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{{Short description|Autonomous region of China}} {{EngvarB|date=October 2021}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} {{stack|{{Infobox settlement | name = Inner Mongolia | settlement_type = [[Autonomous regions of China|Autonomous region]] | translit_lang1 = Name | translit_lang1_type = {{nobold|Chinese}} | translit_lang1_info = {{lang|zh|内蒙古自治区}}<br />({{tlit|zh|Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū}}) | translit_lang1_type1 = {{nobold|Mongolian}} | translit_lang1_info1 = {{MongolUnicode|ᠥᠪᠥᠷ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠤᠨᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠨ ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ ᠣᠷᠣᠨ|style=max-height:2em; word-wrap:normal}}{{parabr}}({{tlit|mn|Öbhör Mongoliin Öörtöö Jasakh Oron}}) | translit_lang1_type2 = {{nobold|Abbreviation}} | translit_lang1_info2 = NM{{\}}{{lang|zh|内蒙古}} ({{tlit|zh|Nèi Měnggǔ}}){{\}}{{lang|zh|蒙}} ({{tlit|zh|Měng}}) | image_skyline = {{Photomontage | photo1a = 新巴尔虎右旗 草原 - panoramio.jpg | photo1b = Gegengol in Greater Khingan forest2017.jpg | photo2a = 成吉思汗陵2021.jpg | photo2b = 大召大雄宝殿.jpg | position = center | size = 265 }} | image_caption = Clockwise: {{hlist|class=inline|Steppes in [[Hulun Buir]]|[[Greater Khingan]] range|[[Dazhao Temple (Hohhot)|Dazhao Temple]] in [[Hohhot]]|[[Mausoleum of Genghis Khan]]}} | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = China | image_map = Inner Mongolia in China (+all claims hatched).svg | mapsize = 275px | map_caption = Location of Inner Mongolia within China | seat_type = Capital | seat = [[Hohhot]] | seat1_type = Largest city | seat1 = [[Baotou]] | parts_type = Divisions<br /> - [[Prefecture-level divisions of China|Prefecture-level]]<br /> - [[County-level division|County-level]]<br /> - [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#Township level|Township-<br />level]] | parts = <br />[[List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia|12 prefectures]]<br />103 counties<br />1025 towns and subdistricts |government_type = [[Autonomous regions of China|Autonomous region]] |governing_body = [[Inner Mongolia Autonomous Regional People's Congress]] | leader_title = [[Party Secretary of Inner Mongolia|Party Secretary]] | leader_name = [[Sun Shaocheng]] | leader_title1 = [[Chairperson of Inner Mongolia|Congress Chairman]] | leader_name1 = Sun Shaocheng | leader_title2 = Government Chairwoman | leader_name2 = [[Wang Lixia]] | leader_title3 = [[Inner Mongolia Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|Regional CPPCC]] Chairman | leader_name3 = [[Zhang Yankun]] | leader_title4 = [[National People's Congress]] Representation | leader_name4 = 58 deputies | area_footnotes = <ref name="mofcom">{{cite web|title=Doing Business in China Survey |url=http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/zt_business/lanmub/ |publisher=Ministry Of Commerce – People's Republic Of China |access-date=5 August 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130805091244/http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/zt_business/lanmub/ |archive-date=5 August 2013 }}</ref> | area_total_km2 = 1183000 | area_rank = [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by area|3rd]] | elevation_max_m = 3556 | elevation_max_point = Main Peak, [[Helan Mountains]]<ref name="quaternary"/> | population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|date=11 May 2021|title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 3)|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817188.html|access-date=11 May 2021|publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref> | population_total = 24,049,155 | population_as_of = 2020 | population_rank = [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by population|25th]] | population_density_km2 = auto | population_density_rank = [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by population density|28th]] | demographics_type1 = Demographics | demographics1_title1 = Ethnic composition | demographics1_info1 = {{ubl|[[Han Chinese|Han]]{{snd}}78.7%|[[Mongols in China|Mongol]]{{snd}}17.7%|Others{{snd}}3.6%}} | demographics1_title2 = Languages and dialects | demographics1_info2 = {{hlist|[[Mandarin Chinese]]|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]|[[Oirat language|Oirat]]|[[Buryat language|Buryat]]|[[Dagur language|Dagur]]|[[Evenki language|Evenki]]|[[Jin Chinese|Jin]]}}<ref>{{cite web |title = China |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN/status |website = Ethnologue}}</ref> | demographics_type2 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] {{normal|(2023)}}<ref name="GDPdata">{{cite web|url=https://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=E0103|title=National Data|publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China|China NBS]]|date=March 2024|access-date=June 22, 2024}} see also {{cite web|url=https://www.nmg.gov.cn/tjsj/sjfb/tjsj/tjgb/202403/t20240321_2483646.html|title=zh: 内蒙古自治区2023年国民经济和社会发展统计公报|publisher=neimenggu.gov.cn|date=21 March 2024|access-date=12 June 2022|language=zh}} The average exchange rate of 2023 was CNY 7.0467 to 1 USD dollar {{cite press release | url=https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202402/t20240228_1947918.html| title=Statistical communiqué of the People's Republic of China on the 2023 national economic and social development| publisher=China NBS|date=February 29, 2024|access-date=June 22, 2024}}</ref> | demographics2_title1 = Total | demographics2_info1 = {{CNY|2,463 billion}} ([[List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP|21st]]; US$349 billion) | demographics2_title2 = Per capita | demographics2_info2 = {{CNY|102,677}} ([[List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP per capita|8th]]; US$14,571) | iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:CN|CN-NM]] | blank4_name_sec2 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] {{normal|(2022)}} | blank4_info_sec2 = 0.798<ref name="SHDI">{{cite web |title=Human Development Indices (8.0)- China |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/CHN/?levels=1+4&years=2022&interpolation=0&extrapolation=0 |access-date=23 September 2024 |website=Global Data Lab}}</ref> ([[List of Chinese administrative divisions by HDI|8th]]) – {{color|#090|high}} | website = {{ubl|{{Official URL}} {{in lang|zh}}|{{URL|https://mgl.nmg.gov.cn/l|Mongol version}} }} }} {{Infobox Chinese | pic = Inner Mongolia (Chinese characters, simplified only).svg | piccap = "Inner Mongolia" in [[Chinese characters]] | picupright = 0.3 | pic2 = Oburmonggul.svg | piccap2 = "Inner Mongolia" in [[Mongolian script]] | picsize2 = 80px | order = st | s = {{linktext|内蒙古}} | t = {{linktext|內蒙古}} | p = Nèi Měnggǔ | w = Nei<sup>4</sup> Meng<sup>3</sup>-ku<sup>3</sup> | gr = Ney Meengguu | tp = Nèi Měnggǔ | bpmf = ㄋㄟˋ ㄇㄥˇ ㄍㄨˇ |xej=نُوِ مٍْقُ |zh-dungan = Луй Мынгў | l = Inner Mongolia | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|n|ei|4|-|m|eng|3|.|g|u|3|}} | wuu = Ne Monku | j = Noi6 mung4 gu2 | y = Noih Mùhng gú | ci = {{IPAc-yue|n|oi|6|-|m|ung|4|-|g|u|2}} | poj = Lāi-bông-kó | mong = {{unbulleted list|ᠦᠪᠦᠷ|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ}} | monr = Öbhör Mongol | mon = Өвөр Монгол | mnc = {{unbulleted list|ᡩᠣᡵᡤᡳ|ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ}} | mnc_rom = Dorgi monggo | showflag = p | lang1 = bua | lang1_content = Үбэр Монгол<br />Über Mongol | lang2 = ky | lang2_content = ىچكى مونعولىيا<br />Ichki Mongolia | lang3 = kk | lang3_content = ىشكى موڭعوليا<br />Işkı Moñğolia | lang4 = tyv | lang4_content = Övür Mool oran<br />Өвүр Моол оран | lang5 = bo | lang5_content = ནང་སོག་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས། | c = | altname = Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region | poj2 = Lāi-bông-kó Chū-tī-khu | j2 = Noi6 mung4 gu2 Zi6 zi6 keoi1 | bpmf2 = {{unbulleted list|ㄋㄟˋ ㄇㄥˇ ㄍㄨˇ|ㄗˋ ㄓˋ ㄑㄩ}} | y2 = Noih mùhng gú Jih jih kēui | w2 = Nei<sup>4</sup> Meng<sup>3</sup>-ku<sup>3</sup> Tzu<sup>4</sup>-chih<sup>4</sup>-ch'ü<sup>1</sup> | tp2 = Nèiměnggǔ Zìhjhìhcyu | wuu2 = Ne Monku Zyzychiu | ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|n|oi|6|-|m|ung|4|-|g|u|2|-|z|i|6|-|z|i|6|-|k|eoi|1}} | s2 = {{linktext|内蒙古|自治区}} | t2 = {{linktext|內蒙古|自治區}} | p2 = Nèiměnggǔ Zìzhìqū |xej2=نُوِ مٍْقُ زِجِکِیُوِ | gr2 = Ney Meengguu Tzyhjyhchiu | mi2 = {{IPA|cmn|nêɪ mɤ̌ŋkù t͡sɹ̩̂ʈ͡ʂɻ̩̂t͡ɕʰʏ́|}} | zh-dungan2 = Луй Мынгў Зыҗычү | uig = ئىچكى موڭغۇل ئاپتونوم رايونى<br />Ichki Mongghul Aptonom Rayoni }} {{contains special characters|Mongolian}} }} '''Inner Mongolia''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|Also known as {{tlit|mn|Öbhör Mongol}} or {{tlit|mn|Nei Mongol}}|{{lang-zh|c=内蒙古|p=Nèi Měnggǔ}}|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: {{MongolUnicode|ᠥᠪᠥᠷ|lang=mn}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn}}, {{IPA|mn|ˈɵw̜ʊ̈r ˈmɔɴɢɜ̆ɮ|pron}}}}}} officially the '''Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{lang-zh|s=内蒙古自治区|p=Nèiměnggǔ Zìzhìqū}}|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]: {{MongolUnicode|ᠥᠪᠥᠷ|lang=mn}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ|lang=mn}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠨ|lang=mn}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ|lang=mn}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠣᠷᠣᠨ|lang=mn}}, {{IPA|mn|ˈɵw̜ʊ̈r ˌmɔɴɢɜ̆ˈɮiːɴ ˈoːr̥tʰoː ˈt͡sasəχ ˈɔɾɞɴ|pron}}}}}} is an [[Autonomous regions of China|autonomous region]] of [[China]]. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's [[China–Mongolia border|border]] with the country of [[Mongolia]]. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a small section of China's [[China–Russia border|border]] with [[Russia]] ([[Zabaykalsky Krai]]). Its capital is [[Hohhot]]; other major cities include [[Baotou]], [[Chifeng]], [[Tongliao]], and [[Ordos City|Ordos]]. The autonomous region was established in 1947, incorporating the areas of the former [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] provinces of [[Suiyuan]], [[Chahar Province|Chahar]], [[Rehe Province|Rehe]], [[Liaobei]], and [[Xing'an Province|Xing'an]], along with the northern parts of [[Gansu]] and [[Ningxia]]. Its area makes it the [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by area|third largest Chinese administrative subdivision]], constituting approximately {{convert|1,200,000|km2|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} and 12% of China's total land area. Due to its long span from east to west, Inner Mongolia is geographically divided into eastern and western divisions. The eastern division is often included in [[Northeastern China]] (Dongbei), with major cities including [[Tongliao]], [[Chifeng]], [[Hailar District|Hailar]], and [[Ulanhot]]. The western division is included in [[North China]], with major cities including Baotou and Hohhot. It recorded a population of 24,706,321 in the [[Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China|2010 census]], accounting for 1.84% of [[Mainland China]]'s total population. Inner Mongolia is the country's [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by population|23rd]] most populous [[Provinces of China|province-level division]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/censusdata/rkpc2010/indexch.htm |title = Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of the People's Republic of China |work = stats.gov.cn |access-date = 7 May 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130707111020/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/censusdata/rkpc2010/indexch.htm |archive-date = 7 July 2013 |url-status = live }}</ref> [[Han Chinese]] make up the majority of the population in the region; [[Mongols in China|Mongols]] constitute a significant minority with over 4 million people,<ref name="Ethnicity"/> making it the largest Mongol population in the world (larger than that of the country [[Mongolia]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=China's push to create a single national identity |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2023/09/14/chinas-push-to-create-a-single-national-identity |newspaper=The Economist |date=14 September 2023}}</ref> Inner Mongolia is one of the more economically developed provinces in China with annual GDP per capita at US$14,343 (2022), ranked 8th in the nation. The official languages are [[Chinese language|Mandarin]] and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], the latter of which is written in the [[Mongolian script|traditional Mongolian script]], as opposed to the [[Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet]], which is used in the country of [[Mongolia]], formerly described as [[Outer Mongolia]]. == Etymology == {{Original research section|date=December 2019}} In Chinese, the region is known as "Inner Mongolia", where the terms of "Inner" and "Outer" are derived from [[Manchu language|Manchu]] ''dorgi'' and ''tulergi'' (cf. [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ''dotugadu'' and ''gadagadu''). Inner Mongolia is distinct from [[Outer Mongolia]], which was a term used by the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] and previous governments to refer to what is now the independent [[sovereign state|state]] of [[Mongolia]] and the [[Tuva|Republic of Tuva]] in [[Russia]]. The term Inner {{lang|zh-hans|内}} (Nei) referred to the Nei Fan {{lang|zh-hans|内藩}} (Inner Tributary), i.e., those descendants of Genghis Khan who were granted the title khan (king) in the Ming and Qing dynasties and lived in part of southern Mongolia. Due to the perceived [[Sinocentrism|Sinocentric]] nature of the name "Inner Mongolia", some Mongols outside of China, particularly those in the state of Mongolia, prefer the name "Southern Mongolia". However, this name has not been adopted officially by any government bodies.