Editing Irene of Athens

{{short description|Byzantine empress regnant from 797 to 802}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name            = Irene of Athens
| birth_name      = Irene Sarantapechaena
| image           = Irene solidus sb 1599 (obverse).jpg
| caption         = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]] of Irene issued during her sole reign
| succession      = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine empress regnant]]
| reign           = 19 August 797 –<br/>31 October 802
| predecessor     = [[Constantine VI]]
| successor       = [[Nikephoros I]]
| succession1     = [[List of Roman and Byzantine empresses|Byzantine co-empress]]
| reign1          = 792–797
| coronation1     = 15 January 792
| cor-type1       = [[Acclamation]]
| regent1         = [[Constantine VI]]
| reg-type1       = Co-ruler
| succession2     = Byzantine regent
| reign2          = 780–790
| reign-type2     = Regency
| regent2         = [[Constantine VI]]
| reg-type2       = Monarch
| succession3     = [[List of Byzantine empresses|Byzantine empress consort]]
| reign3          = 775–780
| reign-type3     = Tenure
| coronation3     = 17 December 769
| cor-type3       = [[List of Augustae|Coronation]]
| spouse          = [[Leo IV the Khazar|Leo IV]]
| issue           = [[Constantine VI]]
| royal house     = [[Sarantapechos]]
| dynasty         = [[Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian]]
| house-type      = Family
| father          = 
| mother          = 
| birth_date      = 750–756
| birth_place     = [[Athens]], [[Byzantine Empire]]
| death_date      = 9 August 803 (aged 47–53)
| death_place     = [[Lesbos]], [[Byzantine Empire]]
| date of burial  = 
| place of burial = 
| religion        = [[Chalcedonian Christianity]]
| title           = [[List of Augustae|Augusta]]<br/>[[List of Byzantine emperors|Empress of the Romans]]
}}
{{Isaurian dynasty}}

'''Irene of Athens''' ({{langx|el|Εἰρήνη}}, {{lang|el-Latn|Eirḗnē}}; 750/756 – 9 August 803), surname '''Sarantapechaena''' ({{Langx|el|Σαρανταπήχαινα}}, {{lang|el-Latn|Sarantapḗchaina}}),{{efn|{{IPA|el|sarandaˈpixena}}}} was [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Eastern Roman empress|empress consort]] to [[Emperor Leo IV]] from 775 to 780, [[regent]] during the childhood of their son [[Constantine VI]] from 780 until 790, co-ruler from 792 until 797, and finally [[empress regnant]] and sole ruler of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominent [[Sarantapechos]] family, she was selected as [[Leo IV the Khazar|Leo IV]]'s bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband was an [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclast]], she harbored [[iconophile]] sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787, which condemned iconoclasm as [[Heresy in Christianity|heretical]] and brought an end to the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm#The first iconoclast period: 730–787|first iconoclast period]] (730–787). During her 5 year sole reign, her public figure was polarizing, due to the setbacks faced by the Empire and her iconophilic stances, often attributed to her gender and the influence of her retinue.{{sfn|Turner|2021|p=824}} Her reign as sole ruler made her the first ever empress regnant, ruling in her own right, in Roman and Byzantine imperial history.

After the death of her husband, Irene secured the throne for her family, setting herself in charge. During her regency with Constantine VI, she became very influential in government policies, largely overshadowing her son.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|pp=76–80}} As Constantine VI reached maturity, he began to move out from under the influence of his mother. In the early 790s, several revolts attempted to proclaim him as sole ruler. One of these revolts succeeded, but in 792 Irene was re-established in all imperial powers as co-emperor with Constantine VI.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p=83}} In 797, Irene organized a conspiracy in which her supporters gouged out her son's eyes. Constantine was imprisoned and probably died shortly afterwards. With him out of the way, Irene proclaimed herself sole ruler. [[Pope Leo III]]—already seeking to break links with the Byzantine East—used Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of the [[Roman Empire]] to proclaim [[Charlemagne]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor of the Romans]] on Christmas Day of 800 under the pretext that a woman could not rule solely and thus the Roman throne was actually vacant. A revolt in 802 overthrew Irene and exiled her to the island of [[Lesbos]], supplanting her on the throne with [[Nikephoros I]]. Irene died in exile less than a year later.{{Sfn|Garland|1999|p=90}}{{sfn|Turner|2021|p=824}}

