Editing Infant baptism

{{short description|Christian baptism of infants or young children}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
[[File:InfantBaptism (cropped).jpg|thumb|250x250px|A priest pours water on the head of an infant held over the [[baptismal font]] in a [[Catholic Church]] ([[Catholic Church in the United States|United States]]) "''The Rite of Baptism for Children''" ceremony]]'''Infant baptism''', also known as '''christening''' or '''paedobaptism''', is a Christian sacramental practice of [[Baptism|baptizing]] infants and young children. Such practice is done in the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and various [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, including [[Methodism|Methodists]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], and [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]].<ref name=":5">Brasher, B. (Ed.). (2001). ''Encyclopedia of fundamentalism: Volume 3 of religion & society'' (p. 47). Berkshire Publishing Group.</ref><ref>Provance, B. S. (2010). Pocket Dictionary of Liturgy & Worship. United States: InterVarsity Press. "Infant baptism is practiced by the [Anglican Communion], [Lutheran Church], [Presbyterian & Reformed Churches], [Roman Catholic Church], and [Methodist Church] churches, often followed by a later rite of *confirmation or profession of faith (Confessional statements: Aug. Conf. 9; Heid. Cat. 74; West. Conf. 28.4; CCC 1250-52; cf. Calvin, Institutes 4.16)" (p. 26).</ref> The practice involves baptizing infants born to believing parents as a means of initiating them into the Christian faith. Supporters of infant baptism cite biblical references to the baptism of entire households in the [[New Testament]], as well as Jesus’ teachings on welcoming children, as justification for this approach.<ref name=":5" />

In contrast, [[Believer's baptism|believers' baptism]] (credobaptism) is based on the premise that baptism should be administered only to individuals who can personally profess their faith. Those who support this view argue that baptism is a conscious act of commitment to Christianity, requiring an understanding of its significance. As a result, they maintain that only those capable of articulating their belief should participate in the sacrament. This perspective is commonly held by [[Baptists]], [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]], and other [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] groups. Proponents of believers’ baptism argue that the absence of explicit references to infant baptism in the New Testament, along with the significance of baptism as a personal commitment.<ref name=":5" />

== Age ==
Infant baptism practices vary across [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]], typically occurring within the first few weeks after birth, though some traditions perform it immediately, such as in cases of imminent death, or delay it by several months.

* In the '''Roman Catholic''' tradition, baptism is recommended within the first few weeks, or without delay if the infant is in danger of death, as outlined in the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|Code of Canon Law]] (867 §1-§2), with parents responsible for arranging the sacrament.<ref name=":02">Canon Law Society of America. (2000). New commentary on the Code of Canon Law (J. A. Coriden, J. P. Beal, & T. J. Green, Eds.). Paulist Press. p. 1054.</ref>
* The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' baptizes infants soon after birth, granting full sacramental participation, including Communion, to affirm their spiritual dignity and incorporation into the church.<ref name=":12">Cuneo, T. (2014). Transforming the self: On the baptismal rite. ''Religious Studies, 50''(3), 279–296. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/43658441</nowiki></ref>
* '''Lutheran churches''' view baptism as a sacrament of grace that forgives [[original sin]], citing God’s initiative and rejecting the concept of an “[[age of accountability]],” typically performing it without delay.<ref name=":23">Gassmann, G. (2001). ''Historical dictionary of Lutheranism'' (J. Woronoff, Series Ed.). Scarecrow Press. (pp. 34-35).</ref>
* In the '''Anglican tradition''', baptism, or christening, has no age restriction and signifies inclusion in the covenant community, with parents pledging to raise the child in faith until personal confirmation.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web |title=Christening FAQs |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/life-events/christenings/christening-faqs |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=The Church of England |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">Anglican Church in North America. (2020). To be a Christian: An Anglican catechism. Crossway. (p. 57)</ref>
* The '''Reformed tradition''', grounded in covenant theology where baptism replaces circumcision, usually administers the sacrament within the first week, as noted in the [[Westminster Confession of Faith|Westminster Confession]].<ref name=":52">Foster, D. A. (Ed.). (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement''. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 249.</ref> 
* '''Methodists''' practice baptism at any age, and for infants, it represents prevenient grace, with the congregation and parents committing to the child’s spiritual upbringing.<ref name=":6">Benedict, D. (2009, December 9). ''What is the appropriate age for baptism and for confirmation?'' Discipleship Ministries. <nowiki>https://www.umcdiscipleship.org/resources/what-is-the-appropriate-age-for-baptism-and-for-confirmation</nowiki></ref>

== Ceremony ==
The exact details of the baptismal ceremony vary among [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]]. Many follow a prepared ceremony, called a [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] or [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]].