<ref name="Borjigin">{{cite journal|first=Huhbator |last= Borjigin |date=2004 |title=The history and political character of the name of 'Nei Menggu' (South Mongolia) |journal=Inner" Asia |issue=6 |pages=61–80 |doi= 10.1163/146481704793647207 }}</ref> == History == {{See also|History of Mongolia}} Much of what is known about the history of the [[Mongolian Plateau]] is taken from Chinese chronicles and historians. Before the rise of the Mongols in the 13th century, what is now central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the [[Hetao]] region, alternated in control between [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] farming communities in the south, and [[Xiongnu]], [[Xianbei]], [[Khitan people|Khitan]], [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]], [[Tujue]], and nomadic [[Mongols in China|Mongol]] of the north. The historical narrative of what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia mostly consists of alternations between different [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Mongols in China|Mongol]] tribes, rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese farmers. === Early history === {{see also|Han dynasty in Inner Asia|Tang dynasty in Inner Asia}} [[Slab Grave Culture|Slab Grave cultural]] monuments are found in Northern, Central and Eastern [[Mongolia]], Inner Mongolia, North-Western China, Southern, Central-Eastern and Southern [[Baikal Lake|Baikal]] territory. Mongolian scholars prove that this culture related to the [[Proto-Mongols]].<ref>''History of Mongolia'', Volume I, 2003.</ref> During the [[Zhou dynasty]], Central and Western Inner Mongolia (the [[Hetao]] region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the [[Loufan (people)|Loufan]], Linhu and [[Beidi|Dí]], while Eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the [[Donghu people|Donghu]]. During the [[Warring States period]], [[King Wuling of Zhao|King Wuling]] (340–295 BC) of the [[state of Zhao]] based in what is now [[Hebei]] and [[Shanxi|Shanxi Provinces]] pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the [[Beidi|Dí]] [[state of Zhongshan]] in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and [[Loufan (people)|Loufan]] and created the [[Yunzhong Commandery]] near modern [[Hohhot]]. King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After [[Qin Shi Huang]] created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general [[Meng Tian]] to [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|drive the Xiongnu from the region]] and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: [[Jiuyuan Commandery|Jiuyuan]] and Yunzhong and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.<ref>Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian.</ref> During the [[Western Han dynasty]], [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] sent the general [[Wei Qing]] to [[Han–Xiongnu War|reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu]] in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong-Nu. In that same year, he established the commanderies of [[Shuofang Commandery|Shuofang]] and [[Wuyuan Commandery|Wuyuan]] in Hetao. At the same time, what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the [[Xianbei]], who would, later on, eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence. During the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han dynasty began to be settled in Hetao and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on, during the [[Western Jin dynasty]], it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, [[Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)|Liu Yuan]], who established the [[Han Zhao]] kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes. The [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618) and [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) re-established a unified Chinese empire and like their predecessors, they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the [[Liao dynasty]] founded by the [[Khitan people|Khitans]], a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the [[Western Xia]] of the [[Tangut people|Tangut]]s, who took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including Western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the [[Jurchens]], precursors to the modern [[Manchu people|Manchus]], who established the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] over Manchuria and Northern China. === Mongol and Ming periods === {{Main|Mongol Empire|Mongolia under Yuan rule|Northern Yuan|Ming dynasty in Inner Asia}} [[File:Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg|thumb|left|[[Persian miniature]] depicting [[Genghis Khan]] entering [[Beijing]]]] [[File:Northern Yuan.png|thumb|The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent]] After [[Genghis Khan]] unified the [[Mongol]] tribes in 1206 and founded the [[Mongol Empire]], the [[Tanguts|Tangut]] [[Western Xia]] empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] fell in 1234. In 1271, [[Kublai Khan]], the grandson of Genghis Khan established the [[Yuan dynasty]]. Kublai Khan's summer capital [[Shangdu]] (aka Xanadu) was located near present-day [[Duolun County|Dolonnor]]. During that time [[Ongud]] and [[Khunggirad]] peoples dominated the area of what is now Inner Mongolia. After the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Han-led [[Ming dynasty]] in 1368, the Ming captured parts of Inner Mongolia including Shangdu and [[Yingchang]]. The Ming rebuilt the [[Great Wall of China]] at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei-Inner Mongolia border). The Ming established the Three Guards composed of the Mongols there. Soon after the [[Tumu incident]] in 1449, when the Oirat ruler [[Esen taishi]] captured the Chinese emperor, Mongols flooded south from Outer Mongolia to Inner Mongolia. Thus from then on until 1635, Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural center of the Mongols during the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref>CPAtwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 246.</ref> === Qing period === {{Main|Mongolia under Qing rule}} The eastern Mongol tribes near and in Manchuria, particularly the [[Khorchin]] and Southern [[Khalkha]] in today's Inner Mongolia intermarried, formed alliances with, and fought against the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] tribes until [[Nurhaci]], the founder of the new Jin dynasty, consolidated his control over all groups in the area in 1593.<ref>Atwood, Christopher. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 449.</ref> The [[Manchus]] gained far-reaching control of the Inner Mongolian tribes in 1635, when [[Ligden Khan]]'s son surrendered the [[Chahar Mongols|Chakhar]] Mongol tribes to the [[Manchus]]. The Manchus subsequently invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their newly established [[Qing dynasty]]. Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the [[Mongolian Plateau]] was [[Mongolia under Qing rule|administered]] in a different way for each region: [[File:Map-Qing Dynasty 1616-en.jpg|thumb|Mongolia plateau during early 17th century]] [[File:Qing_Dynasty_1820.png|thumb|Inner Mongolia and [[Outer Mongolia]] within the Qing dynasty, c. 1820]] * "Outer Mongolia": This region corresponds to the modern state of [[Mongolia]], plus the Russian-administered region of [[Tannu Uriankhai]], and modern-day aimag of [[Bayan-Ölgii]] which historically was a part of northern [[Xinjiang]] under China's Qing Dynasty. It included the four leagues (''aimag'') of the [[Khalkha Mongols]] north of the [[Gobi Desert]], as well as the [[Tannu Uriankhai]] which largely corresponds to modern-day [[Tuva Republic]] of Russia, and [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] regions in northwestern Mongolia, which were overseen by the [[Uliastai General|General of Uliastai]] from the city of [[Uliastai]]. * "Inner Mongolia": This region corresponded to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in [[Liaoning]] and [[Jilin]] provinces. The [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|banners]] and tribes in this region came under six [[Leagues of China|leagues]] (''chuulghan''): [[Tongliao|Jirim]], [[Juuuda]], [[Josutu]], [[Xilingol]], [[Ulanqab]], and [[Yekejuu]]. * "Taoxi Mongolia": The [[Alashan Öölüd]] and [[Ejine Torghuud]] banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This territory is equivalent to modern-day [[Alxa League]], the westernmost part of what is now Inner Mongolia. * The Chahar [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Banners]] were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now [[Zhangjiakou]]). Their extent corresponded to southern Ulanqab and [[Bayannur]] in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around [[Zhangjiakou]] in [[Hebei]] province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of [[Zhili Province|Zhili]] and [[Shanxi]] provinces also belonged to this region. * The [[Guihua Tümed]] banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now [[Hohhot]]). This corresponds to the vicinities of the modern city of [[Hohhot]]. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of modern [[Shanxi]] province also belonged to this region. * The [[Hulunbuir]] region in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia was part of the jurisdiction of the General of [[Heilongjiang]], one of the three generals of [[Manchuria]]. The Inner Mongolian [[Chahar Mongols|Chahar]] leader [[Ligdan Khan]], a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son [[Ejei Khan]] surrendered to the Qing. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince ({{lang-zh|labels=no |t=親王 |p=qīn wáng}}), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in [[Shenyang]] and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories]], with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor, unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy. Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. As a result, the Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor = 3985584|title = Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty |last = Reardon-Anderson |first = James |date=Oct 2000|volume = 5 |pages = 503–530 |number = 4 |journal = Environmental History |doi = 10.2307/3985584 |bibcode = 2000EnvH....5..503R |s2cid = 143541438 }}</ref> Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&pg=PA41 Bulag 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102101252/https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&pg=PA41&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yqgfVMatINiiyATElYKAAQ&ved=0CCcQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cross%20league%20borders%20mongols&f=false |date=2 November 2022 }}, p. 41.</ref> Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charleux |first1=Isabelle |title=Nomads on Pilgrimage: Mongols on Wutaishan (China), 1800–1940 |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-29778-4 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzoLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15}}</ref> During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of [[Han Chinese]] settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791, there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the [[Qian Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County|Front Gorlos Banner]] that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalise the status of the peasants who had already settled there.<ref>{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume=10 |year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |page=356 }}</ref> During the nineteenth century, the Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicised and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers. A group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called "Mongol followers" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of [[Li Shouxin]]. They distinguished themselves apart from "true Mongols" 真蒙古.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=Mongolization of Han Chinese and Manchu Settlers in Qing Mongolia, 1700–1911 |type=Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |publisher=ProQuest LLC |page=7 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1.pdf?