Editing Internationalization and localization

{{Short description|Process of making software accessible worldwide}}
{{redirect|L10n|another use|Language localisation}}
{{Translation sidebar}}
In [[computing]], '''internationalization and localization''' ([[American English|American]]) or '''internationalisation and localisation''' ([[British English|British]]), often abbreviated '''i18n''' and '''l10n''' respectively, are means of adapting to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target [[locale (computer software)|locale]].

Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components.

Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Esselink |first=Bert |title=Translation Technology and Its Teaching (With Much Mention of Localization) |date=2006 |publisher=Intercultural Studies Group – URV |isbn=84-611-1131-1 |editor-last=Pym |editor-first=Anthony |location=Tarragona |pages=21–29 |chapter=The Evolution of Localization |quote=In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less. |editor-last2=Perekrestenko |editor-first2=Alexander |editor-last3=Starink |editor-first3=Bram |chapter-url=http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/Esselink_Evolution.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907235057/http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/Esselink_Evolution.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Naming ==
The terms are frequently abbreviated to the [[numeronym]]s ''i18n'' (where ''18'' stands for the number of letters between the first ''i'' and the last ''n'' in the word ''internationalization'', a usage coined at [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in the 1970s or 1980s)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Glossary of W3C Jargon |url=https://www.w3.org/2001/12/Glossary#I18N |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902154839/http://www.w3.org/2001/12/Glossary#I18N |archive-date=2 September 2011 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[W3C]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Origin of the Abbreviation I18n |url=http://www.i18nguy.com/origini18n.html |access-date=19 February 2022 |website=I18nGuy |archive-date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627034040/http://www.i18nguy.com/origini18n.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''l10n'' for ''localization'', due to the length of the words.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last1=Ishida |first1=Richard |last2=Miller |first2=Susan K. |date=2005-12-05 |title=Localization vs. Internationalization |url=https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403134943/http://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n/ |archive-date=2016-04-03 |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=[[W3C]]}}</ref><ref name="GNU Org., 2019">{{Cite web |title=Concepts (GNU gettext utilities) |url=https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Concepts.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918095917/https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Concepts.html |archive-date=18 September 2019 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[gnu.org]] |publisher= |quote=Many people, tired of writing these long words over and over again, took the habit of writing ''i18n'' and ''l10n'' instead, quoting the first and last letter of each word, and replacing the run of intermediate letters by a number merely telling how many such letters there are.}}</ref> Some writers have the latter term capitalized (''L10n'') to help distinguish the two.<ref name="L10n">{{Cite web |last=alan |date=29 March 2011 |title=What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n) |url=https://www.ccjk.com/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114350/http://www.ccjk.com/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n/ |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=ccjk.com |quote=The capital L in L10n helps to distinguish it from the lowercase i in i18n.}}</ref>

Some companies, like [[IBM]] and [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], use the term ''globalization'', ''g11n'', for the combination of internationalization and localization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Globalize Your Business |url=http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331105340/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/ |archive-date=31 March 2016 |website=IBM}}</ref>

[[Microsoft]] defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separates user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to ''L12y'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Globalization Step-by-Step |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb688110.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412064148/https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb688110.aspx |archive-date=12 April 2015 |website=Go Global Developer Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Globalization Step-by-Step: Understanding Internationalization |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb688112.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526235028/https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb688112.aspx |archive-date=26 May 2015 |website=Go Global Developer Center}}</ref>

[[Hewlett-Packard]] and [[HP-UX]] created a system called "National Language Support" or "Native Language Support" (NLS) to produce localizable software.<ref name="SFW">{{Cite book |title=Software without Frontiers: A Multi-Platform, Multi-Cultural, Multi-Nation Approach |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-96974-5 |editor-last=Hall |editor-first=P. A. V. |location=Chichester |editor-last2=Hudson |editor-first2=R.}}</ref>

Some vendors, including IBM<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ibm.com/docs/ssw_ibm_i_74/nls/rbagsnatlangvers.htm | title=National language version | website=[[IBM]] }}</ref> use the term ''National Language Version'' (NLV) for localized versions of software products supporting only one specific locale. The term implies the existence of other alike NLV versions of the software for different markets; this terminology is not used where no internationalization and localization was undertaken and a software product only supports one language and locale in any version.