=== Reception ===
All traditions begin with the reception or presentation of candidates. In the [https://saintgerards.org.uk/St-Gerards-Files/Baptism-several-children.pdf Roman Catholic Rite of Baptism for Several Children], this includes the Reception of the Children and a Liturgy of the Word with Scripture readings, homily, and intercessions. Similarly, Episcopal and Lutheran rites open with the Presentation and Examination of Candidates, including questions to parents, sponsors, or godparents. This phase highlights communal recognition and prepares candidates (and their families) for baptism.<ref name=":2">Johnson, M. E. (2007). ''The rites of Christian initiation: Their evolution and interpretation'' (2nd rev. & expanded ed., pp. 402–448). Liturgical Press.</ref> In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the rite opens with the "reception of the catechumens," where the celebrant prays for the candidate to become “a reason-endowed sheep in the holy flock of your Christ, an honorable member of your Church, a child of the light, and an heir of your Kingdom.”<ref name=":3">Cuneo, T. (2014). ''Transforming the self: on the baptismal rite. Religious Studies'', ''50''(3), 279–296. <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/43658441</nowiki></ref>

=== Prayer & anointment ===
Prayers and symbolic anointings mark spiritual preparation. The Roman Catholic rite includes a ''[https://www.bedfordcatholic.org/documents/2015/5/RiteOfBaptism.pdf Prayer of Exorcism and Anointing before Baptism]'', emphasizing purification. Episcopal and Lutheran traditions incorporate ''[http://www.rcdhn.org.uk/formation/pdfdocs2018/Prayer%20for%20Candidates.pdf Prayers for the Candidates]'' and, in Lutheranism, a ''[https://www.bethlehemadelaide.org.au/assets/Uploads/Prayer-of-the-Church-Augsburg-Confession.pdf Prayer of the Church]'' invoking the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]. While explicit anointing is more prominent in Catholicism (e.g., post-baptismal chrismation), all rites emphasize prayer as a means of spiritual strengthening.<ref name=":2" /> In the Eastern Orthodox rite, multiple exorcisms are performed, and prayers are made for the water to be “the water of redemption, the water of sanctification, the purification of flesh and spirit, the loosing of bonds, the remission of sins, the illumination of the soul, the laver of regeneration, the renewal of the spirit, the gift of adoption to sonship, the garment of incorruption, the fountain of life.”<ref name=":3" />

=== Blessing of water & baptism ===
The blessing of water and baptism proper are central to all rites. Roman Catholics perform a Blessing and Invocation of God over Baptismal Water, while Episcopalians and Lutherans include a Thanksgiving over the Water. Baptism itself is administered using the [[Trinitarian formula]]: Catholics, Episcopalians, and Lutherans all employ [[Immersion baptism|immersion]] or pouring “in the name of the [[God in Christianity|Father]], and of the [[Jesus|Son]], and of the [[Holy Spirit]].”<ref name=":2" /> In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the celebrant prays for the water to be sanctified with “the power (energeia) of the Holy Spirit,” and the baptism is performed by triple immersion, immediately followed by Chrismation (anointing with holy oil).<ref name=":3" />

=== Explanatory rites & seal of the spirit ===
Post-baptismal rituals symbolize the candidate’s new identity. Roman Catholics include ''[[Roman Rite|Explanatory Rites]]'': [[Chrismation|anointing with chrism]] (''Seal of the Spirit''), clothing in a white garment, presentation of a lighted candle, and the ''Ephphetha'' prayer. Episcopalians offer a ''Prayer for the Sevenfold Gift of the Holy Spirit'', while Lutherans [[Seal of the Confessional (Lutheran Church)|seal the candidate]] with a ''[https://chapelofthecrosslutheran.org/pdfs/bu/bulletin.pdf?5ba67727' Prayer of the Church]'' and present a baptismal candle.<ref name=":2" /> Eastern Orthodox Christians, after baptism, immediately chrismate the newly baptized, praying that the newly illumined will “please you in every deed and word, and may be a child and heir of your heavenly kingdom,” affirming a twofold transformation: normative membership in the Church and acquisition of the “regenerate states” (purification, sanctification, illumination, regeneration).<ref name=":3" /> These rites signify the Holy Spirit’s indwelling and the community’s welcome.