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaoyuan |title=Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950 |date=2006 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-5426-8 |page=117 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJY7VgEWTUC&q=li+shouxin+zhen+menggu&pg=PA117}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Borjigin |first=Burensain |title=The Complex Structure of Ethnic Conflict in the Frontier: Through the Debates around the 'Jindandao Incident' in 1891 |journal=Inner Asia |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=2004 |pages=41–60 |doi=10.1163/146481704793647171 |jstor=23615320}}</ref> === Republic of China and the Second World War periods === {{Further|Mongolia (1911–24)|Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party|Mengjiang|Mongol United Autonomous Government}} [[File:1912 Inner Mongolia.jpg|thumb|left|Mongols stand in front of a yurt, 1912]] Outer Mongolia gained independence from the Qing dynasty in 1911, when the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu of the Khalkha was declared the [[Bogd Khan]] of Mongolia. Although almost all banners of Inner Mongolia recognised the Bogd Khan as the supreme ruler of Mongols, the internal strife within the region prevented a full reunification. The Mongol rebellions in Inner Mongolia were counterbalanced by princes who hoped to see a restored Qing dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia, as they considered the theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan would be against their modernising objectives for Mongolia.<ref>Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 454.</ref> Eventually, the newly formed [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] promised a new nation of five races ([[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Manchu]], [[Mongols in China|Mongol]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]).<ref>Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 91,</ref> and suppressed the Mongol rebellions in the area.<ref>Belov, E. A. Anti-Chinese rebellion led by Babujav in Inner Mongolia, 1915–1916. – Annaly (Moscow), no. 2, 1996.</ref><ref>Belov, E. A. Rossiya i Mongoliya (1911–1919). Moscow: Vost. Lit. Publ.</ref> The Republic of China reorganised Inner Mongolia into provinces: * [[Rehe (province)|Rehe]] province was created to include the Juuuda and Josutu leagues, plus the [[Chengde]] area in what is now northern [[Hebei]]. * [[Chahar (province)|Chahar]] province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners. * [[Suiyuan]] province was created to include Ulanqab league, Yekejuu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory). * Hulunbuir stayed within [[Heilongjiang]] in Manchuria, which had become a province. * Most of Jirim league came under the new province of [[Liaoning|Fengtian]] in southern Manchuria. * Taoxi Mongolia, i.e., Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring [[Gansu]] province. Later on [[Ningxia]] province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia. Some [[Republic of China]] maps still show this structure. The history of Inner Mongolia during the Second World War is complicated, with Japanese invasion and different kinds of resistance movements. In 1931, Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state [[Manchukuo]], taking some Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e., Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were occupied by Manchukuo until the end of [[World War II]] in 1945. In 1937, the [[Empire of Japan]] openly and fully invaded the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. On 8 December 1937, Mongolian Prince [[Demchugdongrub]] (also known as "De Wang") declared independence for the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e., the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as [[Mengjiang]], and signed agreements with Manchukuo and Japan. Its capital was established at [[Zhangbei Town|Zhangbei]] (now in [[Hebei]] province), with the Japanese puppet government's control extending as far west as the [[Hohhot]] region. The Japanese advance was defeated by Hui Muslim General [[Ma Hongbin]] at the [[Battle of West Suiyuan]] and [[Battle of Wuyuan]]. Since 1945, Inner Mongolia has remained part of China. The Mongol [[Ulanhu]] fought against the Japanese. [[File:Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans.jpg|thumb|left|Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans]] Ethnic Mongolian guerrilla units were created by the Kuomintang Nationalists to fight against the Japanese during the war in the late 30s and early 40s. These Mongol militias were created by the Ejine and Alashaa based commissioner's offices created by the Kuomintang.<ref name="Lin">{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8YtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92393-7|publisher=Routledge|pages=65–66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT136|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92392-0|publisher=Routledge|pages=136–}}</ref> Prince Demchugdongrub's Mongols were targeted by Kuomintang Mongols to defect to the Republic of China. The Nationalists recruited 1,700 ethnic minority fighters in Inner Mongolia and created war zones in the Tumet Banner, Ulanchab League, and Ordos Yekejuu League.<ref name="Lin"/><ref name="Lin2">{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT137|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92392-0|publisher=Routledge|page=137|access-date=24 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110001138/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT137|archive-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> The [[Inner Mongolian People's Republic]] was founded shortly after the Second World War. It existed from 9 September 1945 until 6 November 1945. === People's Republic of China === The Communist movement gradually gained momentum as part of the Third Communist International in Inner Mongolia during the Japanese period. By the end of WWII, the Inner Mongolian faction of the ComIntern had a functional militia and actively opposed the attempts at independence by De Wang's Chinggisid princes on the grounds of fighting feudalism. Following the end of [[World War II]], the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] gained control of Manchuria as well as the Inner Mongolian Communists with decisive Soviet support and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947. The Comintern army was absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Initially, the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the [[People's Republic of China]] and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in [[Liaoning]] province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in [[Hebei]] province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, nearly all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape. The leader of Inner Mongolia during that time, as both regional CPC secretary and head of regional government, was [[Ulanhu]]. During the [[Cultural Revolution]], the administration of Ulanhu was purged, and a wave of repressions was initiated against the Mongol population of the autonomous region.<ref>David Sneath, "The Impact of the Cultural Revolution in China on the Mongolians of Inner Mongolia", in ''Modern Asian Studies'', Vol. 28, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 409–430.</ref> Among the victims in Inner Mongolia, 75 per cent were Mongols, even though they only constituted 10 per cent of the population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dikötter |first1=Frank |title=The Cultural Revolution: A People's History, 1962–1976 |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |location=New York |isbn=978-1-63286-422-2 |page=191 |edition=1st U.S.}}</ref> In 1969, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between [[Heilongjiang]] and [[Jilin]], Jirim going to [[Jilin]], Juu Uda to [[Liaoning]], and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among [[Gansu]] and [[Ningxia]]. This decision was reversed in 1979. Inner Mongolia was underdeveloped until the early 2000s, when huge [[Mining industry of China|mineral deposits]] including [[Coal in China|coal]] (such as Dongsheng Coalfield) and [[Rare earth industry in China|rare earth metals]] were discovered.<ref name="Zhan-2022">{{Cite book |last=Zhan |first=Jing Vivian |title=China's Contained Resource Curse: How Minerals Shape State-Capital-Labor Relations |date=2022 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-009-04898-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom}}</ref>{{Rp|page=47}} GDP growth has continually been over 10%, even 15% and connections with the [[Wolf Economy]] to the north has helped development. However, growth has come at a cost with huge amounts of pollution and degradation to the grasslands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/19/world/asia/china-mongolians-culture/ |title=Ethnic Mongolians in China concerned about cultural threat |first=Chi Chi |last=Zhang |date=19 April 2012 |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092316/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/19/world/asia/china-mongolians-culture/ |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> Attempts to attract [[Han Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] to migrate from other regions, as well as urbanise those rural nomads and peasants has led to huge amounts of corruption and waste in public spending, such as the [[Kangbashi District|Kangbashi district]] of [[Ordos City]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Ordos, China: A Modern Ghost Town |url=https://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1975397,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150324164032/http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1975397,00.html |archive-date=24 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17390729 |title = Ordos: The biggest ghost town in China |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=21 June 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180624074430/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17390729 |archive-date=24 June 2018 |date=17 March 2012 |last1=Day |first1=Peter}}</ref> However, the district's population has steadily increased in the years since, reaching nearly 153,000 people by 2017, a significant rise from 30,000 in 2009, demonstrating the growth and development brought about by these efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepard |first=Wade |title=China's Most Infamous 'Ghost City' Is Rising From The Desert |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/06/30/ordos-chinas-most-infamous-ex-ghost-city-continues-rising/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> Acute uneven [[wealth distribution]] has further exacerbated ethnic tensions, many indigenous Mongolians feeling they are increasingly marginalised in their own homeland, leading to [[2011 Inner Mongolia unrest|riots in 2011]] and 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inner Mongolians culture clash |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2012/04/18/atsr-china-inner-mongolian-culture-clash.cnn |date=18 April 2012 |work=CNN |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402185604/http://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2012/04/18/atsr-china-inner-mongolian-culture-clash.cnn |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/launches-09052013110502.html |title=China Launches 'Strike Hard' Anti-Rumor Campaign in Inner Mongolia |work=Radio Free Asia |date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402191136/http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/launches-09052013110502.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> On 31 August 2020, [[2020 Inner Mongolia protests|large protests]] broke out in ethnic Mongol communities due to unannounced plans by the Chinese government to phase out Mongolian-medium teaching.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-authorities-face-widespread-anger-in-inner-mongolia-after-requiring-mandarin-language-classes/2020/08/31/3ba5a938-eb5b-11ea-bd08-1b10132b458f_story.html|title=Chinese authorities face widespread anger in Inner Mongolia after requiring Mandarin-language classes|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|author=Gerry Shih}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Curbs on Mongolian Language Teaching Prompt Large Protests in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html|website=[[The New York Times]] |author=Amy Qin|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/schools-08312020093412.html|title=Mass Protests Erupt as China Moves to End Mongolian-Medium Teaching in Schools|website=[[Radio Free Asia]]|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020|author=Qiao Long |translator=Luisetta Mudie|editor=Luisetta Mudie}}</ref> == Geography == [[File:Grasslands-menggu.jpg|thumb|Inner Mongolian steppes|303x303px]] [[File:Inner Mongolia Map.png|thumb|Topography of Inner Mongolia in China|302x302px]] Inner Mongolia is a provincial-level subdivision of [[North China]], but its great stretch means that parts of it belong to [[Northeast China]] and [[Northwest China]] as well. It borders eight provincial-level divisions in all three of the aforementioned regions ([[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], [[Liaoning]], [[Hebei]], [[Shanxi]], [[Shaanxi]], [[Ningxia]], and [[Gansu]]), tying with Shaanxi for the greatest number of bordering provincial-level divisions. Most of its international border is with Mongolia,{{efn|The provinces of the [[State of Mongolia]] in [[Outer Mongolia]] that border Inner Mongolia are, from east to west, [[Dornod Province|Dornod]], [[Sükhbaatar Province|Sükhbaatar]], [[Dornogovi Province|Dornogovi]], [[Ömnögovi Province|Ömnögovi]], [[Bayankhongor Province|Bayankhongor]], and [[Govi-Altai Province|Govi-Altai]]}} which, in Chinese, is sometimes called "[[Outer Mongolia]]", while a small portion is with Russia's [[Zabaykalsky Krai]]. Inner Mongolia largely consists of the northern side of the [[North China craton|North China Craton]], a tilted and sedimented [[Precambrian]] block. In the extreme southwest is the edge of the Tibetan Plateau where the autonomous region's highest peak, [[Main Peak, Helan Mountains|Main Peak]] in the [[Helan Mountains]] reaches {{convert|3556|m|ft|-1}}, and is still being pushed up today in short bursts.