== Scope ==
[[File:Globalisationchart.svg|right|thumb|400px|The internationalization and localization process<br />(based on a chart from the [[Localization Industry Standards Association|LISA]] website)]]

According to ''Software without frontiers'', the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are "data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, and user interaction"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are "user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, and documentation".<ref name="SFW" />

Translation is typically the most time-consuming component of [[language localization]].<ref name="SFW" /> This may involve:
* For film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either [[Dub localization|dubbing]] or [[Subtitle (captioning)|subtitles]]
* Text translation for printed materials, and digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)
* Potentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons<ref name="SFW" />
* Different translation lengths and differences in character sizes (e.g. between [[Latin alphabet]] letters and [[Chinese characters]]) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others<ref name="SFW" />
* Consideration of differences in [[dialect]], [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] or [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]]<ref name="SFW" />
* Writing conventions like:
** Formatting of numbers (especially [[decimal separator]] and [[digit grouping]])
** [[Date and time representation by country|Date and time format]], possibly including the use of different calendars (e.g. the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic]] or the [[Japanese calendar]])

=== Standard locale data ===
[[Computer software]] can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The [[Common Locale Data Repository]] by [[Unicode]] provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major [[operating system]]s, including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[macOS]] and [[Debian]], and by major Internet companies or projects such as [[Google]] and the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. Examples of such differences include:

* Different "scripts" in different [[writing systems]] use different [[Character (symbol)|characters]] – a different set of letters, [[Syllabary|syllograms]], [[Logogram|logograms]], or symbols.  Modern systems use the [[Unicode]] standard to represent many different languages with a single [[character encoding]].
* [[Writing direction]] is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in [[boustrophedon]] scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.<ref name="SFW" />
* [[Complex text layout]], for languages where characters change shape depending on context
* Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others
* Different languages and writing systems have different [[Collation|text sorting]] rules
* Different languages have different [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral systems]], which might need to be supported if [[Western Arabic numerals]] are not used
* Different languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plural forms (GNU gettext utilities) |url=https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Plural-forms.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314175141/https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Plural-forms.html |archive-date=14 March 2021 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[gnu.org]]}}</ref> Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. [[genitive]].
* Different languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (" ") as in English, or [[guillemet]]s (« ») as in French)
* [[Keyboard shortcut]]s can only make use of buttons on the [[keyboard layout]] which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for "save" in English), it may need to be changed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2014 |title=Do We Need to Localize Keyboard Shortcuts? |url=https://languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts/ |access-date=19 February 2022 |website=Human Translation Services – Language to Language Translation |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403113353/http://languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== National conventions ===
Different countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:

* [[Paper size]]s
* [[Broadcast television systems]] and popular [[storage media]]
* [[National conventions for writing telephone numbers|Telephone number formats]]
* [[Address (geography)#Mailing address format by country|Postal address formats]], [[postal code]]s, and choice of delivery services
* [[Currency]] ([[Currency symbol|symbols]], positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different [[inflation]] histories) – [[ISO 4217]] codes are often used for internationalization
* [[System of measurement]]
* [[Battery sizes]]
* [[Mains electricity by country|Voltage and current standards]]

In particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these.

Specific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or [[payment service provider]]s, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all.

[[Time zone]]s vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone.  For internationalization, [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.