==Early life==
Irene was born in [[Athens]] sometime between 750 and 756.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|p=12}}{{efn|The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]]'' gives her birth date as {{circa}} 752,{{sfn|ODB|p=1008}} but this is not corroborated by contemporary sources.{{sfn|PBW|loc=[http://www.pbe.kcl.ac.uk/data/D23/F09.htm Eirene 1]}}{{sfn|PMBZ|loc=[https://www.degruyter.com/database/PMBZ/entry/PMBZ12537/html Eirene (#1439/corr.)]}} The ''Ecloga'' issued by [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] established the minimum age of marriage at 15 for men and 13 for women.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nikolaou |first=Katerina |title=The Byzantines between Civil and Sacramental Marriage |journal=Bulletin de correspondance hellénique moderne et contemporain | volume=1| date=2019| url=http://journals.openedition.org/bchmc/285| doi=10.4000/bchmc.285|s2cid=213898030 }}</ref> Her marriage took place in 769, so she was born in 756 at the latest. On the other hand, Leo IV was 19 years old at the time.}} She was a member of the noble [[Greeks|Greek]] [[Sarantapechos]] family, which had significant political influence in central mainland Greece.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|p=12}} Although she was an orphan,{{sfn|Herrin|2004|p=55}} her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos was a [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] and possibly also a ''[[strategos]]'' ("military general") of the [[Theme (Byzantine administrative unit)|theme]] of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]] at the end of the eighth century.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|p=12}} Constantine Sarantapechos' son, Theophylact, was a ''[[spatharios]]''{{sfn|Herrin|2004|p=113}} and is mentioned as having been involved in suppressing a revolt in 799.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}} According to [[Theophanes the Confessor]], Irene was related to [[Theophano of Athens]] who would become empress consort after her marriage to the Byzantine emperor [[Staurakios]].{{sfn|Herrin|2004|p=56}}{{sfn|Davids|2002|p=112}} Another unnamed female relative of Irene was later married to the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgar]] ruler [[Telerig]] in 776.{{sfn|Herrin|2004|pp=56, 70}}

==Empress consort==
===Selection and marriage===
It is unclear why and how Irene was selected as the bride for the young Leo IV.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|pp=12-13}} The influence of the prominent Sarantepechos family in the theme of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]] likely played a part in the selection of Irene as the wife of the emperor's son, indicating the emperor's interest in restoring order in the Greek mainland.{{sfn|Herrin|2004|pp=55-57}}{{sfn|Turner|2021|p=823}} Especially unusual is that, while Constantine V was a militant iconoclast who was known for persecuting venerators of icons, Irene herself displayed iconophile predilections.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}} This fact, combined with the limited information available about her family, has led some scholars to speculate that Irene may have been selected in a [[bride-show]], in which eligible young women were paraded before the bridegroom until one was finally selected.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|pp=12-13}} If this was the case, then she would have been the first imperial bride to be selected in this manner.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}} However, there is no solid evidence to support this hypothesis other than the apparent oddity of Irene's selection as Leo IV's bride.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=73}}

Irene arrived in [[Constantinople]] on 1 November 769, escorted, per [[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]], by decorated ''[[Dromon|dromones]]'' and ''{{transliteration|el|chelandia}}'' ([[warship]]s ang [[galley]]s). She was betrothed to 19-year-old [[Leo IV the Khazar|Leo IV]], the son of emperor [[Constantine V]], on 3 November at the [[Church of the Virgin of the Pharos|Church of the Virgin of Pharos]].{{sfn|Garland|1999|pp=73-74}}{{sfn|Herrin|2004|pp=51-52}} The coronation took place the following month, on 17 December, in [[Augoustaion]] and was followed by the couple's marriage at the [[Palace of Daphne]] within the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Garland|1999|pp=73-74}}{{sfn|Herrin|2004|pp=51-52}}{{sfn|Theophanes|loc=AM 6261}} On 14 January 771, Irene gave birth to a son, the future [[Constantine VI]], who was named after his grandfather, Irene's father-in-law, Constantine V.{{sfn|Theophanes|loc=AM 6262}} When Constantine V died in September 775, Leo IV ascended to the throne at the age of twenty-five, and Irene became empress consort.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}}{{sfn|Karagianni|2013|p=13}}

===Iconoclasm===
Leo IV, though an [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclast]] like his father, pursued a policy of moderation towards iconophiles.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}} He removed the penalties on monasteries that had been imposed by his father and began appointing monks as bishops.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}} When Patriarch [[Nicetas I of Constantinople]] died in 780, Leo IV appointed [[Paul IV of Constantinople|Paul of Cyprus]], who had iconophile sympathies, as his successor, although he did force him to swear oaths that he would uphold the official iconoclasm.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}} During Lent of 780, however, Leo IV's policies on iconophiles became much harsher.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}} He ordered for a number of prominent courtiers to be arrested, scourged, [[tonsure]]d, and tortured after they were caught venerating icons.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=74}}

Prior to the death of her husband, Irene appears to have accepted the prevailing iconoclasm, regardless of her private beliefs. During this period, her activities are unknown, recorded only in later obscure accounts.{{Sfn|Turner|2021|p=823}} According to the 11th century historian [[George Kedrenos]], who wrote many centuries after Irene's death, this crackdown on iconophiles began after Leo IV discovered two icons hidden underneath Irene's pillow.{{sfn|Garland|1999|pages=74–75}} Leo IV launched an investigation and discovered the courtiers who had brought the icons. He had them tortured and scolded Irene for violating the law and breaking with her faith. Irene insisted that she had not known the icons were there. After the incident, Leo refused to have marital relations with Irene ever again. [[Lynda Garland]], a historian of the Byzantine Empire, states that this story too closely resembles a different story told about the later empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora, wife of Theophilos]], to be historically true. Nonetheless, she maintains that it is possible that Irene may have been trying to fill the palace with supporters of iconophilism, which may have triggered Leo IV's crackdown.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}}