<ref name="quaternary">Wei Zhang, Mingyue He, Yonghua Li, Zhijiu Cui, Zhilin Wang and Yang Yu; [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11434-012-5283-z?LI=true "Quaternary glacier development and the relationship between the climate change and tectonic uplift in the Helan Mountains"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614221659/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11434-012-5283-z?LI=true |date=14 June 2017 }}; in ''Chinese Science Bulletin''; December 2012, Volume 57, Issue 34, pp. 4491–4504.</ref> Most of Inner Mongolia is a plateau averaging around {{convert|1200|m|ft|-1}} in altitude and covered by extensive [[loess]] and [[sand]] deposits. The northern part consists of the [[Mesozoic]] era [[Khingan Mountains]], and is owing to the cooler climate more forested, chiefly with [[Ulmus laciniata|Manchurian elm]], [[Ash (Fraxinus)|ash]], [[birch]], [[Quercus mongolica|Mongolian oak]] and a number of [[Pinus|pine]] and [[Picea|spruce]] species. Where [[discontinuous permafrost]] is present north of [[Hailar District]], forests are almost exclusively coniferous. In the south, the natural vegetation is grassland in the east and very sparse in the arid west, and grazing is the dominant economic activity. Owing to the ancient, weathered rocks lying under its deep sedimentary cover, Inner Mongolia is a major mining district, possessing large reserves of [[coal]], [[iron ore]] and [[rare-earth]] minerals, which have made it a major industrial region today. {{Further|Agulugou Formation}} === Climate === [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 CHN Nei Mongol 1991–2020.svg|alt=Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Inner Mongolia (China) for 1991–2020|thumb|370x370px]] Due to its elongated shape, Inner Mongolia has a four-season [[monsoon]] climate with regional variations. The winters in Inner Mongolia are very long, cold, and dry with frequent blizzards, though snowfall is so light that Inner Mongolia has no modern glaciers<ref name="quaternary"/> even on the highest Helan peaks. The spring is short, mild and arid, with large, dangerous [[sandstorms]], whilst the summer is very warm to hot and relatively humid except in the west where it remains dry. Autumn is brief and sees a steady cooling, with temperatures below {{convert|0|C|F}} reached in October in the north and November in the south.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}[[File:坝上雪原夕阳（路人） - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Winter in Ulanbutan Grassland, [[Hexigten Banner]]|355x355px]]Officially, most of Inner Mongolia is classified as either a [[cold arid]] or [[Steppe climate|steppe]] regime ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''BWk, BSk'', respectively). The small portion besides these are classified as [[humid continental]] (Köppen ''Dwa/Dwb'') in the northeast, or [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] (Köppen ''Dwc'') in the far north near [[Hulunbuir]].<ref>Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. (2007). [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Asia_K%C3%B6ppen_Map.png "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122113252/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Asia_K%C3%B6ppen_Map.png |date=22 November 2011 }}. ''Hydrology and Earth System Sciences'' 11: 1633–1644.</ref> ==== Climate crisis ==== The region has increasing [[Environmental issues in China|desertification]] and frequency of sandstorms, which damages agriculture and forces down household income.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Community threads together |url=https://www.chinadailyhk.com/hk/article/252552#Community-threads-together-2021-12-20 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=chinadailyhk |language=en}}</ref> {|class="wikitable sortable" style="width:60%; font-size:95%;" |+'''Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for some locations in Inner Mongolia of China''' |- !City !July (°C) !July (°F) !January (°C) !January (°F) |- | [[Baotou]] || 29.6/17.1 || 85.3/62.8 || −4.1/–16.8 || 24.7/1.8 |- | [[Bayannur]] || 30.7/17.9 || 87.3/64.2 || −3.3/–15.1 || 26.1/4.8 |- | [[Hohhot]] || 28.5/16.4 || 83.3/61.5 || −5/–16.9 || 23/1.6 |- | [[Ordos City|Ordos]] || 26.7/15.8 || 80.1/60.4 || −4.8/–14.7 || 23.4/5.5 |- | [[Ulanqab]] || 25.4/13.6 || 77.7/56.5 || −6.1/–18.5 || 21/–1.3 |} == Administrative divisions == {{Main list|List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia|List of township-level divisions of Inner Mongolia}} Inner Mongolia is divided into twelve [[Administrative divisions of China#Prefectural level|prefecture-level divisions]]. Until the late 1990s, most of Inner Mongolia's prefectural regions were known as ''[[Leagues of China|leagues]]'' ({{lang-zh |c = 盟}}), a usage retained from Mongol divisions of the [[Qing dynasty]]. Similarly, county-level divisions are often known as ''banners'' ({{lang-zh |c = 旗}}). Since the 1990s, numerous leagues have been converted into [[Prefecture-level city|prefecture-level cities]], although banners remain. The restructuring led to the conversion of primate cities in most leagues to convert to districts administratively (i.e.: [[Hailar District|Hailar]], [[Jining District|Jining]] and [[Dongsheng]]). Some newly founded prefecture-level cities have chosen to retain the original name of league (i.e.: Hulunbuir, Bayannur and Ulanqab), some have adopted the Chinese name of their [[primate city]] ([[Chifeng]], [[Tongliao]]), and one league (Yekejuu) simply renamed itself [[Ordos City|Ordos]]. Despite these recent administrative changes, there is no indication that the Alxa, Hinggan, and Xilingol Leagues will convert to prefecture-level cities in the near future. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; width:100%; font-size:normal; text-align:center" ! colspan="9" |Administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia |- | colspan="9" style="font-size:larger;" | <div style="position: relative" class="center"> {{Image label begin|image=Administrative Division Inner Mongolia.svg|width=756|link=|font-size=85%}} {{Image label|x=650|y=850|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''{{large|↖}}'''}}}} {{Image label|x=680|y=860|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Hohhot]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=560|y=760|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Baotou]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=410|y=895|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''{{large|↗}}'''}}}} {{Image label|x=405|y=925|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''{{Vertical text|style=font-size:75%;|[[Wuhai]]}}'''}}}} {{Image label|x=915|y=665|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Chifeng]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=1040|y=620|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Tongliao]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=485|y=880|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Ordos City|Ordos]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=1010|y=270|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Hulunbuir]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=415|y=765|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Bayannur]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=645|y=750|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Ulanqab]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=995|y=480|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Hinggan League|Hinggan<br />League]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=755|y=590|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Xilingol League|Xilingol<br />League]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=220|y=820|scale=756/1260|text={{small|'''[[Alxa League|Alxa<br />League]]'''}}}} {{Image label|x=400|y=100|scale=756/1260|text=<span style="colour: #E6E6E6;">{{small|'''█'''}}</span> <span style="colour: grey;">{{small|'''Jiagedaqi Dist. & Songling Dist.<br />is de jure part of Oroqen Aut. Ban.<br />but de facto subordinate to<br />[[Daxing'anling Prefecture|Daxing'anling Pref.]], [[Heilongjiang]].'''}}</span>}} {{Image label end}}</div> |- !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | [[Administrative division codes of the People's Republic of China|Division code]]<ref>{{cite web |language=zh-hans |url=http://files2.mca.gov.cn/cws/201502/20150225163817214.html |script-title=zh:中华人民共和国县以上行政区划代码 |publisher=[[Ministry of Civil Affairs]] |access-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402113603/http://files2.mca.gov.cn/cws/201502/20150225163817214.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Division !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Area in km<sup>2</sup><ref name="nj2013">{{cite book|language=zh-hans|author=Shenzhen Statistical Bureau|publisher=[[:zh:中国统计出版社|China Statistics Print]] |script-title=zh:《深圳统计年鉴2014》|url=http://www.sztj.gov.cn/nj2014/indexce.htm|access-date=29 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512184740/http://www.sztj.gov.cn/nj2014/indexce.htm|archive-date=12 May 2015}}</ref> !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Population 2020<ref>{{cite book| author1=Census Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China| author2=Population and Employment Statistics Division of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China | script-title=zh:中国2010人口普查分乡、镇、街道资料|date=2012|publisher=[[:zh:中国统计出版社|China Statistics Print]] |location=Beijing|isbn=978-7-5037-6660-2|edition=1}}</ref> !! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Seat !! scope="col" colspan="4" | Divisions<ref>{{cite book |language=zh-hans |author=Ministry of Civil Affairs |script-title=zh:《中国民政统计年鉴2014》|date=August 2014 |publisher=[[:zh:中国统计出版社|China Statistics Print]] |isbn= 978-7-5037-7130-9|author-link=Ministry of Civil Affairs }}</ref> |- !! scope="col" width="45" | [[District (China)|Districts]] !! scope="col" width="45" | [[Counties of the People's Republic of China|Counties]] [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Banners]] !! scope="col" width="45" | [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Aut. banners]] !! scope="col" width="45" | [[County-level city|CL cities]] |- style="font-weight: bold" ! 150000 !! Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region | 1,183,000.00 || 24,049,155 || [[Hohhot]] city || 23 || 66 || 3 || 11 |- ! 150100 !! [[Hohhot]] city | 17,186.10 || 3,446,100 || [[Xincheng District, Hohhot|Xincheng District]] || 4 || 5 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150200 !! [[Baotou]] city | 27,768.00 || 2,709,378 || [[Jiuyuan District]] || 6 || 3 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150300 !! [[Wuhai]] city | 1,754.00 || 556,621 || [[Haibowan District]] || 3 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150400 !! [[Chifeng]] city | 90,021.00 || 4,035,967 || [[Songshan District, Chifeng|Songshan District]] || 3 || 9 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150500 !! [[Tongliao]] city | 59,535.00 || 2,873,168 || [[Horqin District]] || 1 || 6 ||bgcolor="grey"| || 1 |- ! 150600 !! [[Ordos City|Ordos]] city | 86,881.61 || 2,153,638|| [[Kangbashi District]] || 2 || 7 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150700 !! [[Hulunbuir]] city | 254,003.79 || 2,242,875 || [[Hailar District]] || 2 || 4 || 3 || 5 |- ! 150800 !! [[Bayannur]] city | 65,755.47 || 1,538,715 || [[Linhe District]] || 1 || 6 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |- ! 150900 !! [[Ulanqab]] city | 54,447.72 || 1,706,328 || [[Jining District]] || 1 || 9 ||bgcolor="grey"| || 1 |- ! 152200 !! [[Hinggan League]] | 59,806.00 || 1,416,929 || [[Ulanhot]] city ||bgcolor="grey"| || 4 ||bgcolor="grey"| || 2 |- ! 152500 !! [[Xilingol League]] | 202,580.00 || 1,107,075 || [[Xilinhot]] city ||bgcolor="grey"| || 10 ||bgcolor="grey"| || 2 |- ! 