Editing International Seabed Authority

{{Short description|Intergovernmental body to regulate mineral-related activities on the seabed}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
| name                     = International Seabed Authority
| native_name              = 
| image                    = ISA Headquaters.jpg
| image_size               = 200px
| alt                      = 
| caption                  = ISA Headquarters
| logo                     = 
| logo_size                = 150px
| logo_alt                 = 
| abbreviation             = ISA
| motto                    = 
| formation                = {{start date and age|1994|11|16|df=yes}}
| type                     = [[Intergovernmental organization]]
| status                   = 
| purpose                  = Regulate deep seabed mining and ensure the marine environment is protected from any harmful effects which may arise from mining activities
| headquarters             = [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]], Jamaica
| location                 = 
| coords                   = {{Coord|17.9647|-76.7917|display=inline,title}}
| region                   = 
| services                 = 
| products                 = 
| methods                  = 
| fields                   = 
| membership               = 168 states parties<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/member-states |title=Member States |website=International Seabed Authority |access-date=1 November 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526094804/https://www.isa.org.jm/member-states/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| membership_year          = 2018
| sec_gen                  = 
| leader_title             = Secretary-General
| leader_name              = [[Leticia Carvalho]]
| main_organ               = Assembly of the International Seabed Authority
| affiliations             = [[United Nations General Assembly observers|Observer]] to the [[United Nations General Assembly]]
| budget                   = $17.1 Million<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/sites/default/files/files/documents/sb-22-6_0.pdf |title=Seabed Council Hears Report of Finance Committee; Approves by Decision US$17 Million Budget for Authority for 2017–2018; Recommends Working Capital Fund Increase to $660,000 |date=14 July 2016 |website=International Seabed Authority |access-date=1 November 2018 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| budget_year              = 2017 & 2018
| slogan                   = 
| mission                  = 
| website                  = {{URL|https://isa.org.jm}}
| footnotes                = 
}}

The '''International Seabed Authority''' ('''ISA'''; {{langx|fr|Autorité internationale des fonds marins}}) is a [[Kingston, Jamaica]]-based [[intergovernmental organization|intergovernmental body]] of 167 member states and the European Union. It was established under the 1982 [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)]] and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control the development of mineral related operations in the international seabed,<ref>{{cite web |title=Documents and Publications |url=http://www.isa.org.jm/en/documents |publisher=International Seabed Authority|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513045513/http://www.isa.org.jm/en/documents |archive-date=13 May 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jon Copley |title=Deep-sea mining is making the seabed the hottest real estate on Earth |journal=New Scientist |date=Nov 7, 2020 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24833070-700-deep-sea-mining-is-making-the-seabed-the-hottest-real-estate-on-earth/ |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428214041/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24833070-700-deep-sea-mining-is-making-the-seabed-the-hottest-real-estate-on-earth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which is considered the "[[Common heritage of humanity|common heritage of all mankind]]",<ref>{{cite web |title=UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 2 |url=https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part11-2.htm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.un.org |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422101246/https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part11-2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="un.org">[https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414043900/http://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm |date=14 April 2009 }} UN: regularly updated.</ref> and to protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and [[subsoil]] in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is responsible for safeguarding the international [[deep sea]], defined as waters below 200 meters (656 feet), where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the "deep" ocean? : Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/deep-ocean.html |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |language=en-US |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820015617/https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/deep-ocean.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA oversees activities that might threaten [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] and harm the marine environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/ |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=21 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421140605/https://www.isa.org.jm/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 

Since its inception in 1994, the ISA has approved over two dozen ocean floor mining exploration contracts in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.<ref name="nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web |date=2019-07-24 |title=Secret deep sea mining data to reveal what lives in the abyss |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/do-we-know-enough-about-deep-sea-to-mine-it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301041032/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/do-we-know-enough-about-deep-sea-to-mine-it |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Environment |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The International Seabed Authority and Deep Seabed Mining |url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/international-seabed-authority-and-deep-seabed-mining |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=United Nations |language=en |archive-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420221251/https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/international-seabed-authority-and-deep-seabed-mining |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority of these contracts are for exploration in the [[Clarion–Clipperton zone]] between Hawaii and Mexico, where [[polymetallic nodules]] contain copper, cobalt and other minerals essential for powering electric batteries. To date, the Authority has not authorized any commercial mining contracts as it continues to deliberate over regulations amid global calls for a moratorium on [[deep sea mining]]. Scientists and environmentalists warn that such mining could wreak havoc on the ocean, a crucial carbon sink and home to rare and diverse species.<ref name="Facebook">{{cite web |date=2022-04-19 |title=A race to the bottom: In the rush to mine the ocean floor for minerals used in EV batteries, who is looking out for the environment? |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2022-04-19/gold-rush-in-the-deep-sea-raises-questions-about-international-seabed-authority |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419140600/https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2022-04-19/gold-rush-in-the-deep-sea-raises-questions-about-international-seabed-authority |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |title=Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost? |url=https://time.com/6094560/deep-sea-mining-environmental-costs-benefits/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |magazine=Time |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421215906/https://time.com/6094560/deep-sea-mining-environmental-costs-benefits/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Funded by UNCLOS members and mining contractors, the Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council, and Secretariat. The current Secretary-General of the agency is [[Leticia Carvalho]], whose four-year term began on 1 January 2025.<ref>[https://www.isa.org.jm/news/leticia-carvalho-assumes-role-as-secretary-general-of-the-international-seabed-authority/ International Seabed Authority, "Leticia Carvalho assumes role as Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority"], 2 January 2025. Retrieved 6 January 2025.</ref>