==Regent and empress==
[[File:Irene solidus sb 1591 (obverse).jpg|thumb|Gold [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] showing Irene as regent along her son Constantine VI; Irene took control of the throne and ruled the empire solo until 790.|200x200px]]
When Leo IV died on 8 September 780,{{sfn|Theophanes|loc=AM 6273}} rumors were circulated claiming that he had died of a fever after putting on the jeweled crown from the Great Church that had been dedicated by either [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ({{reign|582
|602}}) or [[Heraclius]] ({{reign|610|641}}).{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} It is uncertain whether Irene herself had promoted this rumor, perhaps in an attempt to smear her iconoclast husband's memory.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} Quickly after Leo IV's death, Irene became [[regent]] for their nine-year-old son [[Constantine VI]] and secured the throne for him by crushing the usurpation plots in favour of Leo's brothers in the following month.{{sfn|Turner|2021|p=823}}

In October, only six weeks after Leo IV's death, Irene was confronted with the conspiracy led by a group of prominent dignitaries that sought to raise [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Nikephoros (Caesar)|Nikephoros]], a half-brother of Leo IV, to the throne.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} Irene had Bardas (the former ''strategos'' of the [[Armeniac Theme]]), Gregory (the ''[[logothete]]'' of the ''[[Cursus publicus|dromos]]''), and Konstantinos (the count of the [[excubitors]]) scourged, tonsured, and banished.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} She replaced all of them with dignitaries who were loyal to her.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} She had Nikephoros and his four brothers [[ordination|ordained]] as [[priest]]s, a status which disqualified them from ruling, and forced them to serve communion at the [[Hagia Sophia]] on Christmas Day 780.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} On the same day, Irene returned the crown her husband had removed as part of a full imperial procession.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} Possibly hoping to placate supporters of her husband's family, Irene is reported to have proposed that Leo IV's sister Anthousa should join her as co-regent, but Anthousa is said to have rejected the offer.{{sfn|Garland|1999|pages=75–76}}

[[File:Irene of Byzantium (empress regnant 797-802).jpg|thumb|Irene of Athens (or [[Irene Doukaina]]) in the [[Pala d'Oro]], [[Venice]].|left]]
From the beginning, Irene seems to have taken more power for herself than was traditionally expected of female regents.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=76}} Her earliest coins depict both herself and her son Constantine VI on the obverse, listing them as co-rulers rather than as ruler and regent.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=76}} Furthermore, Irene is shown holding the orb, not Constantine, and only Irene's name is listed on the obverse of the coin, with Constantine VI's name only listed on the reverse, the less important side. Also, in all orders, both oral and written, Irene's name took precedence over her son's name, and she signed her orders in the name of the emperor in her own right and her name took precedence in the oath of allegiance. Apart from that, she did not allow Constantine any voice in public affairs.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=76}} At the same time, Irene appears to have been well aware that her position as regent was insecure.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=76}} The last female regent of the Byzantine Empire had been [[Martina (empress)|Empress Martina]], who had only managed to survive as regent for less than a year before her tongue was cut out and she was exiled to the island of [[Rhodes]].{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}} Most people were probably expecting that Irene's reign would come to a similarly swift and bloody end.{{sfn|Garland|1999|page=75}}

In 781 Irene accused the ''[[stratēgos]]'' of [[Sicily (theme)|Sicily]], [[Elpidius (rebel)|Elpidius]], of participating in the conspiracy involving her brother-in-law [[Nikephoros (Caesar)|Nikephoros]]. The military in Sicily prevented his arrest, so Irene sent a fleet which succeeded in defeating the rebels. Elpidius fled to Africa, where he defected to the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The fact that this revolt appears to reflect personal ambition or political conflicts centring in the capital, rather than local separatism, demonstrates the loyalty of the island to the Empire.{{sfn|Brown|2008|p=462}}

After the success of [[Constantine V]]'s general, [[Michael Lachanodrakon]], who foiled an Abbasid attack on the eastern frontiers, a huge Abbasid army under [[Harun al-Rashid]] [[Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)|invaded Anatolia]] in summer 782, reaching [[Üsküdar|Chrysopolis]] on the Asiatic side of the [[Bosphorus]] The ''stratēgos'' of the [[Bucellarian Theme]], [[Tatzates]], defected to the Abbasids, and Irene had to agree to pay an embarrassing annual [[tribute]] of 100,000 [[dinar|dinars]] to the Abbasids.{{sfn|Kaegi|2008|p=388}}

In 783, [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]], [[eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire|eunuch]] and ''[[logothete]]'' of the ''[[Cursus publicus|dromos]]'' under Irene, led a successful campaign against the [[Sclaveni]] of [[Thessaly]], [[Greece]] and the [[Peloponnese]], returning with booty and captives. In 784, Irene capitalized on Constantine V's successes in [[Thrace]] and ordered [[Veria]] and [[Anchialos, Thessaloniki|Anchialos]] to be "rebuilt".{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|pp=257–258}}