152900 !! [[Alxa League]] | 267,574.00 || 262,361 || [[Alxa Left Banner]] ||bgcolor="grey"| || 3 ||bgcolor="grey"| ||bgcolor="grey"| |} {|class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="text-font:90%; width:auto; text-align:center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! colspan="6" |Administrative divisions in Mongolian, Chinese, and varieties of romanisations |- ! English !! Mongolian !! SASM/GNC Mongolian Pinyin !! Mongolian Transcription !! Chinese !! Pinyin |- | '''Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region''' || [[File:OvormonggolAR.svg|100px|ᠦᠪᠦᠷ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠨ ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ ᠣᠷᠤᠨ]] || ''' ''' || '''Öbür mongγol-un öbertegen zasaqu orun''' || {{lang|zh|内蒙古自治区}} || '''Nèi Měnggǔ Zìzhìqū''' |- | [[Hohhot]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Kökeqota.svg|17px|ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Hohhot || {{Transliteration|mn|Kökeqota}} || {{lang|zh|呼和浩特市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Hūhéhàotè Shì}} |- | [[Baotou]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Bugutu.svg|16px|ᠪᠤᠭᠤᠲᠤ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Bugt Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Buɣutu qota}} || {{lang|zh|包头市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Bāotóu Shì}} |- | [[Wuhai]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Uhai.svg|15px|ᠦᠬᠠᠢ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Uhai Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Üqai qota}} || {{lang|zh|乌海市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Wūhǎi Shì}} |- | [[Chifeng]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Ulaganqada.svg|20px|ᠤᠯᠠᠭᠠᠨᠬᠠᠳᠠ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Ulanhad Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Ulaɣanqada qota}} || {{lang|zh|赤峰市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Chìfēng Shì}} |- | [[Tongliao]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Tongliyao.png|15px|ᠲᠥᠩᠯᠢᠶᠠᠣ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Tungliyo Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Tüŋliyou qota}} || {{lang|zh|通辽市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Tōngliáo Shì}} |- | [[Ordos City|Ordos]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Ordus.svg|15px|ᠣᠷᠳᠤᠰ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Ordos Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Ordos qota}} || {{lang|zh|鄂尔多斯市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|È'ěrduōsī Shì}} |- | [[Hulunbuir]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Kolun buir.svg|17px|ᠬᠥᠯᠦᠨᠪᠤᠶᠢᠷ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Hulun'buir Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Kölön-buyir qota}} || {{lang|zh|呼伦贝尔市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Hūlúnbèi'ěr Shì}} |- | [[Bayannur]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Bayannagur.svg|15px|ᠪᠠᠶ᠋ᠠᠨᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Bayannur Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Bayannaɣur qota}} || {{lang|zh|巴彦淖尔市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Bāyànnào'ěr Shì}} |- | [[Ulanqab]] city || {{lang|mn|[[File:Ulagancab.svg|17px|ᠤᠯᠠᠭᠠᠨᠴᠠᠪ]] [[File:Hot.svg|15px|ᠬᠣᠲᠠ]]}} || Ulanqab Hot || {{Transliteration|mn|Ulaɣančab qota}} || {{lang|zh|乌兰察布市}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Wūlánchábù Shì}} |- | [[Hinggan League]] || {{lang|mn|[[File:Kingghan ayimagh.svg|17px|ᠬᠢᠩᠭ᠋ᠠᠨ ᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠭ]]}} || Hinggan Aimag || {{Transliteration|mn|Qiŋɣan ayimaɣ}} || {{lang|zh|兴安盟}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Xīng'ān Méng}} |- | [[Xilingol League]] || {{lang|mn|[[File:Sili-yin gool ayimag.svg|35px|ᠰᠢᠯᠢ ᠶᠢᠨ ᠭᠣᠤᠯ ᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠭ]]}} || Xiliin'gol Aimag || {{Transliteration|mn|Sili-yin ɣool ayimaɣ}} || {{lang|zh|锡林郭勒盟}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Xīlínguōlè Méng}} |- | [[Alxa League]] || {{lang|mn|[[File:Alasa ayimag.svg|17px|ᠠᠯᠠᠱᠠᠨ ᠠᠶᠢᠮᠠᠭ]]}} || Alxa Aimag || {{Transliteration|mn|Alaša ayimaɣ}} || {{lang|zh|阿拉善盟}} || {{Transliteration|zh|Ālāshàn Méng}} |} These prefecture-level divisions are in turn subdivided into 102 [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#County level|county-level divisions]], including 22 [[District of China|district]]s, 11 [[county-level cities]], 17 [[County (People's Republic of China)|counties]], 49 [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|banners]], and 3 [[autonomous banner]]s. Those are in turn divided into 1425 [[Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China#Township level|township-level divisions]], including 532 [[Town (China)|town]]s, 407 [[Townships of the People's Republic of China|township]]s, 277 [[sum (Inner Mongolia)|sums]], eighteen [[ethnic township]]s, one [[ethnic sum]], and 190 [[Subdistricts of China|subdistrict]]s. At the end of 2017, the total population of Inner-Mongolia is 25.29 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2018/indexch.htm |title=中国统计年鉴—2018}}</ref> === Urban areas === {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size:90%;" ! colspan=5 | Population by urban areas of prefecture & county cities |- ! # !! Cities !! style="background-color: #aaaaff;"| 2020 Urban area<ref name="2020PRCcensus">{{cite book |author=国务院人口普查办公室、国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司编 |date=2022 |script-title=zh:中国2020年人口普查分县资料 |location=Beijing |publisher=[[:zh:中国统计出版社|China Statistics Print]] |isbn=978-7-5037-9772-9}}</ref> !! style="background-color: #aaaaff;"| 2010 Urban area<ref name="2010PRCcensus">{{cite book |author=国务院人口普查办公室、国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司编 |date=2012 |script-title=zh:中国2010年人口普查分县资料 |location=Beijing |publisher=[[:zh:中国统计出版社|China Statistics Print]] |isbn=978-7-5037-6659-6}}</ref> !! style="background-color: #ffaaaa;" | 2020 City proper |- |1||'''[[Hohhot]]'''||2,237,249||1,497,110||3,446,100 |- |2||[[Baotou]]||1,949,876||1,900,373||2,709,378 |- |3||[[Chifeng]]||1,093,068||902,285||4,035,967 |- |4||[[Ordos City|Ordos]]||671,048||510,242{{efn-lr|name=Ordos|New district established after 2010 census: [[Kangbashi District|Kangbashi]] from a part of [[Dongsheng District|Dongsheng]]. The new district is included in the urban area count.}}||2,153,638 |- |5||[[Wuhai]]||530,877||502,704||556,621 |- |6||[[Tongliao]]||480,059||540,338||2,873,168 |- |7||[[Bayannur]]||413,117||354,507||1,538,715 |- |8||[[Ulanqab]]||394,269||319,723||1,706,328 |- |9||[[Hulunbuir]]||354,442||327,384{{efn-lr|name=Hulunbuir|New district established after 2010 census: [[Jalainur District|Jalainur]] from a part of Manzhouli CLC. The new district not included in the urban area count of the pre-expanded city.}}||2,242,875 |- |10||[[Xilinhot]]||327,112||214,382||{{small|''part of [[Xilingol League]]''}} |- |11||[[Ulanhot]]||318,009||276,406||{{small|''part of [[Hinggan League]]''}} |- |12||[[Yakeshi]]||239,742||338,275||{{small|''see Hulunbuir''}} |- |13||[[Zalantun]]||174,049||167,493||{{small|''see Hulunbuir''}} |- |14||[[Manzhouli]]||150,508||148,460||{{small|''see Hulunbuir''}} |- |15||[[Holingol]]||130,239||101,496||{{small|''see Tongliao''}} |- |16||[[Fengzhen]]||122,193||123,811||{{small|''see Ulanqab''}} |- |17||[[Erenhot]]||74,252||71,455||{{small|''part of [[Xilingol League]]''}} |- |18||[[Genhe]]||71,164||89,194||{{small|''see Hulunbuir''}} |- |19||[[Jalainur District|Jalainur]]{{efn-lr|name=Jalainur|Jalainur is a satellite urban area separated from Hulunbuir (Hailar) and it is not included in the urban area count.}}||84,424||bgcolor="lightgrey"|{{efn-lr|name=Hulunbuir}}||{{small|''see Kunming''}} |- |20||[[Ergun City|Ergun]]||54,164||55,076||{{small|''see Hulunbuir''}} |- |21||[[Arxan]]||29,045||55,770||{{small|''part of [[Hinggan League]]''}} |} {{Notelist-lr}} {{Largest cities |largest = Most populous |country = Inner Mongolia |kind = cities |stat_ref = Source: ''China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018'' Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development]] of the People's Republic of China(MOHURD) |url=http://www.mohurd.gov.cn/xytj/tjzljsxytjgb/jstjnj/w02020032722244243052500000.xls |date=2019 |title=中国城市建设统计年鉴2018 |trans-title=China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 |language=zh |location=Beijing |publisher=China Statistic Publishing House |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810115223/http://www.mohurd.gov.cn/xytj/tjzljsxytjgb/jstjnj/w02020032722244243052500000.xls }}</ref> |list_by_pop = |city_1 = Hohhot |pop_1 = 2,364,800 |img_1 = 呼和浩特北面的大青山(阴山山脉) - panoramio.jpg |city_2 = Baotou |pop_2 = 1,936,200 |img_2 = Baotou, Inner Mongolia.jpg |city_3 = Chifeng |pop_3 = 963,000 |img_3 = 赤峰火车站.JPG |city_4 = Wuhai |pop_4 = 563,300 |img_4 = 乌海东山鸟瞰.JPG |city_5 = Ordos City{{!}}Ordos |pop_5 = 530,400 |city_6 = Tongliao |pop_6 = 460,000 |city_7 = Bayannur |pop_7 = 383,500 |city_8 = Hulunbuir |pop_8 = 350,400 |city_9 = Ulanqab |pop_9 = 309,600 |city_10 = Ulanhot |pop_10 = 272,500 |city_11 = Xilinhot |pop_11 = 233,700 |city_12 = Manzhouli |pop_12 = 212,200 |city_13 = Fengzhen |pop_13 = 138,600 |city_14 = Zalantun |pop_14 = 134,400 |city_15 = Yakeshi |pop_15 = 131,900 |city_16 = Holingol |pop_16 = 130,700 |city_17 = Erenhot |pop_17 = 75,200 |city_18 = Genhe |pop_18 = 64,000 |city_19 = Arxan |pop_19 = 47,800 |city_20 = Ergun City{{!}}Ergun |pop_20 = 38,000 }} == Economy == Farming of crops such as [[wheat]] takes precedence along the river valleys. In the more arid grasslands, herding of [[goat]]s, [[sheep]] and so on is a traditional method of subsistence. [[Forestry]] and [[hunting]] are somewhat important in the [[Greater Khingan]] ranges in the east. [[Reindeer]] herding is carried out by [[Evenks]] in the Evenk Autonomous Banner. More recently, growing [[grape]]s and [[winemaking]] have become an economic factor in the [[Wuhai]] area. [[File:InnerMongolianTheater.jpg|right|thumb|Theater in [[Hohhot]]]] [[Mining industry of China|Mining-related industries]] are a major part of Inner Mongolia's economy.<ref name="Zhan-2022"/>{{Rp|page=23}} Inner Mongolia has an abundance of resources especially coal, [[Cashmere wool|cashmere]], natural gas, [[rare-earth element]]s, and has more deposits of naturally occurring [[niobium]], [[zirconium]] and [[beryllium]] than any other [[province]]-level region in China. The region is also a source of [[Petroleum|crude oil]], with sites such as the [[Xifeng oil field]] producing tens of thousands of barrels per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sip-trunking.tmcnet.com/news/2007/09/17/2944164.htm|title=PetroChina Xifeng Oilfield Reserves Hits 568mn Tons|year=2007|publisher=tmcnet.com|access-date=2013-05-27|archive-date=19 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019225622/http://sip-trunking.tmcnet.com/news/2007/09/17/2944164.htm}}</ref> However, in the past, the exploitation and utilisation of resources were rather inefficient, which resulted in poor returns from rich resources. Inner Mongolia is also an important coal production base, with more than a quarter of the world's coal reserves located in the province.<ref name="thechinaperspective.com">{{cite web |url = http://www.thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/inner-mongolia-autonomous-region/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110926072632/http://www.thechinaperspective.com/topics/province/inner-mongolia-autonomous-region/ |archive-date = 26 September 2011 |title = China Economy @ China Perspective |website = thechinaperspective.com }}</ref> It plans to double annual coal output by 2010 (from the 2005 volume of 260 million tons) to 500 million tons of coal a year.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://english.people.com.cn/200512/27/eng20051227_231175.html |title = People's Daily Online – Inner Mongolia to double annual coal output by 2010 |work = people.com.cn |access-date = 5 February 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060627095229/http://english.people.com.cn/200512/27/eng20051227_231175.html |archive-date = 27 June 2006 |url-status = live }}</ref> [[File:InnerMengolianGym.jpg|right|thumb|Inner Mongolia Gymnasium]] Industry in Inner Mongolia has grown up mainly around coal, [[power generation]], forestry-related industries, and related industries. Inner Mongolia now encourages six competitive industries: energy, chemicals, metallurgy, equipment manufacturing, processing of farm (including [[dairy]]) produce, and high technology. Well-known Inner Mongolian enterprises include companies such as [[ERDOS]], [[Yili Group|Yili]], and [[Mengniu]]. As with much of China, economic growth has led to a boom in construction, including new commercial development and large apartment complexes. The GDP of Inner Mongolia in 2022 was CN¥2.3 trillion (US$344 billion in nominal),<ref name="data2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.nmg.gov.cn/tjsj/sjfb/tjsj/tjgb/202403/t20240321_2483646.html|title=National Data|publisher=neimenggu.gov.cn|date=21 March 2024|access-date=12 June 2022}}</ref> with an average annual increase of 10% from the period 2010–2015. Its per capita GDP was {{CNY|96,474}} ({{US$|14,343}} in nominal), ranking 8th among all the 31 provincial divisions of China.