==Origin==
The Authority held its inaugural meeting in its host country, [[Jamaica]], on 16 November 1994,<ref>{{UN document |docid=A-49-PV.22 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbatim Report |session=49 |meeting=22 |page=10 |anchor=pg010-bk02-pa12 |date=7 October 1994 |speakername=Mr. Robertson | speakernation=Jamaica |access-date=23 April 2009 }}</ref> the day the Convention came into force.  The articles governing the Authority have been made "noting the political and economic changes, including market-oriented approaches, affecting the implementation" of the convention.<ref name="UN_ARES48263">{{UN document |docid=A-RES-48-263 |type=Resolution |body=General Assembly |session=48 |resolution_number=263 |access-date=23 April 2009|title=Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982|date=17 August 1994}}</ref> The Authority obtained its [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer status to the United Nations]] in October 1996.<ref>{{UN document |docid=A-51-PV.40 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbatim Report |session=51 |meeting=40 |page=22 |anchor=pg022-bk05 |date=24 October 1996 | title=Observer status for the International Seabed Authority in the General Assembly| access-date=23 April 2009 }}</ref> The Authority has 167 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]].<ref name="un.org" /> The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and potentially exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources, such as cobalt, nickel and manganese.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urbina |first=Ian |title=The Outlaw Ocean: Crime and Survival in the Last Untamed Frontier. |year=2019 |isbn=978-0451492944 |page=473 |chapter=The Next Frontier|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf }}</ref><ref name="Time"/>

=== "Common Heritage of All Mankind" ===
Under UNCLOS, Part XI, Section 2. "The Area and its resources are the common heritage of mankind." As a result, ISA must ensure that activities in the Area are undertaken only for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all humankind, with economic benefits shared equitably and special consideration given to the needs of developing nations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Summary report 17–21 February 2020 |url=https://enb.iisd.org/events/1st-part-26th-annual-session-international-seabed-authority-isa/summary-report-17-21 |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin |language=en |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524160406/https://enb.iisd.org/events/1st-part-26th-annual-session-international-seabed-authority-isa/summary-report-17-21 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Governance and operations ===
Along with a Secretary-General, two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all UNCLOS parties are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly.<ref name="UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4">{{cite web |title=UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4 |url=https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part11-4.htm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.un.org |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302184043/http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part11-4.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Secretary-General ====
The Assembly elects a Secretary-General to serve a four-year term as the ISA's chief administrative officer, oversee Authority staff and issue an annual report to the Assembly. The Secretary-General is prohibited from holding a financial interest in any mining operations authorized by the Authority.<ref name="UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4"/>

There have been four Secretary-Generals since ISA's creation in 1996:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 120px;"|Country 
!Image!! style="width: 120px;" |Name !! style="width: 120px;"|Term
|-
| {{FIJ}} 
| [[File:Satya N. Nandan 2008 (cropped).jpg |70px]]|| [[Satya Nandan]] || 1996–2008
|-
| {{GHA}} 
| [[File:Nii Allotey Odunton (cropped).jpg |70px]]|| [[Nii Allotey Odunton]] || 2008−2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement on the passing of former ISA Secretary-General Nii Allotey Odunton {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/news/statement-passing-former-isa-secretary-general-nii-allotey-odunton |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422101353/https://www.isa.org.jm/news/statement-passing-former-isa-secretary-general-nii-allotey-odunton |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{GBR}} 
| [[File:Michael Lodge.jpg |70px]] || [[Michael Lodge]] || 2016<ref>{{cite web |date=21 July 2016 |title=Decision of the Assembly of the International Seabed Authority Concerning the Appointment of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/sites/default/files/files/documents/isba-22a-10_1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801074737/https://www.isa.org.jm/sites/default/files/files/documents/isba-22a-10_1.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2017 |access-date=1 November 2018 |website=International Seabed Authority }}</ref>–2024
|-
| {{BRA}} 
| [[File:Leticia Reis de Carvalho (cropped).jpg |70px]] || [[Leticia Carvalho]] || 2025–
|}

==== Assembly ====
The Assembly, which consists of all members of the Authority, elects the 36-member Council, as well as the Secretary-General from among candidates the Council recommends. The Assembly also has the power to approve or reject the council's recommendations for the following: rules and regulations governing seabed mining, distribution of financial benefits accrued from authorized mining and the Authority's annual budget.<ref name="UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4"/>

