapter 4.</ref>

=== As regent, 1326–1330 ===
[[File:Isabella and Roger Mortimer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|15th century manuscript illustration that depicts Isabella and allegedly [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March]] at [[Hereford]]; the execution of [[Hugh Despenser the Younger]] can be seen in the centre background.]]

Isabella's regency lasted only four years, before the fragile political alliance that had brought her and Mortimer to power disintegrated. 1328 saw the marriage of Isabella's son, Edward III to Philippa of Hainault, as agreed before the invasion of 1326; the lavish ceremony was held in London to popular acclaim.<ref>Doherty, p. 142.</ref> Isabella and Mortimer had already begun a trend that continued over the next few years, in starting to accumulate huge wealth. With her lands restored to her, Isabella was already exceptionally rich, but she began to accumulate yet more. Within the first few weeks, Isabella had granted herself almost £12,000;<ref>Weir 2006, p. 245.</ref> finding that Edward's royal treasury contained £60,000, a rapid period of celebratory spending then ensued.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 248.</ref> Isabella soon awarded herself another £20,000, allegedly to pay off foreign debts.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 249.</ref> At Edward III's coronation, Isabella then extended her land holdings from a value of £4,400 each year to the huge sum of £13,333, making her one of the largest landowners in the kingdom.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 259.</ref> Isabella also refused to hand over her [[dower]] lands to Philippa after her marriage to Edward III, in contravention of usual custom.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 303.</ref> Isabella's lavish lifestyle matched her new incomes.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 258.</ref> Mortimer, in effect her first minister, after a restrained beginning, also began to accumulate lands and titles at a tremendous rate, particularly in the Marcher territories.<ref>Doherty, p. 156.</ref>

The new regime also faced some key foreign policy dilemmas, which Isabella approached from a [[Political realism|realist]] perspective.<ref name="Weir, p. 261">Weir 2006, p. 261.</ref> The first of these was the situation in Scotland, where Edward II's unsuccessful policies had left an unfinished, tremendously expensive war. Isabella was committed to bringing this issue to a conclusion by diplomatic means. Edward III initially opposed this policy, before eventually relenting,<ref>Weir 2006, p. 304.</ref> leading to the [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton|Treaty of Northampton]]. Under this treaty, Isabella's daughter Joan would marry [[David II of Scotland|David Bruce]] (heir apparent to the Scottish throne) and Edward III would renounce any claims on Scottish lands, in exchange for the promise of Scottish military aid against any enemy except the French, and £20,000 in compensation for the raids across northern England. No compensation would be given to those earls who had lost their Scottish estates, and the compensation would be taken by Isabella.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 305, p. 313.</ref> Although strategically successful and, historically at least, "a successful piece of policy making",<ref>Weir 2006, p. 306.</ref> Isabella's Scottish policy was by no means popular and contributed to the general sense of discontent with the regime. Secondly, the Gascon situation, still unresolved from Edward II's reign, also posed an issue. Isabella reopened negotiations in Paris, resulting in a peace treaty under which the bulk of Gascony, minus the Agenais, would be returned to England in exchange for a 50,000-[[Mark (currency)|mark]] penalty.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 261; Neillands, p. 32.</ref> The treaty was not popular in England because of the Agenais clause.<ref name="Weir, p. 261"/>

[[Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster|Henry, Earl of Lancaster]] was amongst the first to break with Isabella and Mortimer. By 1327 Lancaster was irritated by Mortimer's behaviour and Isabella responded by beginning to sideline him from her government.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 307.</ref> Lancaster was furious over the passing of the Treaty of Northampton, and refused to attend court,<ref>Weir 2006, p. 314.</ref> mobilising support amongst the commoners of London.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 315.</ref> Isabella responded to the problems by undertaking a wide reform of royal administration and local law enforcement.<ref name=WeirP309>Weir 2006, p. 309.</ref> In a move guaranteed to appeal to domestic opinion, Isabella also decided to pursue Edward III's [[English claims to the French throne|claim on the French throne]], sending her advisers to France to demand official recognition of his claim.<ref name=WeirP309/> The French nobility were unimpressed and, since Isabella lacked the funds to begin any military campaign, she began to court the opinion of France's neighbours, including proposing the marriage of her son John to the [[Kingdom of Castile|Castilian royal family]].<ref>Weir 2006, p. 310.</ref>