<ref name="data2022"/> The primary, secondary and tertiary industries contributed ¥265 billion ($39.45 billion), ¥1.12 trillion ($167.1 billion) and ¥926 billion ($137.7 billion) to the GDP respectively.<ref name="data2022"/> In addition to its large reserves of natural resources, Inner Mongolia also has the largest usable wind power capacity in China<ref name="thechinaperspective.com"/> thanks to strong winds which develop in the province's grasslands. Some private companies have set up [[Wind power in China|wind parks]] in parts of Inner Mongolia such as [[Bailingmiao]], Hutengliang and Zhouzi. East of Jilantai, Inner Mongolia, there is a ballistic missile training area used by the [[People's Liberation Army Rocket Force]] (PLARF) to train missile crews for mobile missile launchers, their support vehicles, and silo-based ballistic missiles.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans |title=China's Expanding Missile Training Area: More Silos, Tunnels, and Support Facilities |url=https://fas.org/blogs/security/2021/02/plarf-jilantai-expansion/ |website=The Federation of American Scientists |access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> === Economic and Technological Development Zones === * [[Baotou]] National [[Rare-earth|Rare-Earth]] Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone<ref>[http://www.rev.cn/en/abo.htm Baotou National Rare-Earth Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://www.rev.cn/en/abo.htm |date=16 October 2015 }}.</ref> * [[Erenhot]] Border Economic Cooperation Area * Hohhot Export Processing Zone Hohhot Export Processing Zone was established 21 June 2002 by the State Council, which is located in the west of the Hohhot, with a planning area of {{convert|2.2|km2|abbr=on}}. Industries encouraged in the export processing zone include Electronics Assembly & Manufacturing, Telecommunications Equipment, Garment and Textiles Production, Trading and Distribution, Biotechnology/Pharmaceuticals, Food/Beverage Processing, Instruments & Industrial Equipment Production, Medical Equipment and Supplies, Shipping/Warehousing/Logistics, Heavy Industry.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074013/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/Hohhot-export-processing-zone/ RightSite.asia | Hohhot Export Processing Zone].</ref> * [[Hohhot]] Economic and Technological Development Zone * [[Hohhot]] [[Export Processing Zone]] * [[Manzhouli]] Border Economic Cooperation Area == Transport == === Railway === Lines wholly or partly in Inner Mongolia include: * [[Beijing–Baotou railway]] (Jingbao railway) * [[Baotou–Lanzhou railway]] * [[Beijing–Tongliao railway]] * [[Harbin–Manzhouli railway]] * [[Jiayuguan–Ceke railway]] * [[Jining–Tongliao railway]] * [[Linhe–Ceke railway]] * [[Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway]] * [[Tongliao–Ranghulu railway]] Railway stations in Inner Mongolia include: * [[List of stations on Jingbao railway]] == Government and politics == {{Main|Politics of Inner Mongolia}} {{See also|List of provincial leaders of the People's Republic of China}} Under the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]], articles 112–122, [[autonomous region]]s have limited autonomy in both the political and economic arena. Autonomous regions have more discretion in administering economic policy in the region in accordance with national guidelines. Structurally, the Chairman—who legally must be an ethnic minority and is usually ethnic Mongolian—is always kept in check by the [[Inner Mongolia Autonomous Regional Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Communist Party Regional Committee]] Secretary, who is usually from a different part of China (to reduce corruption) and Han Chinese. {{as of|2023|May}}, the current party secretary is [[Sun Shaocheng]]. The Inner Mongolian government and its subsidiaries follow roughly the same structure as that of a Chinese province. With regards to economic policy, as a part of increased [[Chinese federalism|federalism]] characteristics in China, Inner Mongolia has become more independent in implementing its own economic roadmap. The position of Chairman of Inner Mongolia alternates between [[Khorchin Mongols]] in the east and the Tumed Mongols in the west.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, this convention has not been broken. The family of [[Ulanhu]] has retained influence in regional politics ever since the founding the People's Republic. His son [[Buhe (politician)|Buhe]] and granddaughter [[Bu Xiaolin]] both served as Chairman of the region. == Demographics == {{Main||Mongols#Subgroups|Mongols in China|List of ethnic groups in China}} [[File:Hohhot Muslim Quarter.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Muslim]]-themed Street in [[Hohhot]]]] {{Historical populations |title = Historical population | percentages = pagr |footnote = Established in 1947 from dissolution of [[Xing'an Province]], [[Chahar Province|Qahar Province]], parts of [[Rehe Province]], and [[Suiyuan|Suiyuan Province]]; parts of [[Ningxia|Ningxia Province]] were incorporated into Inner Mongolia AR. |1954<ref name="census1954">{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm |script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于第一次全国人口调查登记结果的公报 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174810/http://www.stats.gov.cn/TJGB/RKPCGB/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm |archive-date=5 August 2009 }}</ref> |6,100,104 |1964<ref name="census1964">{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm |script-title=zh:第二次全国人口普查结果的几项主要统计数字 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914173158/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16768.htm |archive-date=14 September 2012 |trans-title=Some major statistics on the results of the second national census|language=zh}}</ref> |12,348,638 |1982<ref name="census1982">{{cite web |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm |script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九八二年人口普查主要数字的公报 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510075429/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16769.htm |archive-date=10 May 2012 |trans-title=The Bulletin of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China on the Major Figures of the 1982 Population Census}}</ref> |19,274,279 |1990<ref name="census1990">{{cite web |url = http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm |script-title=zh:中华人民共和国国家统计局关于一九九〇年人口普查主要数据的公报 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619002216/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16772.htm |archive-date=19 June 2012 }}</ref> |21,456,798 |2000<ref name="census2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm |script-title=zh:现将2000年第五次全国人口普查快速汇总的人口地区分布数据公布如下 |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829052024/http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020331_15435.htm |archive-date=29 August 2012 }}</ref> |23,323,347 |2010<ref name="census2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm |title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census |publisher=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021210/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110429_402722516.htm |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> |24,706,321 |2020<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-society-census-takeaways-idUSL4N2MY2I6|title = FACTBOX-Key takeaways from China's 2020 population census|newspaper = Reuters|date = 11 May 2021}}</ref> |24,049,155 }} [[File:Inner Mongolia County-Level Ethnicity Map (2020 data).svg|thumb|[[County-level divisions of China|County-level]] ethnicity map of Inner Mongolia as of 2020]] When the autonomous region was established in 1947, Han Chinese comprised 83.6% of the population, while the Mongols comprised 14.8% of the population.<ref>[[Myron Weiner]], Sharon Stanton Russell(2001). Demography and national security. page 276, table 9.4.</ref> By 2020, the percentage of Han Chinese had dropped to 78.7%. While the Hetao region along the Yellow River has always alternated between farmers from the south and nomads from the north, the most recent wave of Han Chinese migration began in the early 18th century with encouragement from the [[Qing dynasty]], and continued into the 20th century. Han Chinese live mostly in the Hetao region as well as various population centres in central and eastern Inner Mongolia. Over 70% of Mongols are concentrated in less than 18% of Inner Mongolia's territory ([[Hinggan League]], and the prefectures of [[Tongliao]] and [[Chifeng]]). Mongols are the second largest ethnic group, comprising 17.7% of the population as of the 2020 census.<ref name="Ethnicity">{{Cite web|title=内蒙古自治区第七次全国人口普查公报（第一号）-第七次全国人口普查-内蒙古自治区统计局|url=http://tj.nmg.gov.cn/ztzl/dqcqgrkpc/202105/t20210526_1596849.html|access-date=2021-10-05|website=tj.nmg.gov.cn|archive-date=4 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804123411/http://tj.nmg.gov.cn/ztzl/dqcqgrkpc/202105/t20210526_1596849.html}}</ref> They include many diverse Mongolian-speaking groups; groups such as the [[Buryats]] and the [[Oirats]] are also officially considered to be Mongols in China. In addition to the Manchus, other [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] ethnic groups, the [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]], and the [[Evenks]] also populate parts of northeastern Inner Mongolia. There is also a significant number of [[Hui people|Hui]] and [[Koreans in China|Koreans]]. Many of the traditionally nomadic Mongols have settled in permanent homes as their pastoral economy was collectivised during the Mao era, and some have taken jobs in cities as migrant labourers; however, some Mongols continue in their nomadic tradition. In practice, highly educated Mongols tend to migrate to big urban centers after which they become essentially indistinct with ethnic Han Chinese populations. Inter-marriage between Mongol and non-Mongol populations is very common, particularly in areas where Mongols are in regular contact with other groups. There was little cultural stigma within Mongol families for marrying outside the ethnic group, and in urban centers in particular, Mongol men and women married non-Mongols at relatively similar rates. The rates of intermarriage stands in very sharp contrast to ethnic Tibetans and Uyghurs in their respective autonomous regions. By the 1980s, for instance, in [[Tongliao|the former Jirim League]], nearly 40% of marriages with at least one Mongol spouse was a mixed Mongol-Han Chinese marriage.<ref name="rut1999">{{cite book|title=Mongolia in the Twentieth Century|date=1999 |publisher=Rutledge|location=New York City|page=213}}</ref> However, anecdotal reports have also demonstrated an increase in Mongol-female, Han Chinese-male pairings in which the woman is of a rural background, ostensibly shutting rural Mongol males from the marriage market as the sex ratio in China becomes more skewed with a much higher proportion of men.<ref name="socio">{{cite news|last1=He |first1=Shenghai|last2=Eade |first2=John|title=Unequal Marriage Exchange Between Majority and Minority Groups: A Case Study From Inner Mongolia, China |url=http://www.davidpublisher.com/Public/uploads/Contribute/55f62d8c9a871.pdf|work=Sociology Study|date=May 2015|access-date=16 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729171043/http://www.davidpublisher.com/Public/uploads/Contribute/55f62d8c9a871.pdf|archive-date=29 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable floatright" |+ Ethnic groups in Inner Mongolia, 2010 census<ref>{{cite book |trans-title=Tabulation on Nationalities of 2010 Population Census of China |script-title=zh:《2010年人口普查中国民族人口资料》 <!-- 2 vols.--> |location=Beijing |publisher=Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社) |isbn=978-7-105-05425-1|year=2003 }}</ref> |- ! [[Ethnicities of China|Ethnicity]] !! Population !! Percentage |- | [[Han Chinese|Han]] || 19,650,687 || 79.54% |- | [[Mongols in China|Mongol]] || 4,226,093 || 17.11% |- | [[Manchu people|Manchu]] || 452,765 || 1.83% |- | [[Daur people|Daur]] || 121,483 || 0.49% |- | [[Evenks]] || 26,139 || 0.11% |- | [[Oroqen people]]|| 8,464 || 0.07% |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Year!!Population !colspan=2|[[Han Chinese]] !colspan=2|[[Mongols in China|Mongol]] !colspan=2|[[Manchu people|Manchu]] |-align="right" !1953<ref name="Compilation">(without [[Rehe Province|Rehe]]) {{cite book |script-title=zh:《中华人民共和国人口统计资料汇编1949—1985》 |trans-title=People's Republic of demographic data compilation 1949–1985 |publisher=China Financial and Economic Publishing House (中国财政经济出版社) |year=1988 |page=924}}</ref> |6,100,104 |5,119,928 |83.9% |888,235 |14.6% |18,354 |0.3% |-align="right" !1964<ref name="Compilation" /> |12,348,638 |10,743,456 |87.0% |1,384,535 |11.2% |50,960 |0.4% |-align="right" !1982<ref name="Compilation" /> |19,274,281 |16,277,616 |84.4% |2,489,378 |12.9% |237,149 |1.2% |-align="right" !1990<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Bureau of Statistics |url=http://www.nmgtj.gov.cn/Html/rkpc/2009-7/0/781.shtml |script-title=zh:1990年第四次人口普查 |trans-title=4th National Census |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727021401/http://www.nmgtj.gov.cn/Html/rkpc/2009-7/0/781.shtml |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}.