==== Council ====
The 36-member Council, elected by the Assembly, authorizes contracts with governments and private corporations to explore and mine the international seabed and sets rules and procedures, subject to the Assembly's approval, for ISA governance. The council also nominates a Secretary-General, who then must be elected by the full Assembly to serve a four-year term. The ISA's annual plenary sessions, which usually last two weeks, are held in Kingston.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Seabed Authority {{!}} international organization {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Seabed-Authority |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419144410/https://www.britannica.com/topic/International-Seabed-Authority |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Advisory bodies ====
Also established is a 30-member Legal and Technical Commission which advises the Council and a 15-member Finance Committee that deals with budgetary and related matters.  All members are experts nominated by governments and elected to serve in their individual capacity.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Legal and Technical Commission {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/authority/legal-and-technical-commission |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422101354/https://www.isa.org.jm/authority/legal-and-technical-commission |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Finance Committee {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/authority/finance-committee |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428162944/https://www.isa.org.jm/authority/finance-committee |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Enterprise ====
The convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority's own mining operator, potentially generating "hundreds of millions of dollars in royalties" to be shared with developing nations."<ref>{{cite web |title=Nautilus Minerals Propose Joint Venture with the Enterprise {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/news/nautilus-minerals-propose-joint-venture-enterprise |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420040827/https://www.isa.org.jm/news/nautilus-minerals-propose-joint-venture-enterprise |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Facebook"/> The environmental organization [[Greenpeace]] has expressed concerns over the ISA's alleged conflict of interest as both regulator and business operator, though the ISA denies the conflict of interest charge.<ref name="Facebook"/>

==Status==
The Authority has a Secretariat of 37 authorized posts and a 2022 biennial budget of approximately $10,000,000.<ref>[https://isa.org.jm/files/files/documents/ISBA_26_FC_7-2104418E.pdf Future financing of the International Seabed Authority] isa.org.jm
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829071156/https://isa.org.jm/files/files/documents/ISBA_26_FC_7-2104418E.pdf |date=29 August 2022 }}</ref>

== Jurisdiction ==
UNCLOS defines the international seabed area—the part under ISA jurisdiction—as "the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction"<ref>{{cite web |title=UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA |url=https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part1.htm |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.un.org |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422103718/https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction as a "12 nautical-mile territorial sea; an exclusive economic zone of up to 200 nautical miles and a continental shelf",<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploration areas {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/minerals/exploration-areas |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422103718/https://www.isa.org.jm/minerals/exploration-areas |url-status=live }}</ref> unless a nation can demonstrate that its [[continental shelf]] is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to {{convert|350|nmi|km}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law of the Sea {{!}} international law [1982] {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Law-of-the-Sea |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429224421/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Law-of-the-Sea |url-status=live }}</ref> ISA has no role in determining this boundary. Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the [[Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf]], which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Functions and Work of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf {{!}} Readings |url=https://www.spf.org/islandstudies/readings/b00005.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Review of Island Studies |language=ja-JP |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204204340/https://www.spf.org/islandstudies/readings/b00005.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:InternationalSeabedAuthority-members.png|thumb|250px|Member states represented in blue; observer states in yellow (note: the [[European Union]] also holds membership)]]
[[File:Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone.png|thumb|Clarion–Clipperton zone, 1.7 million square miles between Hawaii and Mexico, known for ocean floor nodules of cobalt, nickel, manganese and copper, as well as unusual species<ref name="pewtrusts.org">{{cite web
|url=https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2017/12/sea_the_clarion_clipperton_zone.pdf |title=The Clarion–Clipperton Zone
|website=pewtrusts.org|access-date=6 September 2023}}</ref>]]

==Exploration contracts and commercial mining ==

=== Commercial ===
Although the ISA has yet to approve commercial mining contracts, the Authority anticipates commercial mining could begin as early as 2023–2024 with the completion of much-debated ISA regulations.<ref name="Facebook"/><ref name="Wolman">{{cite news |last=Wolman |first=Jordan |title=The world is set to debate seabed mining regulations, but the U.S. will be on the outside looking in |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/03/22/seabed-mining-regulations-00019005 |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=POLITICO |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423132251/https://www.politico.com/news/2022/03/22/seabed-mining-regulations-00019005 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, the Pacific Island nation of Nauru triggered a deadline that requires the ISA to approve final commercial mining regulations by July 2023 or allow contractors to mine under existing draft regulations.<ref name="Wolman"/>

=== Exploratory ===
Exploratory mining involves "deep-sea mapping, manned submersibles or remotely-operated vehicles, photographic and video systems, and drilling devices."<ref>[https://isa.org.jm/files/files/documents/eng8.pdf Discovery and Formation] isa.org.jm
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331185447/https://isa.org.jm/files/files/documents/eng8.pdf |date=31 March 2022 }}</ref>

==== Clarion–Clipperton zone ====
[[File:2019-03-08 22-08-57 Sonne SO268-1 035ROV06 OnlyLogo klein original(1).jpg|thumb|Investigation into manganese nodule mining on the seabed in the Clarion–Clipperton zone]]