By the end of 1328 the situation had descended into near civil war once again, with Lancaster mobilising his army against Isabella and Mortimer.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 322.</ref> In January 1329 Isabella's forces under Mortimer's command took Lancaster's stronghold of [[Leicester]], followed by [[Bedford]]; Isabella — wearing armour, and mounted on a warhorse — and Edward III marched rapidly north, resulting in Lancaster's surrender. He escaped death but was subjected to a colossal fine, effectively crippling his power.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 322; Mortimer, 2004, p. 218.</ref> Isabella was merciful to those who had aligned themselves with him, although some — such as her old supporter Henry de Beaumont, whose family had split from Isabella over the peace with Scotland, which had lost them huge land holdings in Scotland<ref>Doherty, p. 149.</ref> — fled to France.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 333.</ref>

Despite Lancaster's defeat, however, discontent continued to grow. [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|Edmund of Kent]] had sided with Isabella in 1326, but had since begun to question his decision and was edging back towards Edward II, his half-brother. Edmund of Kent was in conversations with other senior nobles questioning Isabella's rule, including Henry de Beaumont and Isabella de Vesci. Edmund was finally involved in a conspiracy in 1330, allegedly to restore Edward II, who, he claimed, was still alive: Isabella and Mortimer broke up the conspiracy, arresting Edmund and other supporters—including [[Simon Mepeham]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref>Doherty, p. 151.</ref> Edmund may have expected a pardon, possibly from Edward III, but Isabella was insistent on his execution.<ref>Doherty, p. 152.</ref> The execution itself was a fiasco after the executioner refused to attend and Edmund of Kent had to be killed by a local dung-collector, who had been himself sentenced to death and was pardoned as a bribe to undertake the beheading.<ref>Doherty, p. 153.</ref> Isabella de Vesci escaped punishment, despite having been closely involved in the plot.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

=== Mortimer's fall from power, 1330 ===
By mid-1330, Isabella and Mortimer's regime was increasingly insecure, and Isabella's son, Edward III, was growing frustrated at Mortimer's grip on power. Various historians, with different levels of confidence, have also suggested that in late 1329 Isabella became pregnant. A child of Mortimer's with royal blood would have proved both politically inconvenient for Isabella, and challenging to Edward's own position.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 326, is relatively cautious in this assertion; Mortimer, 2004 pp. 221–3 is more confident.</ref>

[[File:Berkhamsted Castle Jan 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|[[Berkhamsted Castle]] in [[Hertfordshire]], where Isabella was initially held after Mortimer's and her fall from power in 1330]]

Edward quietly assembled a body of support from the Church and selected nobles,<ref>Doherty, pp. 158–9.</ref> whilst Isabella and Mortimer moved into [[Nottingham Castle]] for safety, surrounding themselves with loyal troops.<ref>Doherty, p. 159.</ref> In the autumn, Mortimer was investigating another plot against him, when he challenged a young noble, [[William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury|William Montagu]], during an interrogation. Mortimer declared that his word had priority over the king's, an alarming statement that Montagu reported back to Edward.<ref>Doherty, p. 160.</ref> Edward was convinced that this was the moment to act, and on 19 October, Montagu led a force of twenty-three armed men into the castle by a secret tunnel. Up in the [[keep]], Isabella, Mortimer and other council members were discussing how to arrest Montagu, when Montagu and his men appeared.<ref name=DoheryP161>Doherty, p. 161.</ref> Fighting broke out on the stairs and Mortimer was overwhelmed in his chamber. Isabella threw herself at Edward's feet, famously crying "Fair son, have pity on gentle Mortimer!"<ref name=DoheryP161/> Lancastrian troops rapidly took the rest of the castle, leaving Edward in control of his own government for the first time.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

Parliament was convened the next month, where Mortimer was put on trial for treason. Isabella was portrayed as an innocent bystander during the proceedings,<ref>Doherty, p. 162.</ref> and no mention of her sexual relationship with Mortimer was made public.<ref>Doherty, p. 172.</ref> Mortimer was executed at [[Tyburn]], but Edward III showed leniency and he was not quartered or [[Disembowelment|disembowelled]].<ref>Doherty, p. 163.</ref>

=== In retirement, 1330–1358 ===
[[File:Castle-rising-castle.JPG|thumb|[[Castle Rising Castle|Castle Rising]] in [[Norfolk]]; bought by Isabella in 1327, it formed her home during her later years.]]