By 786, Harun, then the [[Abbasid Caliph]], had made [[Raqqa]] his residence in order to secure control over the frontier. In 797/798, the Abbasids were said to have reached the Bosphorus again, but agreed to negotiate with the Byzantines due to the threat of the [[Khazars]] in the north. Nonetheless, he engaged in a campaign of assiduously strengthening the frontier with new districts and strongholds (''[[al-Awasim]]''), specifically from [[Cilicia]] through [[Kahramanmaraş|Germanikeia]] to [[Melitene]]. There was significant settlement and economic activity in the frontier region by the Abbasids, which was not typical in the time of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. Harun proved to be a capable commander and Irene and her successor [[Nikephoros I]] struggled to effectively resist his campaigns.{{sfn|Kaegi|2008|pp=389–390}}

===Ending iconoclasm===
{{Main|Seventh ecumenical council}}
[[File:Iren and Constantin2.jpg|thumb|15th century mural depicting Irene and Constantine VI at the [[Second Council of Nicaea|Seventh ecumenical council]] of 787. ]]
Irene's most notable act was the restoration of the [[veneration]] of [[icon]]s (images of Christ or the saints). Upon the death of the iconoclast Patriarch [[Paul IV of Constantinople]], Irene elevated [[Tarasios of Constantinople|Tarasios]], one of her partisans and former secretary, to the position of [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] in 784. As he was a layman, [[Pope Adrian I]] disapproved of his election. Irene and Tarasios summoned two church councils to solemnize the reversal of imperial policy to iconodulia. The first of these, assembled on 1 August 786 in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] at [[Constantinople]], was dispersed by iconoclast [[tagma (military)|''tagmata'']] (battalions stationed in the city) who were backed by iconoclast bishops. In autumn, Irene ordered them to respond to an alleged Arab attack in Asia Minor, then reconstituted the ''tagmata'' with soldiers from the [[theme (Byzantine district)|thematic]] corps. Tarasios dealt with the episcopal opposition by allowing notoriously iconoclast bishops to retain their positions so long as they made a public admission of error, and also by disguising two eastern monks as envoys of the patriarchs of [[Patriarchate of Antioch|Antioch]] and [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], to justify the council's claim to ecumenical status. On 1 October 787, the monks and bishops assembled at [[İznik|Nicaea]], a symbolic location as the site of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, to convene the [[Second Council of Nicaea|seventh ecumenical council]], which formally declared the veneration of icons as an article of faith, reuniting the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern church]] with that of [[Rome]], which was signified by Adrian I's sending of two [[papal legate|papal legates]].{{sfn|Lagarde|1915|p=423}}{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|pp=287–288}}

The council determined that the honorary veneration (''{{lang|el-Latn|timētikē proskynēsis}}'') of the holy icons was permitted, and that the true adoration (''{{lang|el-Latn|alēthinē latreia}}'') was reserved for God alone. It further stated that the honor paid to the icon eventually passes over to the individual that it represents, thus, veneration of an icon could not be idolatrous as the iconoclasts believed. The iconodule position was not justified by [[Christological]] arguments (as in the [[Council of Hieria]] of 754), rather, the antiquity of iconodulia and the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation of Christ]], which was said to make acceptable the depiction of Christ, were emphasized.{{sfn|Nicolaides|2014|p=77}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=288}}

The ''[[Libri Carolini]]'' states that the ruling of the council against iconoclasm led to "civil war" within the Empire, and other ninth-century iconodule sources condemn clergymen and laymen who remained iconoclasts.{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=288}} While the council greatly improved relations with the papacy, it did not prevent the outbreak of [[Byzantine expedition to Calabria (788/789)|a war with the Franks]], who took over [[Istria]] and [[Benevento]] in 788. In spite of these reverses, Irene's military efforts met with some success: in 782 her favoured courtier [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]] subdued the [[Slavs]] of the Balkans and laid the foundations of Byzantine expansion and re-Hellenization in the area. Nevertheless, Irene was constantly harried by the Abbasids, and in 782 and 798 had to accept the terms of the respective [[Caliph]]s [[al-Mahdi]] and [[Harun al-Rashid]].

==Fall and return to throne==
[[File:Solidus Irene ConstantineVI.jpg|thumb|Gold solidus showing Irene and Constantine VI as co-emperors in {{Circa|793–797}} after Irene's return to the throne. |left]]
As [[Constantine VI]] approached maturity he began to grow restless under the autocratic sway of his mother. In 787, the plans for the marriage of Constantine and [[Rotrude]], daughter of [[Charlemagne]], were aborted, and in 788, Irene chose [[Maria of Amnia]] as a wife for him, beginning their unhappy marriage. In November 788, Irene suffered losses to the Bulgars and the failure of the [[Byzantine expedition to Calabria (788/789)|expedition to Calabria]], weakening her position. Although Constantine had reached the age of majority, Irene continued to administer the affairs of state in his place and was autocratess of the Romans.