Most areas of exploration are in the [[Clarion–Clipperton zone]] (CCZ), in the Equatorial North Pacific Ocean, south and southeast of Hawaii, between Hawaii and Mexico. The quiet CCZ, as wide as the continental U.S., is home to [[Manganese nodule|polymetallic nodules]] or trillions of potato-size lumps of matter formed over millions of years that contain nickel, manganese, copper, zinc and cobalt, as well as deep water coral, sponges and unusual species ("ghost octopus", crustaceans, worms and sea cucumbers) that in a near light-less environment attach to the rock-like nodules for shelter.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Clarion–Clipperton Zone |url=http://pew.org/2o4se1P |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=pew.org |date=15 December 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="pewtrusts.org"/> Contractors want to mine polymetallic nodules for battery storage for electric vehicles, smartphones, and solar and wind energy.<ref name="Wolman"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-10-23 |title=China leads the race to exploit deep sea minerals: U.N. body |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKBN1X213T |access-date=2022-04-23 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423145254/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKBN1X213T |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heffernan |first=Olive |date=2019-07-24 |title=Seabed mining is coming — bringing mineral riches and fears of epic extinctions |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=571 |issue=7766 |pages=465–468 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-02242-y|pmid=31341305 |bibcode=2019Natur.571..465H |s2cid=198496846 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Other areas of exploration ====
Exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules have also been issued for contractors operating in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and [[Western Pacific Ocean]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |title=Exploration Contracts {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426103651/https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |url-status=live }}</ref> The ISA has issued exploration contracts for polymetallic sulphides in the [[Southwest Indian Ridge|South West Indian Ridge]], [[Central Indian Ridge]] and the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]],<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and contracts for exploration for cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==== Requirements of contractors ====
Each contractor is required to develop a contingency plan should something go wrong during exploration, report annually on its activities in its assigned area and propose a training program for developing countries .<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==== List of exploratory contractors ====
The ISA has signed 15-year contracts for exploration with 22 contractors seeking polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploration Contracts {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426103651/https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2001-2002 the ISA signed contracts with Yuzhmorgeologya (Russian Federation); Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) (Bulgaria, Cuba, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and Russian Federation); the Government of the Republic of Korea; China Ocean Minerals Research and Development Association (COMRA) (China); Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) (Japan); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) (France); the Government of India. In 2006, the Authority signed a 15-year contract with the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web |title=Minerals: Polymetallic Nodules {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/polymetallic-nodules |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418040614/https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/polymetallic-nodules |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Exploration areas {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/minerals/exploration-areas |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422103718/https://www.isa.org.jm/minerals/exploration-areas |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2008, the Authority received two new applications for authorization to explore for polymetallic nodules, coming for the first time from private firms in developing island nations of the Pacific. Sponsored by their respective governments, they were submitted by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-L2.pdf Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.: application for approval of a plan of work for exploration.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085209/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-L2.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }} Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.2, 21 April 2008.</ref> and Tonga Offshore Mining Limited.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-L3.pdf Tonga Offshore Mining Limited : application for approval of a plan of work for exploration.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085240/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-L3.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }} Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.3, 21 April 2008.</ref> A 15-year exploration contract was granted by the Authority to Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. on 22 July 2011 and to Tonga Offshore Mining Limited on 12 January 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.isa.org.jm/en/scientific/exploration/contractors |title=Contractors &#124; International Seabed Authority |publisher=Isa.org.jm |access-date=13 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125174247/http://www.isa.org.jm/en/scientific/exploration/contractors |archive-date=25 January 2013  }}</ref>

Fifteen-year exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules were also granted to G-TECH Sea Mineral Resources NV (Belgium) on 14 January 2013; Marawa Research and Exploration Ltd (Kiribati) on 19 January 2015; Ocean Mineral Singapore Pte Ltd on 22 January 2015; UK Seabed Resources Ltd (two contracts on 8 February 2013 and 29 March 2016 respectively); Cook Islands Investment Corporation on 15 July 2016 and more recently China Minmetals Corporation on 12 May 2017.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

The Authority has signed seven contracts for the exploration for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (18 November 2011); the Government of Russia (29 October 2012); Government of the Republic of Korea (24 June 2014); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (Ifremer, France, 18 November 2014); the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany (6 May 2015); and the Government of India (26 September 2016) and the Government of the Republic of Poland (12 February 2018).<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploration Contracts {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426103651/https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Authority holds five contracts for the exploration of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (29 April 2014); Japan Oil Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC, 27 January 2014); Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (10 March 2015), Companhia De Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (9 November 2015) and the Government of the Republic of Korea (27 March 2018).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-04/29/content_2668705.htm|title=中国大洋协会与国际海底管理局签订富钴结壳勘探合同|work=中国政府网|language=zh|access-date=12 February 2020|archive-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802052831/http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-04/29/content_2668705.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isa.org.jm/deep-seabed-minerals-contractors?qt-contractors_tabs_alt=2#qt-contractors_tabs_alt|title=DEEP SEABED MINERALS CONTRACTORS|work=INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY|language=en|access-date=12 February 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507013907/https://www.isa.org.jm/deep-seabed-minerals-contractors?qt-contractors_tabs_alt=2#qt-contractors_tabs_alt|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Controversy ==