After the coup, Isabella was initially transferred to [[Berkhamsted Castle]],{{sfn|Castor|2011|p=312}} and then held under house arrest at [[Windsor Castle]] until 1332, when she then moved back to her own [[Castle Rising (castle)|Castle Rising]] in [[Norfolk]].<ref name=DohertyP173>Doherty, p. 173.</ref> [[Agnes Strickland]], a Victorian historian, argued that Isabella suffered from occasional fits of madness during this period but modern interpretations suggest, at worst, a [[Mental disorder|nervous breakdown]] following the death of Mortimer.<ref name=DohertyP173/> Isabella remained extremely wealthy; despite being required to surrender most of her lands after losing power, in 1331 she was reassigned a yearly income of £3000,{{sfn|Castor|2011|p=313}} which increased to £4000 by 1337.<ref name=DohertyP173/> She lived an expensive lifestyle in Norfolk, including [[minstrel]]s, huntsmen, grooms and other luxuries,<ref name="Doherty, p. 176">Doherty, p. 176.</ref> and was soon travelling again around England. In 1348, there were suggestions that she might travel to Paris to take part in peace negotiations, but eventually this plan was quashed.<ref>Doherty, p. 174.</ref> She was involved in the talks with [[Charles II of Navarre]] in 1358.<ref name="mortimer332">{{cite book |title=The Perfect King The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation |last=Mortimer |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Mortimer (historian) |page=332 |year=2008 |publisher=Vintage}}</ref>

As the years went by, Isabella became very close to her daughter Joan, especially after Joan left her unfaithful husband, King [[David II of Scotland]], who was imprisoned by her brother in the Tower of London at the time where she visited him once.<ref>Doherty, p. 175.</ref> Joan nursed her just before she died. She doted on her grandchildren, including [[Edward the Black Prince]]. She became increasingly interested in religion as she grew older, visiting a number of shrines.<ref>Doherty, pp. 175–6.</ref> She remained, however, a gregarious member of the court, receiving constant visitors; amongst them appear to have been her friend [[Marie de St Pol|Marie de St Pol, Countess of Pembroke]], and her cousin [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster|Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster]].<ref>Doherty, p. 177.</ref> King Edward and his children often visited her as well.<ref name="mortimer332"/> She remained interested in [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legends]] and jewellery; in 1358 she appeared at the [[St George's Day]] celebrations at Windsor wearing a dress made of silk, silver, 300 rubies, 1800 pearls and a circlet of gold.<ref name="Doherty, p. 176"/> She may have developed an interest in [[astrology]] or [[geometry]] towards the end of her life, receiving various presents relating to these disciplines.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 371.</ref>

Isabella took the [[nun]]'s habit of the [[Poor Clares]] before she died on 22 August 1358 at [[Hertford Castle]], and her body was returned to London for burial at the [[Christ Church Greyfriars|Franciscan church]] at [[Newgate]], in a service overseen by Archbishop [[Simon Islip]].<ref>Weir 2006, p. 374.</ref> She was buried in the mantle she had worn at her wedding and at her request, Edward's heart, placed into a casket thirty years before, was interred with her. Isabella left the bulk of her property, including Castle Rising, to her favourite grandson, the Black Prince, with some personal effects being granted to her daughter Joan.<ref>Weir 2006, p. 373.</ref>

== Cultural depictions ==
{{Main|Cultural depictions of Isabella of France}}

=== Literature and theatre ===
Queen Isabella appeared with a major role in [[Christopher Marlowe]]'s play ''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (c. 1592) and thereafter has been frequently used as a character in plays, books and films, often portrayed as beautiful but manipulative or wicked. [[Thomas Gray]], the 18th-century poet, combined Marlowe's depiction of Isabella with [[William Shakespeare]]'s description of [[Margaret of Anjou]] (the wife of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]]) as the "She-Wolf of France", to produce the anti-French poem ''[[The Bard (poem)|The Bard]]'' (1757), in which Isabella rips apart the bowels of Edward II with her "unrelenting fangs".<ref name=WeirP2>Weir 2006, p. 2.</ref> The "She-Wolf" epithet stuck, and [[Bertolt Brecht]] re-used it in ''[[The Life of Edward II of England]]'' (1923).<ref name=WeirP2/>