</ref> |21,456,500 |17,290,000 |80.6% |3,379,700 |15.8% | | |-align="right" !2000<ref>{{cite book |author=National Bureau of Population and Social Science and Technology Statistics Division of China ({{lang|zh-Hans|国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司}}) |author2=Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China ({{lang|zh-Hans|国家民族事务委员会经济发展司}}) |script-title=zh:《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》 |location=Beijing |publisher=[[Publishing House of Minority Nationalities]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-7-105-05425-1 |language=zh-cn |pages=4–8}}</ref> |23,323,347 |18,465,586 |79.2% |3,995,349 |17.1% |499,911 |2.3% |-align="right" !2010<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmgtj.gov.cn/Html/gzdt/2011-5/23/1152309433324071.shtml |script-title=zh:内蒙古自治区发布2010年第六次全国人口普查主要数据公报 |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712223019/http://www.nmgtj.gov.cn/Html/gzdt/2011-5/23/1152309433324071.shtml |archive-date=12 July 2013 }}</ref> |24,706,321 |19,650,687 |79.5% |4,226,093 |17.1% |452,765 |1.83% |-align="right" !2020<ref name="Ethnicity"/> |24,049,155 |18,935,537 |78.7% |4,247,815 |17.7% | | |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- |+ Territories with Mongol majorities and near-majorities{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} |- ! Name of banner !! Mongol population !! Percentage |- | [[Horqin Right Middle Banner]], [[Hinggan League|Hinggan]] (2020)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-24 |script-title=zh:人口民族|url=http://www.kyzq.gov.cn/kyzq/zjzq/rkmz2/3296087/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709163302/http://www.kyzq.gov.cn/kyzq/zjzq/rkmz2/3296087/index.html|archive-date=2020-07-09|access-date=2020-07-09|website=Horqin Right Middle Banner People's Government|language=zh}}</ref>|| 221,258 || 86.6% |- | [[New Barag Right Banner]], [[Hulunbuir]] (2009) || 28,369 || 82.2% |- | [[Horqin Left Back Banner]], [[Tongliao]] || 284,000 || 75% |- | [[New Barag Left Banner]], [[Hulunbuir]] (2009) || 31,531 || 74.9% |- | [[Horqin Left Middle Banner]], [[Tongliao]] || 395,000 || 73.5% |- | [[East Ujimqin Banner]], [[Xilingol]] (2009) || 43,394 || 72.5% |- | [[West Ujimqin Banner]], [[Xilingol]] || 57,000 || 65% |- | [[Sonid Left Banner]], [[Xilingol]] (2006) || 20,987 || 62.6% |- | [[Bordered Yellow Banner, Inner Mongolia|Bordered Yellow Banner]], [[Xilingol]] || 19,000 || 62% |- | [[Hure Banner]], [[Tongliao]] || 93,000 || 56% |- | [[Jarud Banner]], [[Tongliao]] || 144,000 || 48% |- | [[Horqin Right Front Banner]], [[Hinggan League|Hinggan]] || 162,000 || 45% |- | [[Old Barag Banner]], [[Hulunbuir]] (2006) || 25,903 || 43.6% |- | [[Jalaid Banner]], [[Hinggan League|Hinggan]] || 158,000 || 39% |- | [[Ar Khorchin Banner]], [[Chifeng]] (2002) || 108,000 || 36.6% |} ''Population numbers exclude members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in active service based in Inner Mongolia.'' ==Language and culture== {{See also|Culture of Mongolia|Music of Mongolia|Music of Inner Mongolia|Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia}} [[File:KFC in Hohhot.jpg|thumb|A [[KFC]] in Hohhot, the capital, with a bilingual street sign in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Mongolian Language|Mongolian]]]] [[File:Inner Mongolian rug c. 1870.jpg|thumb|upright|Inner Mongolian carpet c. 1870]] [[File:C-shaped jade dragon.jpg|thumb|upright|Jade dragon of the [[Hongshan culture]] (4700 BC – 2900 BC) found in [[Ongniud Banner]], [[Chifeng]]]] The use of Mongolian by Inner Mongolia's 4.1 million ethnic Mongols has sharply declined since the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tsung|first=Linda|chapter=Maintaining the Mongolian Language in Inner Mongolia|title=Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China|date=27 October 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|page=59}}</ref> Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate).<ref name="Mongolian">{{cite book|last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian|date=29 November 2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=11|chapter=1}}</ref> However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tsung|first1=Linda|title=Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China|date=27 October 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|chapter=3}}</ref> However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanised Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Iredale|first1=Robyn|last2=Bilik|first2=Naran|last3=Fei|first3=Guo|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=2 August 2003|page=84|chapter=4}}</ref> The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian|date=29 November 2012|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=16|chapter=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Otsuka|first1=Hitomi|title=More Morphologies: Contributions to the Festival of Languages, Bremen, 17 Sep to 7 Oct, 2009|date=30 November 2012|page=99|chapter=6}}</ref> Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols.<ref name="Mongolian"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Iredale|first1=Robyn|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=2 August 2003 |publisher=Routledge|pages=56, 64–67|chapter=3}}</ref> The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Janhunen|first1=Juha|title=Mongolian |date=29 November 2012 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|page=11|chapter=1}}{{cite book|last1=Iredale |first1=Robyn|last2=Bilik|first2=Naran |last3=Fei |first3=Guo|title=China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies|date=2 August 2003|page=61|chapter=3}}</ref> By law, all street signs, commercial outlets, and government documents must be bilingual, written in both Mongolian and Chinese. There are three Mongolian TV channels in the Inner Mongolia Satellite TV network. In public transportation, all announcements are to be bilingual. [[Mongols]] in Inner Mongolia speak [[Mongolian language|Mongolian dialects]] such as [[Chakhar Mongolian|Chakhar]], Xilingol, [[Baarin Mongolian|Baarin]], [[Khorchin Mongolian|Khorchin]] and Kharchin Mongolian and, depending on definition and analysis, further dialects<ref>e.g. Sečenbaγatur, Qasgerel, Tuyaγ-a, B. ǰirannige, U Ying ǰe. 2005. ''Mongγul kelen-ü nutuγ-un ayalγun-u sinǰilel-ün uduridqal''. Kökeqota: ÖMAKQ.</ref> or closely related independent Central [[Mongolic languages]]<ref>e.g. [[Juha Janhunen|Janhunen, Juha]]. 2006. Mongolic languages. In: Brown, K. (ed.): ''The encyclopedia of language & linguistics''. Amsterdam: Elsevier: 231–234.</ref> such as [[Ordos Mongolian|Ordos]], [[Khamnigan Mongol|Khamnigan]], Barghu [[Buryat language|Buryat]] and the arguably [[Oirat language|Oirat]] dialect [[Alasha dialect|Alasha]]. The standard pronunciation of Mongolian in China is based on the Chakhar dialect of the [[Plain Blue Banner, Inner Mongolia|Plain Blue Banner]], located in central Inner Mongolia, while the grammar is based on all [[Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia|Inner Mongolian dialects]].<ref>Sečenbaγatur et al. 2005: 85.</ref> This is different from the Mongolian state, where the standard pronunciation is based on the closely related [[Khalkha Mongolian|Khalkha]] dialect. There are a number of independent languages spoken in [[Hulunbuir]] such as the somewhat more distant Mongolic language [[Daur language|Dagur]] and the [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language]] [[Evenki language|Evenki]]. Officially, even the Evenki dialect [[Oroqen language|Oroqin]] is considered a language.<ref>Janhunen, Juha. 1997. The languages of Manchuria in today's China. In: Northern Minority languages: Problems of survival. ''Senri ethnological studies'', 44: 123–146. See pages 130–133.</ref> The [[Han Chinese]] of Inner Mongolia speak a variety of dialects, depending on the region. Those in the eastern parts tend to speak [[Northeastern Mandarin]], which belongs to the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] group of dialects; those in the central parts, such as the [[Yellow River]] valley, speak varieties of [[Jin Chinese|Jin]], another subdivision of Chinese, due to its proximity to other Jin-speaking areas in China such as the [[Shanxi]] province. Cities such as Hohhot and Baotou both have their unique brand of Jin Chinese such as the [[Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect]] which are sometimes incomprehensible with dialects spoken in northeastern regions such as [[Hailar District|Hailar]]. The vast grasslands have long symbolised Inner Mongolia. Mongolian art often depicts the grassland in an uplifting fashion and emphasises Mongolian nomadic traditions. The [[Mongols in China|Mongol]]s of Inner Mongolia still practice their traditional arts. Inner Mongolian cuisine has Mongol roots and consists of [[dairy]]-related products and ''hand-held lamb'' ({{lang|zh|手扒肉}}). In recent years, franchises based on [[hot pot]] have appeared in Inner Mongolia, the best known of which is [[Little Sheep Group|Little Sheep]]. Notable Inner Mongolian commercial brand names include [[Mengniu]] and [[Yili Group|Yili]], both of which began as dairy product and [[ice cream]] producers. Among the Han Chinese of Inner Mongolia, [[Shanxi opera]] is a popular traditional form of entertainment. See also: [[Shanxi]]. A popular career in Inner Mongolia is circus acrobatics. The internationally known Inner Mongolia Acrobatic Troupe travels and performs with the renowned [[Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus]]. == Religion == {{Main|Religion in Inner Mongolia}} {{Bar box |float = right |title = Religion in Inner Mongolia (2005–2010) |bars = {{Bar percent|[[Chinese folk religion|Chinese]], [[Han Buddhism]] and [[Mongolian shamanism|Mongolian]] folk religion<br/>(worship of [[Tian|Heaven]] and [[Ovoo|ovoo/aobao]])|DarkSlateBlue|80}} {{Bar percent|[[Tibetan Buddhism]]|Yellow|12.0}} {{Bar percent|[[Chinese ancestral religion]]|Crimson|2.35}} {{Bar percent|[[Christianity]]|DodgerBlue|2.0}} {{Bar percent|[[Islam]]|Green|1.0}} }} [[File:Yard leading to the Temple of the White Sulde of Genghis Khan, in Uxin, Inner Mongolia, China.jpg|thumb|Temple of the [[Sülde Tngri|White Sulde]] of [[Genghis Khan]] in the town of [[Uxin Banner|Uxin]] in Inner Mongolia, in the [[Ordos Desert|Mu Us Desert]]. The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and [[Mongolian folk religion]].{{efn|The White Sulde (White Spirit) is one of the two spirits of Genghis Khan (the other being the Black Sulde), represented either as his white or yellow horse or as a fierce warrior riding this horse. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. From the central sulde there are strings which hold tied light blue pieces of cloth with a few white ones. The wall is covered with all the names of the Mongol kins. The Chinese worship Genghis as the ancestral god of the [[Yuan dynasty]].}}]] According to a survey held in 2004 by the [[Minzu University of China]], about 80% of the population of the region practice the worship of Heaven (that is named ''[[Tian]]'' in the Chinese tradition and ''[[Tengri|Tenger]]'' in the Mongolian tradition) and of ''[[ovoo|ovoo/aobao]]''.<ref name="Yang-Lang">Fenggang Yang, Graeme Lang. ''Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China''. BRILL, 2012. {{ISBN|90-04-18246-2}}. pp. 184–185, reporting the results of surveys held in 2004 by the [[Minzu University of China]]. Quote from page 185: «[...] ''the registered adherents of the five official religions comprise only 3.7% of those [populations] in Inner Mongolia. When we compare this final statistic with Minzu University research team's finding that '''80% of the inhabitants of Inner Mongolia''' worship ''Tian'' (loosely translated "Heaven") and ''aobao'' (traditional stone structures that serve as altars for sacrifice), it is evident that the official calculations of registered religious believers are markedly low, and the policy decisions based on these numbers lack the necessary grounding in reality.'' [...] ''Foreign religions can be transformed into indigenous ethnic religions, and the traditional folk religions of China's ethnic minorities can integrate and neutralize non-native religions. Thus, China's ethnic religions should not be regarded as social burdens or challenges, but rather as valuable cultural assets.''»</ref> Official statistics report that 10.9% of the population (3 million people) are members of Tibetan Buddhist groups.<ref name="Wu-Fang2016">{{cite journal| last1=Wu| first1=Jiayu| last2=Fang| first2=Yong| title=Study on the Protection of the Lama Temple Heritage in Inner Mongolia as a Cultural Landscape| journal=Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering| volume=15| pages=9–16| issue=1| date=January 2016| doi=10.3130/jaabe.15.9|doi-access=free}} Note that the article, in an evident mistranslation from Chinese, reports 30 million Tibetan Buddhists in Inner Mongolia instead of 3 million. Note that the article, in an evident mistranslation from Chinese, reports 30 million Tibetan Buddhists in Inner Mongolia instead of 3 million.