Constantine no longer accepted his secondary status and attempted to free himself by force. He plotted with his supporters, including Peter, a ''[[Magister officiorum|magistros]]'' and confidant of [[Constantine V]], against Irene's advisers, especially [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]], who he planned to exile to [[Sicily]]. In early 790, Staurakios discovered the plot and informed Irene, who arrested the plotters, confined Constantine to his quarters and demanded that the army across the Empire take an [[oath of fidelity]] in her name alone. Irene also tried to convince the army to legitimize her absolute power over the state. The discontent which this caused swelled into open resistance and at first the [[Armeniacs]] refused to swear an oath to Irene alone but rather to Constantine and Irene. She sent the Armenian commander [[Alexios Mosele (general)|Alexios Mosele]] to persuade the Armeniacs, but they instead deposed their ''[[strategos|stratēgos]]'' (who was appointed by Irene) and proclaimed Alexios the new ''stratēgos''. When word of this spread throughout [[Asia Minor]], other soldiers followed suit and deposed their commanders, marching into the [[Opsician Theme]] outside Constantinople. Irene was pressured to release Constantine, who was then proclaimed sole ruler in November 790 with the support of the military.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=286–288}} 

Constantine restored his supporters including [[Michael Lachanodrakon]], the famed general of Constantine V, and banished Staurakios and another eunuch and adviser to Irene, [[Aetios (eunuch)|Aetios]], to the [[Armeniac Theme]]. He confined Irene to her palace but did not formally depose her. He began a distinct foreign policy from his mother, beginning campaigns against the Bulgars in April 791 and the Arabs in September. In a hollow semblance of friendship, Constantine restored Irene's titles and confirmed her position as ruler in 792, even recalling Staurakios from exile. As a result, the official Irene-Constantine [[duumvirate]] began.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=288}}{{sfn|Theophanes|loc=AM 6284}} Constantine proved incapable of sound governance, and suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of [[Kardam of Bulgaria]] in the [[Battle of Marcellae]] of 792. A plot developed in favor of his uncle, the ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' [[Nikephoros (Caesar)|Nikephoros]] (son of Constantine V). Following the advice of Irene and Staurakios, Constantine had his uncle's eyes put out and the tongues of his father's four other half-brothers cut off. His former Armeniac supporters revolted after he had blinded their ''[[stratēgos]]'' Alexios due to alleged involvement in the plot. They also disapproved of Irene's return as co-ruler. Constantine crushed this revolt with extreme cruelty in 793.{{sfn|Cutler|Hollingsworth|1991|pp=501–502}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=259}}{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=288–289}}

In summer 793, Arab raiders captured the important fortresses of [[Kemah, Erzincan|Kamachon]] and [[Thebasa]] in Asia Minor; however, a larger force, accompanied by the rebellious former ''stratēgos'' of Sicily, [[Elpidius (rebel)|Elpidius]] retreated due to an early winter in 794, and Constantine defeated an Arab army in 795. Nevertheless, Arab raiders reached [[Amorion]] in 796, [[Ankara]] and [[Malagina]] in 798 and [[Ephesos]] in 799. Constantine personally led a force to meet [[Abbasid Caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]] ({{reign|786|809}}), but was sabotaged by agents of Irene who falsely reported an Arab retreat, prompting Constantine himself to retire. In 796, Constantine partially compensated for his previous losses against the Bulgars by ceasing to pay the tribute extracted after Marcellae and avoiding military defeat thereafter. The Balkan frontier was in general successfully stabilized by the Byzantines in this period.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=289–290}}

===Moechian controversy and conspiracy to depose Constantine VI===
Despite their collaboration, rivalry remained between the two co-rulers. Irene's faction also returned, with her powerful eunuch minister Staurakios once again at the helm, they began to take revenge on anyone who had opposed them in the past or present. The ''moechian'' controversy (from ''moicheia'', "adultery") was begun in 795, when Constantine forced his wife Maria to enter a convent because she allegedly attempted to poison him. He then married his mistress [[Theodote (empress)|Theodote]], which was technically an act of [[adultery]]. Patriarch [[Tarasios of Constantinople]] only offered a light penance for Constantine and Theodote, which caused monks of the [[monastery]] of Sakkoudion including [[Theodore the Stoudite]] to condemn the union and excommunicate Tarasios. Constantine closed the monastery and banished Theodore to [[Thessaloniki]]. Theodore was a prestigious and influential figure, so his opposition to Constantine was significant.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=290}}

[[File:Gold solidus, Byzantine, Irene, 797-802.jpg|thumb|Irene was the only sovereign in the history of the Empire to place her image on both sides of imperial coinage, whereas her predecessors featured their ancestors to symbolize dynastic rule.{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=274}}]]
In 797, Irene exploited the controversy to prepare the overthrow of her son. She bribed palace officers to remain neutral and encouraged monastic opposition to the marriage. In August, her agents attempted to capture Constantine as he was travelling by boat from Constantinople to his summer residence. He fled to [[Pylae]], but Irene persuaded her supporters there to capture him. On 19 August, Constantine was blinded and confined to a monastery. It is unknown whether he managed to survive this event.{{efn|The ''Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium'' gives 19 April,{{sfn|ODB|p=1008}} but this is a mistake. [[Theophanes the Confessor]] writes: "[They] ''reached the City on Saturday morning, 15 August''." The 15th was Tuesday, so the correct date would be August 19.{{sfn|Theophanes|loc=AM 6289 (n. 8–10)}}}} Tarasios was reconciled with Theodore, who was made the abbot of the [[Monastery of Stoudios]] and became one of Irene's most loyal supporters.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=291}} 