=== Film ===
In [[Derek Jarman]]'s film [[Edward II (film)|''Edward II'']] (1991), based on Marlowe's play, Isabella is portrayed (by actress [[Tilda Swinton]]) as a "femme fatale" whose thwarted love for Edward causes her to turn against him and steal his throne. In contrast to the negative depictions, [[Mel Gibson]]'s film ''[[Braveheart]]'' (1995) portrays Isabella (played by the French actress [[Sophie Marceau]]) more sympathetically. In the film, an adult Isabella is fictionally depicted as having a romantic affair with the Scottish hero [[William Wallace]]. This version of the character takes significant artistic license from her real life counterpart.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2010/aug/06/lying-historical-fiction |title=The lying art of historical fiction |publisher=Guardian News |date=6 August 2010 |access-date=24 September 2012}}</ref> Additionally, Wallace is incorrectly suggested to be the father of her son, Edward III, despite Wallace's death being many years before Edward's birth.<ref>Ewan, pp. 1219–21.</ref>

== Issue ==
Edward and Isabella had four children, and she suffered at least one [[miscarriage]]. Their itineraries demonstrate that they were together nine months prior to the births of all four surviving offspring. Their children were:<ref>{{cite book |last=Haines |first=Roy Martin |year= 2003 |title=King Edward II: His Life, his Reign and its Aftermath, 1284–1330 |location=Montreal, Canada and Kingston, Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3157-4 |page=355}}</ref>

# [[Edward III]], born 1312;
# [[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall]], born 1316;
# [[Eleanor of Woodstock]], born 1318, married [[Reinoud II of Guelders]];
# [[Joan of the Tower]], born 1321, married [[David II of Scotland]].

== Arms ==
{{Infobox COA wide
| image = Arms of Isabella of France.svg
| imagesize = 200px
| coronet = 
| notes = On one of Isabella's seals, she [[Dimidiation|dimidiates]] England and France ancient, but on another seal she bears two [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheons]] simultaneously, one with the arms of England and the other dimidiating the arms of her parents, Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre.<ref name=BoutellP133>Boutell, p. 133.</ref>
| year_adopted = 
| escutcheon = Gules, three lions passant guardant Or (England), dimidiating, Azure, semée fleurs de lys Or (France)
| orders = 
| symbolism = Isabella's seal shows quarterly of four: 1st; that of her husband. 2nd; that of her father, [[Philip IV of France]] ([[House of Capet|Capet]]). 3rd and 4th; that of her mother, [[Joan I of Navarre]] ([[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[House of Champagne|Champagne]]).<ref>Willement, Thomas. ''Regal heraldry; the armorial insignia of the Kings and Queens of England, from coeval authorities,'' London: W. Wilson; Rodwell and Martin. 1821. pg 14, 25. [https://archive.org/details/regalheraldryarm01will ''Regal Heraldry'']</ref> Quarterly, 1st England, 2nd France ancien, 3rd, Gules, a cross saltire and an orle of chains linked together Or (Navarre), 4th, Azure, a bend Argent cotised potent-counter-potent Or (Champagne)<ref>Pinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974), The Royal Heraldry of England, Heraldry Today, Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press, {{ISBN|0-900455-25-X}}</ref>
}}

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Isabella of France'''
|2= 2. [[Philip IV of France]]
|3= 3. [[Joan I of Navarre]]
|4= 4. [[Philip III of France]]<ref name="Anselme87">Anselme 1726, pp. 87–88</ref>
|5= 5. [[Isabella of Aragon, Queen of France|Isabella of Aragon]]<ref name="Anselme87"/>
|6= 6. [[Henry I of Navarre]]<ref name="Anselme381">Anselme 1726, pp. 381–382</ref>
|7= 7. [[Blanche of Artois]]<ref name="Anselme381"/>
|8= 8. [[Louis IX of France]]<ref name="Anselme83">Anselme 1726, pp. 83–85</ref>
|9= 9. [[Margaret of Provence]]<ref name="Anselme83"/>
|10= 10. [[James I of Aragon]]<ref name="Anselme87"/>
|11= 11. [[Violant of Hungary]]<ref name="Anselme87"/>
|12= 12. [[Theobald I of Navarre]]<ref name="Evergates80">{{cite book| last=Evergates| first=Theodore| title=Aristocratic Women in Medieval France|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2011|page=80}}</ref>
|13= 13. [[Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre|Margaret of Bourbon]]<ref name="Evergates80"/>
|14= 14. [[Robert I of Artois]]<ref name="Anselme381"/>
|15= 15. [[Matilda of Brabant]]<ref name="Anselme381"/>
}}

Isabella was descended from [[Gytha of Wessex]] through King [[Andrew II of Hungary]] and thus brought the bloodline of the last [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[king of England]], [[Harold Godwinson]], back into the English royal family.<ref name="Alison Weir 1999 page 90">Weir 1999, p. 90.</ref>