=== Conclusion ===
While baptism itself does not always include Eucharist, its communal context often ties to Eucharistic worship. For example: Roman Catholics conclude with the [[Lord's Prayer|Lord’s Prayer]] and a blessing, linking baptism to the broader liturgical life of the Church. Lutherans use a Baptismal Welcome, where the congregation affirms the newly baptized, often within a Eucharistic service. Episcopalians integrate baptism into the Baptismal Covenant, aligning it with congregational vows that precede shared Eucharist.<ref name=":2" /> In the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism, chrismation, and first communion are typically administered together, even to infants, as baptism is seen as full incorporation into the Church’s life, granting immediate access to the sacraments.<ref name=":3" /> Though not explicitly part of the baptismal rubric in all traditions, baptism is understood as initiation into a Eucharistic community.<ref name=":2" />

== Historical development ==

=== First century ===
First-century Christian baptism primarily involved adult believers, with no definitive [[New Testament]] evidence for infant baptism, though some suggest household baptisms may have included infants.<ref>Lawson, K. E. (2011). Baptismal theology and practices and the spiritual nurture of children: Part I: early and medieval church. Christian Education Journal, 8(1), 130+. "Though hotly debated, it is unclear whether or not children in the church during the New Testament era were baptized. Examples shared in the Bible generally either focus on adult believers receiving baptism" (p. 131).</ref><ref>Livingstone, E. A. (Ed.). (2006). T''he concise Oxford dictionary of the Christian church.'' Oxford University Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001</nowiki>

"Although from the first baptism was the universal means of entry into the Christian community, the NT [New Testament] contains no specific authority for its administration to infants" (Livingstone, 2006, p. 94).</ref><ref>McMaken, W. T. (2013). The Sign of the Gospel: Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism After Karl Barth. United States: Fortress Press. "While some claim to find traces of infant baptism in the New Testament, the scholarly consensus is that no clear, indisputable evidence of the practice is present. On the other hand, there is likewise no clear, indisputable evidence that infant baptism did not occur in the earliest Christian communities" (p.14).</ref><ref>Douglas, J. D., Toon, P. (2023). The Concise Dictionary of the Christian Tradition: Doctrine, Liturgy, History. United States: Zondervan. "Though there are no explicit statements that babies were baptized in the apostolic period, proponents of infant baptism see it as highly probable that they wereincluded in the households which were baptized (Acts 16:15, 31)" (p. 47-48).</ref> Scholarly consensus holds that infant baptism emerged gradually from the late 2nd century, became widespread by the 3rd century, and was universal by the 4th-5th centuries, coexisting with believers' baptism (''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'' 2:38–41) amid early debates.<ref>Kärkkäinen, V. (2021). An Introduction to Ecclesiology: Historical, Global, and Interreligious Perspectives. United Kingdom: IVP Academic. "In light of current scholarship, it is clear that infant baptism was a new development in relation to the New Testament and the earliest patristic theology. It emerged slowly and sporadically in various Christian locations; its legitimacy had to be demonstrated (Origen) and was sometimes outright rejected (Tertullian). This momentous shift developed gradually from the end of the second century. Not earlier than the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, infant baptism established itself as the main mode of baptism. For the first five centuries of Christian history, believers' baptism and infant baptism coexisted" (p. 212).</ref><ref>Harper's Encyclopedia of Religious Education. (1990). United Kingdom: Harper & Row. "In addition, the spread of infant baptism, which began to take root in the third century, contributed to the disappearance of the catechumenate" (p. 104)</ref><ref>Johnson, M.  (2018, April 26). The Development of the “Apostolic Tradition” in Early Christian Worship. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved 28 Apr. 2025, from <nowiki>https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-526</nowiki>. "Along with these specific ritual details, 3rd-century sources also show that infant baptism, including infant communion, was being practiced widely. Indeed, it was considered a normative practice in many early Christian communities."</ref><ref>Gassmann, G., Larson, D. H., Oldenburg, M. W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. United States: Scarecrow Press. "...the catechumenate, fell out of use as infant baptism, attested around the year 200, became universal in the fourth and fifth centuries. Following the foundational teaching of Augustine that in baptism guilt and original sin are remitted, in 418 the Synod of Carthage decreed that infants must be baptized in order to be freed from original sin" (p. 34).</ref><ref name=":0">Nicoletti, S. A. (2015, November 1). ''Infant baptism in the first-century presupposition pool''. ''[[Tyndale Bulletin]]'', 66(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.53751/001c.29399</nowiki></ref><ref>Lynch, J. H. (2019). Godparents and Kinship in Early Medieval Europe. United States: Princeton University Press. "In 1938, and in a revised edition of 1958, Joachim Jeremias published a work challenging the scholarly consensus that held infant baptism to be unattested in the New Testament or in second-century Christian sources" (p. 117).</ref>