</ref> According to the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey of 2007 and the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009, [[Christianity]] is the religious identity of 3.2% of the population of the region and [[Chinese ancestral religion]] that of 2.36%,<ref name="Wang2015">Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) 2007, China General Social Survey (CGSS) 2009. Results reported by: [https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 Xiuhua Wang (2015, p. 15)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925123928/https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 |date=25 September 2015 }}</ref> while a demographic analysis of the year 2010 reported that Muslims make up 0.91%.<ref name="2010-Islam">Min Junqing. ''The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China''. JISMOR, 8. [https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf 2010 Islam by province, page 29] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427140204/https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf |date=27 April 2017 }}. Data from: Yang Zongde, ''Study on Current Muslim Population in China'', Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010.</ref> The [[cult (religious practice)|cult]] of [[Genghis Khan]], present in the form of various Genghis Khan temples, is a tradition of [[Mongolian shamanism]], in which he is considered a [[cultural hero]] and divine ancestor, an embodiment of the ''[[Tengri|Tenger]]'' (Heaven, God of Heaven).<ref>John Man. ''Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection''. Bantam Press, London, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-553-81498-9}}. pp. 402–404.</ref> His worship in special temples, greatly developed in Inner Mongolia since the 1980s, is also shared by the [[Han Chinese]], claiming his spirit as the founding principle of the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref>John Man. ''Genghis Khan''. Bantam, 2005. {{ISBN|0-553-81498-2}}. p. 23.</ref> [[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Buddhism in Mongolia|Mongolian Buddhism]], locally also known as "Yellow Buddhism") is the dominant form of Buddhism in Inner Mongolia, also practised by many [[Han Chinese]]. Another form of Buddhism, practised by the Chinese, are the schools of [[Chinese Buddhism]]. == Tourism == In the capital city [[Hohhot]]: * [[Dazhao Temple (Hohhot)|Da Zhao Temple]] is a [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhist]] temple built in 1580. Dazhao Temple is known for three sites: a [[statue]] of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] made from [[silver]], elaborate carvings of [[dragon]]s, and [[mural]]s. * Five-pagoda Temple is located in the capital of Inner Mongolia Hohhot. It is also called Jingangzuo Dagoba, used to be one building of the Cideng Temple (Temple of Merciful Light) built in 1727. * [[Residence of Gurun Princess Kejing]] is a mansion typical of [[Qing dynasty]] architectural style that was built in 1705 by the [[Kangxi Emperor]] for his daughter. * Wanbu-Huayanjing Pagoda ({{lang|zh-hans|万部华严经塔}}) in Hohhot. It was built during the reign of Emperor Shengzong (983–1031) of the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125) and is still well preserved. * Xiaozhao Temple, also known as Chongfu temple, is a [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhist]] temple built in 1697 and favoured by the [[Kangxi Emperor]] of the [[Qing dynasty]]. * [[Xilitu Zhao|Xilitu Zhao / Siregtu juu Temple]] is the largest Buddhist temple in the Höhhot area, and once the center of power of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] in the region. * [[Zhaojun Tomb]] is the tomb of [[Wang Zhaojun]], a [[Han dynasty]] palace lady-in-waiting who became the consort of the [[Xiongnu]] ruler Huhanye Shanyu in 33BC. Elsewhere in Inner Mongolia: * Baotou's urban grassland, [https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat15/sub103/entry-6516.html Saihantala], with elevations ranging from 1,034 to 1,058 meters, features yurts, god hills, wrestling, and horse racing activities. * The [[Mausoleum of Genghis Khan]], the [[cenotaph]] of [[Genghis Khan]], is located in [[Ordos City]]. * [[Bashang Grasslands]], on the border close to [[Beijing]], is a popular retreat for urban residents wanting to get a taste of grasslands life. * The Arshihaty Stone Forest in [[Hexigten Global Geopark]] has magnificent granite rock formations formed from natural erosion. * [[Xiangshawan]], or "singing sands gorge", is located in the [[Gobi Desert]] and contains numerous tourist attractions including sand sledding and camel rides. * Remains of Zhongjing (Central Capital) built in 1003 by Emperor Shengzong of the [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125) in Ningcheng County. * Remains of Shangjing (Upper Capital) built in 918 by Yelu Abaoji the 1st emperor of the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125). Also called Huangdu it was one of the five capitals of the Liao dynasty. * Zuling Mausoleum of Abaoji Khan. It was built in 926 for Abaoji the 1st Emperor of the Liao dynasty. Located north-west of Shifangzi village. * Tablets of Juyan. Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) inscriptions on wood and bamboo. In 1930 Folke Bergman of the Sino-Swedish expedition first discovered 10,000 tablets at [[Ejin Banner|Ejin Khoshuu]] in the Gobi Desert. * Ruins of Shangdu (Xanadu) the Summer Capital of the Mongol Yuan dynasty built in 1256 by Kublai Khan. * White pagoda of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) in [[Kailu County]], Tongliao. It is still well preserved. * Ruins of Chagan Khoto ({{lang|zh|查干浩特}}) capital of the last Mongol [[Great Khan]] [[Ligdan Khan|Ligden]] (1588–1634). Located in [[Ar Horqin Banner]]. [[File:Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center with sign.jpg|thumb|Sign of the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]] One of China's space vehicle launch facilities, [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center]], is located in the [[Alxa League]]'s [[Ejin Banner]], in the west of Inner Mongolia. It was founded in 1958, making it the PRC's first launch facility. As of 2021, Jiuquan has documented more launches than any other launch facilities in China, and is still the only launch site for crewed space missions ([[Shenzhou program]]). While geologically located inside Inner Mongolia, the launch center is named after Jiuquan, which is the nearest urban center in the nearby province of Gansu. As military facilities, the core areas at Jiuquan Center are highly restricted and can only be visited by tourist buses operated by the center, while the visitor center is open to the public and can be accessed from the south gate. Inner Mongolia is also home to the two (and only two) space vehicles landing sites in China, the [[Siziwang Banner]] Landing Site in Ulanqab and the Dongfeng Landing Site in Alxa. == Education == === Colleges and universities === {{See also|List of universities and colleges in Inner Mongolia}} ===Language policy and protest === Inner Mongolia under the People's Republic of China has historically allowed the Mongolian language as a [[medium of instruction]]. A 1979 article from the ''[[People's Daily]]'' praises the re-establishment of Mongolian-language education after "interference and vandalism by the Gang of Four" during the Cultural Revolution.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=zh:内蒙古广泛使用和发展蒙古语文 |trans-title=Inner Mongolia widely uses and develops the Mongolian language and script |work=People's Daily |date=January 7, 1979 |page=3}}</ref> {{main|2020 Inner Mongolia protests}} It was reported by ''[[The New York Times]]'' on 31 August 2020 that in the summer 2020, the Chinese government announced a new education policy, which called for Chinese to gradually replace Mongolian as the language of instruction in three subjects, including language and literature, politics, and history, in elementary and middle schools around the Inner Mongolia region. Thousands of ethnic Mongolians in northern China gathered to protest the policy.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Qin |first1= Amy | title= Curbs on Mongolian Language Teaching Prompt Large Protests in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date= 31 August 2020 |access-date=18 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919031621/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html |archive-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> == Image gallery == <gallery mode="packed" heights="140px"> File:乌兰布统3.jpg|Ulaanbutan grassland File:Inner Mongolia grassland (2005).jpg|Inner Mongolian grassland File:AlshaaUul.jpg|[[Helan Mountains]] scenery File:Cooking, mural from Tomb in Aohan, Liao Dynasty.jpg|[[Khitan people]] cooking. Fresco from the Liao dynasty (907–1125) tomb in [[Aohan Banner]] File:Fresco Songjingtu, Liao Dynasty Tomb at Baoshan.jpg|Fresco from the [[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125) tomb at Baoshan, [[Ar Horqin Banner]] File:Statue at the Wang Zhaojun Tomb.jpg|Honorary tomb of Wang Zhaojun (born c. 50BC) in Hohhot File:Khara-khoto.jpg|Remains of the city [[Khara-Khoto]] built in 1032. Located in [[Ejin Banner]], [[Alxa League]] File:美岱召古城全景沙盘.jpg|Maidari Juu temple fortress ({{lang-zh|labels=no |c=美岱召 |p=měidài zhào}}) built by [[Altan Khan]] in 1575 near [[Baotou]] File:美岱召new stone arch.png|Newly built arch in front of the Maidari Juu temple fortress (1575) File:Da Zhao Temple in Hohhot3.JPG|[[Dazhao Temple (Hohhot)|Dazhao temple]] (also called Ikh Zuu) built by [[Altan Khan]] in 1579 File:Five Pagoda Temple, Huhhot, Inner Mongolia.JPG|Five Pagoda temple (1727) in Hohhot File:InnerMongoliaBuddhistTemple.jpg|[[Badekar Monastery]] (1749) near Baotou, Inner Mongolia. Called Badgar Zuu in Mongolian File:Badain Jaran Temple Reflection.JPG|Badain Jaran temple (1868) in [[Alxa Right Banner]], western Inner Mongolia File:AlshaaBaruunHiid.jpg|Alxa Western Monastery (Alshaa Baruun Hiid) built in 1756 File:Genghis khan mausoleum.jpg|[[Genghis Khan Mausoleum]] (1954) in [[Ejin Horo Banner]] File:GhinggisKhanMausoleumGate.jpg|Genghis Khan Mausoleum (1954) </gallery> == See also == {{Portal|China}} * [[Leagues of China|Leagues of Inner Mongolia]] * [[List of administrative divisions of Inner Mongolia]] * [[Major national historical and cultural sites (Inner Mongolia)|Major national historical and cultural sites in Inner Mongolia]] * [[Winter storms of 2009–10 in East Asia]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} {{NoteFoot}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == * Wang, Liping. "From Masterly Brokers to Compliant Protégées: The Frontier Governance System and the Rise of Ethnic Confrontation in China–Inner Mongolia, 1900–1930." ''American Journal of Sociology'' 120.6 (2015): 1641–1689. * Williams, Dee Mack. ''Beyond great walls: environment, identity, and development on the Chinese grasslands of Inner Mongolia'' (Stanford University Press, 2002). [http://faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Williams4.pdf Online] * Borjigin, Monkbat. "[http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/metadb/up/AA11256001/21857148_16_17.pdf A case study of Language education in the Inner Mongolia ]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/metadb/up/AA11256001/21857148_16_17.pdf Archive]; Japanese title: {{Nihongo2|内モンゴル自治区における言語教育について}}). ''Journal of Chiba University Eurasian Society'' ({{Nihongo2|千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集}}) 16, 261–266, 2014-09-25. Chiba University Eurasian Society ({{Nihongo2|千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論講座}}). [https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://mitizane.ll.chiba-u.jp/meta-bin/mt-pdetail.cgi?cd=00117993 See profile at] Chiba University Repository. [https://web.archive.org/web/20151016091736/http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/120005476923 See profile at] [[CiNii]]. – In English with a Japanese abstract. * {{cite book|author=Yin-tʻang Chang|title=The Economic Development and Prospects of Inner Mongolia (Chahar, Suiyuan, and Ningsia)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlklAAAAMAAJ&q=chahars+1919|year=1933|publisher=Commercial Press, Limited|page=117}} == External links == {{Commons}} * {{in lang|zh}} [http://www.nmg.gov.cn/ Inner Mongolia Government website] * {{in lang|mn}} [http://mgl.nmg.gov.cn/U_index.html Inner Mongolia Government website] * [http://www.samarmagictours.com/ Welcome to Inner Mongolia-Mongolia Tours with Samar Magic Tours] * {{Wikivoyage inline}} {{Clear}} {{Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China}} {{Inner Mongolia topics}} {{Inner Mongolia}} {{Mongol autonomy in the People's Republic of China}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Inner Mongolia| ]] [[Category:Autonomous regions of China]] [[Category:Mongols in China]] [[Category:1947 establishments in China]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1947]] [[Category:Inner Asia]] [[Category:Historical regions]]
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