{{Hundred Years' War family tree}}

== See also ==
* [[Geoffrey the Baker]]
* [[Hundred Years' War]]
* [[Isabella Psalter]]
* [[Vita Edwardi Secundi]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|15em}}

== Sources ==
* Ainsworth, Peter. (2006) ''Representing Royalty: Kings, Queens and Captains in Some Early Fifteenth Century Manuscripts of Froissart's Chroniques.'' in Kooper (ed) 2006.
* {{cite book |title=Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de France |volume=1 |trans-title=Genealogical and chronological history of the royal house of France |last=Anselme de Sainte-Marie |first=Père |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k76026j/f16.image |publisher=La compagnie des libraires |location=Paris |language=fr |edition=3rd |year=1726 |ref={{harvid|Anselme|1726}} }}
* Boutell, Charles. (1863) ''A Manual of Heraldry, Historical and Popular.'' London: Winsor & Newton.
* [[David Carpenter (historian)|Carpenter, David]]. (2007a) "What Happened to Edward II?" ''London Review of Books''. Vol. 29, No. 11. 7 June 2007.
* Carpenter, David. (2007b) "Dead or Alive." ''London Review of Books.'' Vol. 29, No. 15. 2 August 2007.
* {{cite book |first=Helen |last=Castor |author-link=Helen Castor |year=2011 |title=She-Wolves: The Women Who Ruled England Before Elizabeth |publisher=Faber and Faber |isbn=978-0571237067 }}
* [[P. C. Doherty|Doherty, P.C.]] (2003) ''Isabella and the Strange Death of Edward II.'' London: Robinson. {{ISBN|1-84119-843-9}}.
* Ewan, Elizabeth. "Braveheart." ''American Historical Review.'' Vol. 100, No. 4. October 1995.
* Given-Wilson, Chris. (ed) (2002) ''Fourteenth Century England.'' Prestwich: Woodbridge.
* {{cite book |title=The Plantagenets: History of a Dynasty |first=J. S. |last=Hamilton |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2010}}
* Holmes, George. (2000) ''Europe, Hierarchy and Revolt, 1320–1450, 2nd edition.'' Oxford: Blackwell.
* Kibler, William W. (1995) ''Medieval France: an Encyclopedia.'' London: Routledge.
* Kooper, Erik (ed). (2006) ''The Medieval Chronicle IV.'' Amsterdam: Rodopi.
* Lord, Carla. (2002) ''Queen Isabella at the Court of France.'' in Given-Wilson (ed) (2002).
* [[Ian Mortimer (historian)|Mortimer, Ian]]. (2004) ''The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, Ruler of England 1327–1330.'' London: Pimlico Press.
* Mortimer, Ian. (2006) ''The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation.'' London: Vintage Press. {{ISBN|978-0-09-952709-1}}.
* Myers, A. R. (1978) ''England in the Late Middle Ages.'' Harmondsworth: [[Penguin Books]].
* Neillands, Robin. (2001) ''The Hundred Years War.'' London: Routledge.
* Sumption, Jonathan. (1999) ''The Hundred Years War: Trial by Battle.'' Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press.
* {{cite book |title=Isabella of France: The Rebel Queen |first=Kathryn |last=Warner |publisher=Amberley |year=2016}}
* [[Alison Weir|Weir, Alison]]. (1999) ''Britain's Royal Family: A Complete Genealogy.'' London: The Bodley Head.
* Weir, Alison. (2006) ''Queen Isabella: She-Wolf of France, Queen of England.'' London: Pimlico Books. {{ISBN|978-0-7126-4194-4}}.

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Isabella of France, Queen of England}}
* Heidi Murphy [https://web.archive.org/web/20080209175140/http://www.britannia.com/history/biographies/isabella_france.html Isabella of France (1295–1358), Britannia biographical series]
* {{NPG name}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Capet]]||1295|22 August|1358}}
{{S-roy|en}}
|-
{{S-vac|last=[[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret of France]]}}
{{S-ttl
| title = [[Queen consort of England]]
| years = 25 January 1308 – 25 January 1327
}}
{{S-vac|next=[[Philippa of Hainault]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{House of Plantagenet}}
{{English consort}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Isabella Of France}}
[[Category:1290s births]]
[[Category:1358 deaths]]
[[Category:14th-century English nuns]]
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[[Category:14th-century English women]]
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[[Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned]]
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[[Category:Poor Clares]]
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[[Category:Women in 14th-century warfare]]
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