=== Environmental concerns and climate crisis ===
Environmentalists, scientists from 44 countries, Google, BMW and Volvo, World Wildlife Fund and several Pacific nations, including Fiji and Papua New Guinea, have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining until more scientific research is conducted on its impact on the marine environment.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite web |date=2021-06-30 |title=Deep-sea mining could start in two years after Pacific nation of Nauru gives UN ultimatum |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/30/deep-sea-mining-could-start-in-two-years-after-pacific-nation-of-nauru-gives-un-ultimatum |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref name="nationalgeographic.com"/><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web |date=2022-04-01 |title=Seabed regulator accused of deciding deep sea's future 'behind closed doors' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/apr/01/worlds-seabed-regulator-accused-of-reckless-failings-over-deep-sea-mining |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

Advocates for deep sea mining argue extraction of rare metals is critical for electric car batteries necessary to develop a fossil-free economy.<ref name="theguardian.com"/>

Opponents argue seabed mining could wreak havoc on the world's oceans, which act as a [[carbon sink]] absorbing a quarter of the world's carbon emissions each year.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost? |url=https://time.com/6094560/deep-sea-mining-environmental-costs-benefits/ |access-date=2022-04-22 |magazine=Time |language=en |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421215906/https://time.com/6094560/deep-sea-mining-environmental-costs-benefits/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Le MV Esperanza (4).JPG|thumb|Greenpeace's ''Esperanza'']]
The environmental organization Greenpeace has raised objections about deep seabed mining disrupting the habitats of newly reported species, from crabs to whales to snails that survive without eating and congregate near bioluminescent thermal vents.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020-02-26 |title=One scientist's mission to save the 'super weird' snails under the sea |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/26/the-rare-and-super-weird-creatures-at-risk-from-deep-sea-mining-aoe |access-date=2022-04-23 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910091324/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/26/the-rare-and-super-weird-creatures-at-risk-from-deep-sea-mining-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref> Greenpeace has urged the ISA to further develop UNCLOS' foundational Article 136 principle "of common heritage to all mankind" to revise regulations and set conservation targets. In a 2018 Greenpeace Research Laboratories report the organization stressed the importance of protecting marine biodiversity from toxins released during seabed mining for natural gas and rare metals for photovoltaic cells.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Kathryn A. |last2=Thompson |first2=Kirsten F. |last3=Johnston |first3=Paul |last4=Santillo |first4=David |date=2018 |title=An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2017.00418 |issn=2296-7745|doi-access=free |hdl=10871/130175 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Greenpeace maintains the "pro-exploitation" ISA is not the appropriate authority to regulate deep sea mining (DSM). In 2019 Greenpeace activists protested outside the annual meeting of the International Seabed Authority in Jamaica, calling for a global ocean treaty to ban deep sea mining in ocean sanctuaries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-07-03 |title=Greenpeace ship sets sail to highlight risk of mining below the waves |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKCN1TY001 |access-date=2022-04-23 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423221711/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKCN1TY001 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some of the activists had sailed to Jamaica aboard Greenpeace's ship, the Esperanza, which travelled from the "Lost City in the mid-Atlantic", an area Greenpeace says is threatened by exploratory mining the ISA authorized.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-07-23 |title=Greenpeace, JET protest against deep sea mining |url=https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20190723/greenpeace-jet-protest-against-deep-sea-mining-0 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=jamaica-gleaner.com |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221125/https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20190723/greenpeace-jet-protest-against-deep-sea-mining-0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge said Greenpeace's support for a global ocean treaty, not the ISA, to control deep sea mining did not make sense.<ref name="Reuters">{{Cite news |date=2019-07-05 |title=U.N. deep sea mining body rejects Greenpeace criticism |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKCN1U016E |access-date=2022-04-25 |archive-date=25 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425012330/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea-idUSKCN1U016E |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Concern over transparency issues ===
In 2022, The Guardian reported the ISA failed to renew the contract for Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), a division of the [[International Institute for Sustainable Development]] (IISD), which covered past proceedings to maintain an independent record of the ISA. The decision came amid warnings from scientists that commercial ocean floor mining "would be “dangerous”, “reckless” and “irreversible” in its harm to the ecosystem. In its defense, the ISA said ENB's non-renewal was triggered by budget cuts. The Guardian also reported that Germany and environmentalists had raised questions about the lack of transparency by the ISA's Legal and Technical Commission (LTC), which conducts closed meetings to set standards and issue guidelines for seabed mining.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

In response to criticism, ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge defended ISA as a "transparent public forum of consensus-building."<ref name="Reuters"/>

=== Charges of conflict of interest ===
In 2022, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that the International Seabed Authority faced criticisms over conflicts of interest.<ref name="Facebook"/> The ''LA Times'' reported that the ISA was scheduled to approve seabed mining, despite concerns by scientists and environmentalists about the environmental impact.<ref name="Facebook"/> ISA head Michael Lodge had criticized these groups, saying there was "a growing environmental absolutism and dogmatism bordering on fanaticism" and arguing that seabed mining was "predictable and manageable".<ref name="Facebook"/> Scientists and members of Lodge's staff objected to Lodge's appearance in a mining company video seeking investments in robotic exploration for minerals to manufacture electric vehicles. In the video, Lodge said his agency supported a 15-year exploration contract because "land-based resources are becoming increasingly difficult to access."<ref name="Facebook"/>