Although it is often asserted that, as monarch, Irene called herself "''[[basileus]]''" ({{langx|el|βασιλεύς}}), "emperor", rather than "''basilissa''" ({{langx|el|βασίλισσα}}), "empress", in fact there are only three instances where it can be proven that she used the title "basileus": two legal documents in which she signed herself as "Emperor of the Romans" and a gold coin of hers found in Sicily bearing the title of "basileus". In relation to the coin, the lettering is of poor quality and the attribution to Irene may be problematic. She used the title "basilissa" in all other documents, coins, and seals.<ref>Liz James, "Men, Women, Eunuchs: Gender, Sex, and Power" in ''A Social History of Byzantium'' (J. Haldon, ed.) pp. 45, 46; published 2009; {{ISBN|978-1-4051-3241-1}}</ref>

==Relations with the Carolingian Empire==
{{Main|Carolingian Empire|problem of two emperors}}
[[File:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Refusing to recognize Irene's claim to be Roman Emperor, [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as ''Emperor of the Romans''.]]
Irene's unprecedented position as an empress ruling in her own right was emphasized by the coincidental rise of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in [[Western Europe]], which rivaled Irene's Byzantium in size and power.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=31–33}} In 773, [[Charlemagne]] invaded [[Italy]], annexing the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]], in order to neutralize a threat to his succession in the form of his late brother [[Carloman I]]'s wife and sons, who fled to the Lombard court in [[Pavia]] when Charlemagne seized his kingdom.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} He also campaigned against the Saxon tribes in northern Germany for more than thirty years, annexing their territory and compelling them to convert to Christianity, and defeated the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] in [[Central Europe]].{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=326–327}} In what is known as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]], Charlemagne increasingly modelled his rule after that of the Roman emperors, sponsoring construction programs in conscious imitation of Roman and Byzantine architecture, as well as intellectual and artistic revival in general.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=59, 63}} His father [[Pepin the Short]] had reformed the currency and standardized weights, tightening royal control over mints.{{sfn|Allen|2009}}

As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the [[Carolingian dynasty]] and the [[Papacy]] in Rome, and Charlemagne's conquest of [[Pavia]] had allowed for renewed relations with the Byzantines. Through the eunuch Elissaeus, Irene negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and [[Rotrude]], a daughter of [[Charlemagne]] by his third wife [[Hildegard, wife of Charlemagne|Hildegard]].{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} During this time Charlemagne was at war with the [[Saxons]], and would later become the new king of the Franks.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the [[Franks|Frankish]] princess in the "language and literature of the Greeks and [...] in Roman imperial ways", according to Theophanes.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=191}} According to Charlemagne's biographer [[Einhard]], he could not bear to lose his daughter and broke off the engagement. However, it is also possible that the new Frankish-Byzantine border, along with the oscillating allegiance of the powerful [[Duchy of Benevento]], soured relations.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}}

In 787, [[Pope Adrian I]] informed Charlemagne of reports of Byzantine invasion to restore [[Adalgis]], the deposed Lombard king, with the support of Benevento, and drive the [[Franks]] from Italy. The invasion began in 788, but the Duke of Benevento sided with the Franks and defeated the Byzantines in [[Calabria]]. [[Alcuin of York]] claimed that 4,000 Byzantines were killed and 1,000 captured, including Patriarch [[Tarasios of Constantinople|Tarasios]]' brother, Sisinnius. The defeat led to a breakdown of Frankish-Byzantine relations.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=416}} In 798, Irene diplomatically secured the return of Sisinnius.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=292}}

From 797, Irene once again attempted to normalize relations with the Franks, and a Byzantine legation arrived in the Frankish court in 798. However, on Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by [[Pope Leo III]]. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne ''Augustus''. In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be emperor; however, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all remains controversial—Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope—but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole [[Roman Empire]] threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=380–385}} In 802, there were reports of a possible Frankish invasion of Sicily, to which Irene responded by sending a legation under the ''[[spatharios]]'' Leo. However, the campaign was abandoned and the Franks resumed marriage negotiations with the Byzantines.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=293}}

Relations between the two empires remained difficult. The coronation was viewed by the Byzantines as merely another Italian usurpation against imperial authority. Rather than opting for a military response, Irene maintained her contacts and endeavored to bring about a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, which was reciprocated to some degree by his court. However, as reported by [[Theophanes the Confessor]], the scheme was frustrated by [[Aetios (eunuch)|Aetios]], eunuch and favorite of Irene, who was attempting to usurp her on behalf of his brother Leo.{{sfn|Garland|1999|p=89}} The discussions proved fruitless by the time Irene was overthrown, and Charlemagne remained resolute in his imperial ambitions.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=417}}{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