Different countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:

* [[Compliance (regulation)|Regulatory compliance]] may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:
** [[Privacy law]] compliance
** Additional [[disclaimer]]s on a website or packaging
** Different consumer labelling requirements
** Compliance with [[export restrictions]] and regulations on [[encryption]]
** Compliance with an [[Internet censorship]] regime or [[subpoena]] procedures
** Requirements for [[accessibility]]
** Collecting different taxes, such as [[sales tax]], [[value added tax]], or [[customs duties]]
** Sensitivity to different political issues, like [[:Category:Geographical naming disputes|geographical naming disputes]] and [[Border dispute|disputed borders]] shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a bill that would make failing to show [[Kashmir]] and other areas as intended by the government a crime<ref name="HaiderPakistan16">{{Cite news |last=Mateen Haider |date=17 May 2016 |title=Pakistan Expresses Concern Over India's Controversial 'Maps Bill' |work=Dawn |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1258908/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510115216/https://www.dawn.com/news/1258908/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HamdaniChanging16">{{Cite web |last=Yasser Latif Hamdani |date=18 May 2016 |title=Changing Maps Will Not Mean Kashmir Is a Part of You, India |url=https://tribune.com.pk/article/34594/changing-maps-will-not-m |access-date=19 February 2022 |website=The Express Tribune}}</ref><ref name="CourierAnOver17">{{Cite news |date=24 July 2017 |title=An Overview of the Geospatial Information Regulation Bill |work=Madras Courier |url=https://madrascourier.com/policy/an-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill/ |access-date=19 February 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029063419/https://madrascourier.com/policy/an-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill/ |url-status=live }}</ref>)
* Government-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, [[Social Security Number]]s and other [[national identification number]]s)

Localization also may take into account differences in culture, such as:

* [[List of holidays by country|Local holidays]]
* [[Personal name]] and [[title]] conventions
* [[Aesthetics]]
* Comprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and [[color symbolism]]
* [[Ethnicity]], clothing, and [[socioeconomic status]] of people and architecture of locations pictured
* Local customs and [[Convention (norm)|conventions]], such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as [[blood types in Japanese culture]] vs. astrological signs in other cultures

== Business process for internationalizing software ==
To ''internationalize'' a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.<ref name="SFW" /> Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.<ref name="L10n" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2008 |title=Appendix V International Address Formats |url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc195167(v=msdn.10) |access-date=19 February 2022 |website=Microsoft Docs |language=en-us |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519025813/https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc195167(v=msdn.10) |url-status=live }}</ref> A broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.<ref name="SFW" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Pawlowski |first=Jan M. |title=Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing |url=http://users.jyu.fi/~japawlow/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf |type=Draft version |mode=cs1 |access-date=2009-10-01 |archive-date=2011-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716064423/http://users.jyu.fi/~japawlow/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Already in the 1990s, companies such as [[Groupe Bull|Bull]] used [[machine translation]] ([[Systran]]) on a large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and [[post-editing]].<ref name="SFW" />

== Engineering ==
Both in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.<ref name="SFW" /><!-- §&nbsp;4.3.1 --> Each module can then either rely on a standard library/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale.

The current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource files which are loaded during program execution as needed.<ref name="SFW" /> These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data.

The storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog<ref name="SFW" /> as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One [[software library]] and format that aids this is [[gettext]].

Thus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also [[#Standard locale data|Standard locale data]] above.

Many localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, [[OpenOffice.org]] achieves this with compilation switches.

== Process ==
A globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.<ref name="SFW" />

To some degree (e.g. for [[quality assurance]]), development teams include someone who handles the basic/central stages of the process which then enables all the others.<ref name="SFW" /> Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements.

Once properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: [[free and open source software]] usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Reina |first1=Laura Arjona |last2=Robles |first2=Gregorio |last3=González-Barahona |first3=Jesús M. |title=Open Source Software: Quality Verification |chapter=A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-38927-6 |editor-last=Petrinja |editor-first=Etiel |series=IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology |volume=404 |pages=153–167 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-38928-3_11 |editor-last2=Succi |editor-first2=Giancarlo |editor-last3=Ioini |editor-first3=Nabil El |editor-last4=Sillitti |editor-first4=Alberto |doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[GNOME project]], for example, has volunteer translation teams for over 100 languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GNOME Languages |url=https://l10n.gnome.org/languages/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829184045/https://l10n.gnome.org/languages/ |archive-date=29 August 2023 |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=[[GNOME]]}}</ref> [[MediaWiki]] supports over 500 languages, of which 100 are mostly complete {{as of|2023|September|lc=y|bare=}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Translating:Group Statistics |url=https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Translating:Group_statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829185828/https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Translating:Group_statistics |archive-date=2023-08-29 |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=[[translatewiki.net]]}}</ref>

When translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2014 |title=How to Translate a Game Into 20 Languages and Avoid Going to Hell: Exorcising the Four Devils of Confusion |url=https://www.pocketgamer.biz/feature/58406/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell/ |access-date=19 February 2022 |website=PocketGamer.biz |archive-date=7 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207110435/http://www.pocketgamer.biz/feature/58406/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed.

[[Independent software vendor]] such as [[Microsoft]] may provides reference software localization guidelines for developers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=jowilco |date=2023-08-24 |title=Microsoft Localization Style Guides - Globalization |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/reference/microsoft-style-guides |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=learn.microsoft.com |language=en-us}}</ref> The software localization language may be different from [[written language]].

== Commercial considerations ==
In a commercial setting, the benefit of localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, [[Lotus 1-2-3]] took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over [[Microsoft Multiplan]].<ref name="SFW" /> MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its [[WordStar]] documentation to, an executive said, not "have the tone it should have had".<ref name="schrage19850217">{{Cite news |last=Schrage |first=Michael |date=17 February 1985 |title=IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market |language=en- |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/ |access-date=29 August 2018 |archive-date=29 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829110208/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> When [[Tandy Corporation]] needed French and German translations of English error messages for the [[TRS-80 Model 4]], the company's Belgium office and five translators in the US produced six different versions that varied on the [[gender (language)|gender]] of computer components.<ref name="goldklang20090821">{{Cite web |last=Goldklang |first=Ira |date=2009-08-21 |title=TRS-80 Computers: TRS-80 Model 4 – Ira Goldklang's TRS-80 Revived Site |url=https://www.trs-80.com/wordpress/models/model-4/ |access-date=2025-01-08 |website=Ira Goldklang's TRS-80 Revived |language=en-US}}</ref>

However, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes.

Finally, sales, marketing and [[technical support]] must also facilitate their operations in the new languages, to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales.

== See also ==
* Subcomponents and standards:
** [[Bidirectional script support]]
** [[International Components for Unicode]]
** [[Language code]]
** [[Language localisation|Language localization]]
** [[Website localization]]
* Related concepts:
** [[Computer accessibility]]
** [[Computer Russification]], localization into Russian language
** [[Separation of concerns]]
* Methods and examples:
** [[Game localization]]
** [[Globalization Management System]]
** [[Pseudolocalization]], a [[software testing]] method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.
* Other:
** [[Input method editor]]
** [[Language industry]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith-Ferrier |first=Guy |title=.NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications |date=2006 |publisher=Addison Wesley Professional |isbn=0-321-34138-4 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esselink |first=Bert |title=A Practical Guide to Localization |date=2000 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=1-58811-006-0 |location=Amsterdam}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ash |first=Lydia |title=The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests |date=2003 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-43021-8 |location=Indianapolis, Indiana}}
* {{Cite book |last=DePalma |first=Donald A. |title=Business Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing |date=2004 |publisher=Globa Vista Press |isbn=0-9765169-0-X |location=Chelmsford, Massachusetts}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|internationalization|localization}}
*{{Wikibooks-inline|FOSS Localization}}
*[https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n.en.html Localization vs. Internationalization by The World Wide Web Consortium]
*{{Commons category-inline}}

[[Category:Internationalization and localization| ]]
[[Category:Business terms]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Information and communication technologies for development]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Natural language and computing]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]
[[Category:Translation]]
[[Category:Transliteration]]
[[Category:Word coinage]]