=== United States' non-ratification of UNCLOS ===
The exact nature of the ISA's mission and authority has been questioned by opponents of the Law of the Sea Treaty who are generally skeptical of multilateral engagement by the United States.<ref>[http://www.unlawoftheseatreaty.org Law of the Sea Treaty.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909025127/http://www.unlawoftheseatreaty.org/|date=9 September 2018}} National Center for Public Policy Research.</ref> In 2007, although the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted in favor of treaty ratification, the full Senate failed to ratify the treaty, with some Republicans arguing UNCLOS might threaten national security by interfering with ocean military operations and hinder seabed mining corporations by imposing environmental regulations.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-10-31 |title=U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN31335584 |access-date=2022-04-20 |archive-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420220727/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN31335584 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. WILL NOT SIGN SEA LAW TREATY | work=The New York Times |url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1982/07/10/007695.html?pageNumber=5 |access-date=2022-04-22 |language=en}}</ref>

One of the main anti-ratification arguments being a charge that the ISA is flawed or unnecessary. In its original form, the Convention included certain provisions that some found objectionable, such as:
* Use of collected money for [[wealth redistribution]] in addition to ISA administration<ref>{{cite web |title=Opponents who argue UNCLOS would impose U.N. law on U.S. ignore long negotiation history and U.S. leadership in writing treaty {{!}} UNCLOSdebate.org |url=https://www.unclosdebate.org/evidence/1133/opponents-who-argue-unclos-would-impose-un-law-us-ignore-long-negotiation-history-and |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.unclosdebate.org |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422111258/https://www.unclosdebate.org/evidence/1133/opponents-who-argue-unclos-would-impose-un-law-us-ignore-long-negotiation-history-and |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Mandatory technology transfer<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. would be obligated to transfer technology under UNCLOS {{!}} UNCLOSdebate.org |url=https://www.unclosdebate.org/argument/662/us-would-be-obligated-transfer-technology-under-unclos |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.unclosdebate.org |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422111256/https://www.unclosdebate.org/argument/662/us-would-be-obligated-transfer-technology-under-unclos |url-status=live }}</ref>

Because of these concerns, the United States pushed for modification of the Convention, obtaining a 1994 Agreement on Implementation that somewhat mitigates them and thus modifies the ISA's authority.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 1994 Agreement explicitly dealt with and resolved concerns U.S. had with ratifying UNCLOS {{!}} UNCLOSdebate.org |url=https://www.unclosdebate.org/argument/939/1994-agreement-explicitly-dealt-and-resolved-concerns-us-had-ratifying-unclos |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.unclosdebate.org |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707161810/https://www.unclosdebate.org/argument/939/1994-agreement-explicitly-dealt-and-resolved-concerns-us-had-ratifying-unclos |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite this change the United States has not ratified the Convention and so is not a member of ISA, although it sends sizable delegations to participate in meetings as an observer.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN31335584 U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty | Reuters.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214081844/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN31335584 |date=14 February 2009 }} 31 October 2007.</ref>

As an observer, not an UNCLOS signatory, the U.S. will not be allowed to vote on approval of final commercial mining regulations and will be unable to sponsor companies to apply for contracts in international waters. This is because the ISA requires contractors be sponsored by a state that is a signatory to UNCLOS. U.S.-based military contractor Lockheed Martin, however, is participating in two British deep sea mining projects.<ref name="Wolman"/>

=== Palau's advocacy against deep-sea mining ===
[[Palau]] was the first country to call for a moratorium, or precautionary pause, on deep-sea mining until the impact of such a practice is better understood.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alberts |first=Elizabeth Claire |date=2024-01-29 |title=Palau is the first nation to ratify treaty to protect high seas |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2024/01/palau-is-the-first-nation-to-ratify-treaty-to-protect-high-seas/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}</ref> By July 10, 2023, 17 countries had called for a deep-sea mining moratorium or pause, including Germany, New Zealand, Spain, France, Sweden, Fiji, and the Federated States of Micronesia.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Fernandez |first=Surangel S. Whipps, Jr and Daniela |date=2023-07-10 |title=Deep Sea Mining Isn't a Viable Climate Solution |url=https://time.com/6292829/deep-sea-mining-not-climate-solution/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref>

On July 29, 2024, President [[Surangel Whipps Jr.|Surangel S. Whipps Jr.]] of Palau delivered an address titled "[[Upholding the Common Heritage of Humankind]]" to the 29th General Assembly of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in Kingston, Jamaica. In his speech, President Whipps emphasized the importance of safeguarding the deep ocean from exploitation and modern-day colonialism. He highlighted Palau’s deep cultural and economic ties to the ocean and reiterated the call for an immediate moratorium on deep-sea mining, citing the associated environmental risks and uncertainties. In his speech he referred to the ocean as "Our greatest ally in our fight against climate change," highlighting its role as the largest carbon sink on the planet. He underscored the critical role deep ocean ecosystems play in global environmental health and advocated for prioritizing long-term sustainability over short-term economic gains. He urged the assembly to act responsibly on behalf of future generations, reinforcing the deep seabed’s status as the "common heritage of (hu)mankind."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tahir |first=Tariq |title=Deep-sea mining's future rests on crucial vote |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/climate/2024/08/01/deep-sea-minings-future-rests-on-crucial-vote/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wright |first=Stephen |date=31 July 2024 |title=Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/pacific/pac-deepsea-isa-07312024225754.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-06 |title=With deep-sea mining applications set to open, fears grow for the Pacific |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-04-07/pacific-fears-grow-as-deep-sea-mining-applications-set-to-open/102182066 |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref>