==Final years==
[[File:Sarcofago Irene d'Atene.jpg|thumb|230x230px|Presumed sarcophagus of Empress Irene, currently in [[Hagia Sophia]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Syndikus|first1=Candida|last2=Rogge|first2=Sabine|title=Caterina Cornaro, Last Queen of Cyprus and Daughter of Venice Ultima Regina Di Cipro E Figlia Di Venezia|year=2013|isbn=9783830979074|page=335|publisher=Waxmann Verlag }}</ref>]]
In her four-and-a-half years of sole rule (797–802) Irene renewed diplomatic contact with the [[Franks]] and negotiated a tribute to [[Harun al-Rashid]] to cease hostilities, but also brutally crushed rebellions against her rule, blinding four of Constantine V's five sons. Irene's rule was popular due to her financial concessions, but weakened by factionalism, notably between two of her eunuch advisers, Staurakios and [[Aetios (eunuch)|Aetios]]. In 800, Aetios accused Staurakios of plotting against Irene, but he died before the matter was resolved.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=293–294}}

In October 802, officers led by the minister of finance (''[[logothetēs tou genikou]]'') [[Nikephoros I|Nikephoros]] deposed Irene. They were motivated both by Irene's financial laxity and benevolent tax policy as well as by the implications of a marriage alliance with the Franks.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=293–294}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=278}} On 31 October, Nikephoros was crowned "Nikephoros I" by Patriarch [[Tarasios of Constantinople]] in the [[Hagia Sophia]]. Irene was initially exiled to the nearby island of [[Büyükada|Prinkipo]], but was suspected of plotting with Aetios, and was soon banished to [[Lesbos]],{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|pp=293–294}} where she supported herself by spinning [[wool]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} She died in Lesbos the following year, on 9 August 803; her remains were later moved to the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] in Constantinople.{{sfn|Turner|2021|p=324}}{{sfn|ODB|p=1008–1009}}

==Assessment and legacy==
Irene's reign represents the decline of the Isaurian dynasty. The legacy of the first and greatest Isaurian emperors, [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] and [[Constantine V]], was the rescue of the Empire from destruction at the hands of the [[Arabs]] and the [[Bulgars]], while Irene's reign saw increasing losses and threat of war.{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=254}} Her character also departs significantly from her Isaurian predecessors, who were typically warlike, just and [[populist]]. She contradicted them in the blinding of her son, abolishing of iconoclasm and military weakness. The ''[[tagma (military)|tagmata]]'', old guard units stationed in [[Constantinople]] who surrounded the emperor on the battlefield, were supported by Constantine V but demoted and reconstituted by Irene for frustrating the meeting of the iconodule council in 786. She elevated [[eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire|eunuchs]] to power against the imperial administration, one of the most significant of whom was [[Staurakios (eunuch)|Staurakios]]. In contrast, Constantine V supported the imperial office, which proved resilient to the political and military crises of the eighth century. It was Irene's financial laxity and benevolent tax policy that led to the palace coup by the minister of the treasury, [[Nikephoros I|Nikephoros]], in 802, which was witnessed by [[Charlemagne]]'s ambassadors.{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|pp=267, 277–278}}{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=399}}

A female relative of Irene, [[Theophano, wife of Staurakios|Theophano]], was chosen by Nikephoros ({{reign|802|811}}) as the bride of his son and heir [[Staurakios]].{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=359}}

Although Irene was an iconodule, [[Theophanes the Confessor]], one of the few major primary sources of the eighth century, depicts her very unsympathetically due to his dislike of the involvement of women in imperial matters.{{sfn|Louth|2008|p=125}} However, Irene's zeal in restoring the icons and [[monastery|monasteries]] made [[Theodore the Studite]] praise her as a [[saint]].<ref>''Theodori Studitae Epistulae'', Volume 2 (Berlin, 1992).</ref> He also commended her for ending the Isaurian policy of demanding payments from soldiers' widows as compensation for the loss of military personnel, in order for their households to continue receiving tax exemptions and a pension.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=745}}{{sfn|Auzépy|2008|p=269}} She is listed in some Byzantine Catholic and Eastern Orthodox sources as a saint commemorated on 7 August, but her name is not found in the [[Menaion]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hieromonk Makarios of Simonos Petra|title="The Synaxarion: The Lives of the Saints of the Orthodox Church," Volume Six|publisher=Holy Convent of the Annunciation of Our Lady|year=2008|isbn=|location=Ormylia, Chalkidiki, Greece|pages=403–04|quote="[Irene's] commemoration is . . . to be found in some manuscripts of the "Synaxarion of Constantinople."}}</ref>

===Media===
[[H. Rider Haggard]] incorporated Irene as a villain in his novel ''[[The Wanderer's Necklace]]''.<ref>Daniel D. McGarry, Sarah Harriman White (1963). ''Historical Fiction Guide: Annotated Chronological, Geographical, and Topical List of Five Thousand Selected Historical Novels''. Scarecrow Press, p. 58.</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

'''Primary sources'''
* {{Cite book|year=1997|author=Theophanes|author-link=Theophanes the Confessor|orig-date={{circa}} 820|title=Chronographia|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780198225683|translator-last=Mango|translator-first=Cyril|editor-link=Cyril Mango|ref={{sfnref|Theophanes}}|url=https://archive.org/details/chronicle-of-theophanes-the-confessor}}