The number of countries against the imminent start of mining for metallic nodules on the seafloor increased to 32 during the 29th ISA annual assembly, with Austria, Guatemala, Honduras, Malta, and Tuvalu joining the list.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/environment/un-deep-sea-mining-08012024005625.html/ampRFA}}</ref>

==Activities==

=== Legislative ===
The Authority's main legislative accomplishment has been the adoption, in the year 2000, of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/en/documents/mcode Mining Code | International Seabed Authority.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522100957/http://www.isa.org.jm/en/documents/mcode |date=22 May 2008 }} Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area.</ref><ref>[http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol10/vol10-2.html Website of the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP), volume 10, abstract 2 (18 December 2001).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219043004/http://www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol10/vol10-2.html |date=19 February 2008 }} The University of Dundee (United Kingdom). Article on the Regulations (2001) by Michael W. Lodge, chief of the ISA [[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]]</ref> These resources, also called [[manganese nodule]]s, contain varying amounts of [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[copper]] and [[nickel]].  They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] in the Clarion–Clipperton zone but with some deposits in the [[Indian Ocean]].

In 2013, the ISA approved amendments to its mining code on deep sea exploration, stating a prospector should take a precautionary approach to avoid polluting the ocean and should immediately inform the Secretary-General of any prospect-related incidents that threaten the marine environment.  The amended regulations also said a contractor can recover "a reasonable amount of material" for testing but not for sale.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite web |title=The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/mining-code/exploration-regulations |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428172658/https://www.isa.org.jm/mining-code/exploration-regulations |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 2019, the ISA's Legal and Trade Commission prepared "Draft regulations on exploitation of mineral resources in the Area."<ref>{{cite web |title=ISBA/25/C/WP.1 {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/node/19311 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424133539/https://www.isa.org.jm/node/19311 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2010, the ISA adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Summary report 25 February – 1 March 2019 |url=https://enb.iisd.org/events/1st-part-25th-annual-session-international-seabed-authority-isa/summary-report-25-february-1 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424133538/https://enb.iisd.org/events/1st-part-25th-annual-session-international-seabed-authority-isa/summary-report-25-february-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceD"/>

In 2012, the Authority adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="ReferenceD"/>

The Council of the Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering [[polymetallic]] [[sulfide]]s and cobalt-rich [[ferromanganese]] crusts, which are rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, [[zinc]], silver and gold, as well as [[cobalt]]. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world.  The Council decided in 2006 to prepare separate sets of regulations for sulphides and for crusts, with priority given to sulphides. It devoted most of its sessions in 2007 and 2008 to this task, but several issues remained unresolved. Chief among these were the definition and configuration of the area to be allocated to contractors for exploration, the fees to be paid to the Authority and the question of how to deal with any overlapping claims that might arise.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/En/SG-Stats/StatesParties18.pdf Statement by the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority to the Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201113034/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/En/SG-Stats/StatesParties18.pdf |date=1 December 2008 }} New York, 16 June 2008.</ref> Meanwhile, the Legal and Technical Commission reported progress on ferromanganese crusts.<ref name="isa.org.jm">[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/Cncl/ISBA-14C-11.pdf Statement of the President of the Council of the International Seabed Authority on the work of the Council during the fourteenth session.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085133/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/Cncl/ISBA-14C-11.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }} Document ISBA/14/C/11, 5 June 2008.</ref>

=== Workshops and research ===
In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences.  It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-3.pdf Report on the International Seabed Authority's workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202052534/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-3.pdf |date=2 December 2008 }} Document ISBA/14/C/7, prepared by the Secretariat.</ref> Studies over several years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/TechStudy3.pdf Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723124448/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/TechStudy3.pdf |date=23 July 2008 }} ISA Technical Study No. 3, 2007.</ref> A workshop at [[Manoa, Hawaii]], in October 2007<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-2.pdf Workshop on Designing Marine Protected Areas for Seamounts and the Abyssal Nodule Province in Pacific High Seas.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085143/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/LTC/ISBA-14LTC-2.pdf |date=17 December 2008 }} Document ISBA/14/LTC/2.</ref> produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of "preservation reference areas" in the Clarion–Clipperton zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact. In recent years, the ISA hosted workshops on enhancing the role of women in conducting deep-sea scientific studies, sustainable management of deep seabed resources, a series for Africa on resources and technologies for DSM and a session on sharing the economic benefits of DSM.<ref>{{cite web |title={{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/events/archive/2022 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424204155/https://www.isa.org.jm/events/archive/2022 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title={{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/events/workshops/2021 |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424204157/https://www.isa.org.jm/events/workshops/2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== National trends in seabed mining ==
In recent years, however, interest in [[deep sea mining]], especially with regard to ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides, has picked up among several firms now operating in waters within the national zones of Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Tonga. Papua New Guinea was the first country in the world to grant commercial exploration licenses for seafloor massive sulphide deposits when it granted the initial license to Nautilus Minerals in 1997. Japan's new ocean policy emphasizes the need to develop [[methane clathrate|methane hydrate]] and hydrothermal deposits within Japan's exclusive economic zone and calls for the commercialization of these resources within the next 10 years. Reporting on these developments in his annual report to the Authority in April 2008, Secretary-General Nandan referred also to the upward trend in demand and prices for cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese, the main metals that would be derived from seabed mining, and he noted that technologies being developed for offshore extraction could be adapted for deep sea mining.<ref>[http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/Ass/ISBA-14A-2.pdf Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085230/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/14Sess/Ass/ISBA-14A-2.pdf|date=17 December 2008}} Document ISBA/14/A/2, 14 April 2008.</ref>

Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility of exploiting seabed resources in the Arctic Ocean, bordered by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States (see [[Territorial claims in the Arctic]]). In 2020, an international coalition of environmental groups urged the government of Norway to not only abandon plans for deep sea mining under national jurisdiction, but to also speak out against DSM Arctic mining before the International Seaboard Authority.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-04-12 |title=Environmentalists call on Norway to stop plans for deep-sea mining |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/environmentalists-call-norway-stop-plans-deep-sea-mining-2021-04-12/ |access-date=2022-04-24 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424204439/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/environmentalists-call-norway-stop-plans-deep-sea-mining-2021-04-12/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2021-04-16 |title=The Arctic This Week Take Five: Week of April 12, 2021 |url=https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/arctic-week-take-five-week-april-12-2021/ |access-date=2022-04-24 |website=The Arctic Institute |language=en-US |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305053501/https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/arctic-week-take-five-week-april-12-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Endowment fund==
In 2006 the Authority established an Endowment Fund to Support Collaborative Marine Scientific Research on the International Seabed Area. The Fund will aid experienced scientists and technicians from developing countries to participate in deep-sea research organized by international and national institutions. A campaign was launched in February 2008 to identify participants, establish a network of cooperating bodies and seek outside funds to augment the initial $3 million endowment from the Authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.isa.org.jm/en/efund/fund|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430125957/http://www.isa.org.jm/en/efund/fund|url-status=dead|title=Endowment Fund &#124; International Seabed Authority.|archive-date=30 April 2009}}</ref>

==Voluntary commitments==
In 2017, the Authority registered seven voluntary commitments<ref>{{cite web |title=ISA Voluntary Commitments to Support Implementation of SDG14 {{!}} International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/isa-voluntary-commitments |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=www.isa.org.jm |archive-date=28 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428120019/https://www.isa.org.jm/isa-voluntary-commitments |url-status=live }}</ref> with the UN Oceans Conference for [[Sustainable Development Goal 14]]. These were:{{clarify|reason=8 in ref, 7 in this phrase, 6 listed below|date=March 2024}}
#OceanAction15467 – Enhancing the role of women in marine scientific research through capacity building
#OceanAction15796 – Encouraging dissemination of research results through the ISA Secretary-General Award for Excellence in Deep-Sea Research
#OceanAction16538 – Abyssal Initiative for Blue Growth (with UN-DESA)
#OceanAction16494 – Fostering cooperation to promote the sustainable development of Africa's deep seabed resources in support of Africas Blue Economy
#OceanAction17746 – Enhancing the assessment of essential ecological functions of the deep sea oceans through long-term underwater oceanographic observatories in the Area; 
#OceanAction17776 – Enhancing deep sea marine biodiversity assessment through the creation of online taxonomic atlases linked to deep sea mining activities in the Area

==See also==
* [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UNCLOS]] (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)
* [[Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf]]
* [[Deep sea mining|Deep Sea Mining]]
* [[Clarion–Clipperton zone]]
* [[Manganese nodule|Polymetallic nodules]]
* [[International waters]]
* [[Seabed Arms Control Treaty]]
* [[United Nations Trusteeship Council]]
* [[Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://isa.org.jm/ International Seabed Authority] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419121114/https://www.isa.org.jm/ |date=19 April 2022 }}
* [https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm Overview – Convention & Related Agreements.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905223959/http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm |date=5 September 2023 }} UN: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982).
* [https://oceanfdn.org/sites/default/files/ISA%20Submission%20-%20DSMC-15-05.pdf Developing a Regulatory Framework for Mineral Exploitation in the Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811093446/https://oceanfdn.org/sites/default/files/ISA%20Submission%20-%20DSMC-15-05.pdf |date=11 August 2022 }} (Submission to the International Seabed Authority on the report to ISA members and stakeholders)
* [https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/c86ff110-pto-deep-trouble-report-final-1.pdf DEEP TROUBLE: The murky world of the deep sea mining industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412131753/https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/c86ff110-pto-deep-trouble-report-final-1.pdf |date=12 April 2022 }} (Greenpeace International, 2020)
* [https://www.isa.org.jm/mining-code/exploration-regulations The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428172658/https://www.isa.org.jm/mining-code/exploration-regulations |date=28 April 2022 }} (ISA, 2013)

{{International organizations}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:International Seabed Authority| ]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Mining law and governance]]
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly observers]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1994]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty]]
[[Category:International organisations based in Jamaica]]