'''Modern sources'''
* {{citation |last=Allen |first=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4kgDkYxGrcC |title=The Encyclopedia of Money |publisher=ABC Clio |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Sta. Barbara]] |contribution=Carolingian Reform |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4kgDkYxGrcC&pg=PA59 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X4kgDkYxGrcC&pg=PA59 59–60] |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-59884-251-7}}.
* {{cite book |last=Auzépy |first=Marie-France |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=State of emergency (700–850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
* Barbe, Dominique (1990). ''Irène de Byzance: La femme empereur''. Paris.
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Thomas S. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Byzantine Italy (680–876)|isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Brubaker |first1=Leslie |title=Byzantium in the iconoclast era, c. 680–850 |last2=Haldon |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-43093-7}}
* {{citation |first=John G. |last=Contreni |contribution=The Carolingian Renaissance |editor-first=Warren T. |editor-last=Treadgold |display-editors=0 |title=Renaissances before the Renaissance: cultural revivals of late antiquity and the Middle Ages |date=1984}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Davids |first=Adelbert |title=The Empress Theophano: Byzantium and the West at the Turn of the First Millennium |date=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9Nf-GHTgnEC&q=%22Theophano+%281%29%22+&pg=RA1-PA112 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52467-4}}
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Irene|display=Irene ''s.v.'' Irene (752–803)|volume=14|page=792}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/the-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991/The%20Oxfrod%20Dictionary%20of%20Byzantium_Vol.%201_OUP_1991/page/499/mode/1up| article=Constantine VI | last1=Cutler | first1=Anthony | last2=Hollingsworth | first2=Paul A. |editor-first=Alexander |editor-last=Kazhdan|editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan| encyclopedia=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | location=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1991 | pages=501–502 | isbn=0-19-504652-8}}
* {{citation|last=Garland|first=Lynda|date=1999|chapter=Irene (769–802)|title=Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5GFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|location=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-14688-3|pages=73–94|url=https://archive.org/details/LyndaGarlandByzantineEmpressesWomenAndPowerInByzantiumAA.D.52712041999}}
* {{Cite book |last=Herrin |first=Judith |title=Women in purple : rulers of medieval Byzantium |date=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_4yEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691117805}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaegi |first=Walter E. |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Confronting Islam: Emperors versus Caliphs (641–''c.'' 850) |isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Karagianni |first=Alexandra |chapter=Female monarchs in the medieval Byzantine court: Prejudice, disbelief, and calumnies |year=2013 |editor-last=Woodacre |editor-first=Elena |title=Queenship in the Mediterranean: Negotiating the Role of the Queen in the Medieval and Early Modern Eras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0h-uAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1137362834}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{Cite book|first=André|last=Lagarde|translator=Archibald Alexander|title=The Latin Church in the Middle Ages|year=1915 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|url=https://archive.org/details/thelatinchurchi200lagauoft}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Lilie |editor-first1=Ralph-Johannes |editor-link1=Ralph-Johannes Lilie |title=[[Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit]] |language=de |year=2013|ref={{harvid|PMBZ}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Louth |first=Andrew |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Justinian and his Legacy (500–600)|isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
* {{Cite book|last=Martindale |first=J.R. |author-link=John Robert Martindale |date=2001 |title=[[Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire]] |isbn=978-1-897747-32-2|ref={{harvid|PBW}}}}
* {{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Michael |date=2008 |editor-last=Shepard |editor-first=Jonathan |title=The Cambridge history of the Byzantine Empire (c. 500–1492) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=Western Approaches (700–900)|isbn=978-0-521-83231-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nelson |first=Janet L. |author-link=Janet Nelson |title=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne |publisher=University of California Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-5203-1420-7 |location=Oakland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nesjEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nicolaides |first=Angelo |year=2014 |title=The Seventh Ecumenical Council and the veneration of icons in Orthodoxy |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279292281 |journal=Acta Theologica |volume=34 |issue=2 |page=77 |doi=10.4314/actat.v34i2.5|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ|publisher=Basil Blackwell|place=Oxford}}
* Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2014). ''A Short History of the Middle Ages'', second ed. University of Toronto Press, 80, 98–99.
* [http://dmr.bsu.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/ConspectusH&CISOPTR=380&REC=1 Runciman, Steven. "The Empress Irene." ''Conspectus of History'' 1.1 (1974): 1–11.]
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=David |chapter=Irene c.752–803 |year=2021 |editor-last=Speake |editor-first=Graham |title=Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135942069}}
* Wace, Henry and Smith, William (1882). ''A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines,'' J. Murray.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Irene of Athens}}
{{portal|Byzantine Empire}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/irene.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis – Constantine VI (780–797 AD) and Irene (797–802 AD)]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]]||{{Circa|752}}|9 August|803}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef| before = [[Constantine VI]]}}
{{s-ttl| title  = [[Byzantine emperor|Byzantine empress-regnant]]| years = 19 August 797 – 31 October 802}}
{{s-aft| after  = [[Nikephoros I]]}}
{{s-roy}}
{{s-bef| before = [[Eudokia, wife of Constantine V|Eudokia]]}}
{{s-ttl| title  = [[List of Byzantine Empresses|Byzantine empress-consort]]| years = 775–780}}
{{s-vac| next   = [[Maria of Amnia]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Roman emperors}}
{{Roman empresses}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Irene of Athens| ]]
[[Category:750s births]]
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