Historian [[David F. Wright]] (2007,2005), suggests that first-century [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline churches]] did not practice infant baptism. Wright describes the issue as "obscurity unresolved," noting that evidence suggests children of baptized Christians were typically not baptized until at least c. 55 AD, during Paul's ministry, though the extent of this practice remains unclear.<ref name=":022">Wright, D. F. (2007). ''Infant baptism in historical perspective: Collected studies''. (p. 20). Wipf and Stock Publishers.</ref><ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199267835.003.0008 |chapter=The Apostolic Fathers and Infant Baptism: Any Advance on the Obscurity of the New Testament? |title=Trajectories Through the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers |date=2005 |last1=Wright |first1=David F. |pages=123–134 |isbn=978-0-19-926783-5}}</ref>

Despite this, some theologians argue for the early presence of infant baptism. [[Joachim Jeremias]] (2004) and [[William Strange (priest)|William A. Strange]] (1996) argue that infant baptism originated in the Apostolic Age, asserting that children of converts were baptized alongside their families.<ref name=":82">Strange, W. A. (1996). ''Children in the early church: Children in the ancient world, the New Testament and the early church''. Wipf & Stock, p. 123.</ref><ref name=":92">Jeremias, J. (2004). Infant baptism in the first four centuries. Wipf & Stock Publishers. pp. 20-22.</ref> Advocates cite households baptisms within ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'' (16:15, 33) and ''[[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]]'' 1:16 as potential evidence. However, the ''Global Dictionary of Theology'' (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation.<ref name=":122">{{cite book |title=Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church |date=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-7811-6 |editor1-last=Dyrness |editor1-first=William A. |page=99 |editor2-last=Kärkkäinen |editor2-first=Veli-Matti}}</ref> Jeremias argues that baptism extended to all household members because the [[Old Testament]] concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of [[1 Samuel 22]]:16–19 and [[Lech-Lecha|Genesis 17]]:23.<ref name=":92" /> Therefore, the term "house" (''oikos'') has been central to this debate.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}}

Steven Nicoletti (2015), proposes that the New Testament’s silence on infant baptism may affirm its practice, drawing on the concept of “[[presupposition]] pools”—shared assumptions of the time. They argue that early Christian texts likely omitted explicit mention of infant baptism because it was widely accepted, mirroring cultural norms where infants were naturally included in religious rites.<ref name=":0" />

Another line of reasoning explores parallels with [[Jewish culture|Jewish traditions]]. The analogy between [[Circumcision#Judaism|circumcision]] and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In [[Jewish culture|Jewish tradition]], boys were circumcised on the [[Shemini Atzeret|eighth day]], and some scholars suggest early [[Jewish Christianity|Jewish Christians]] viewed baptism similarly.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} Additionally, [[Proselyte#In Judaism|Jewish proselyte baptism]] included entire households, including children, as a purification rite for [[Gentile]] converts to [[Judaism]].<ref>Ferguson, E. (2009). Baptism in the early church: History, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries. Eerdmans. pp. 78–80.</ref> Theologian [[Kurt Aland]] (2004) counters that this was not standard for Jewish-born children, who were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.{{sfn|Aland|2004|pp=54–57}}

Further insight comes from early Christian texts addressing the [[Sin|sinfulness]] of infants or young children. [[Clement of Rome]] ([[First Epistle of Clement|1 Clement]] 14.4) stated, "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although later used out of context, this became a proof-text for baptism addressing [[original sin]].<ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism" /> This view aligns with [[Psalm 51]]:5, which states, "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me," supporting the early Christian belief in humanity’s inherent sinfulness from birth.<ref>Boaheng, I., & Twumasi-Ankrah, E. (2024). Exegetical and theological analysis of Psalm 51:1-12. ''International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7''(1), 504–517. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i1.1962</nowiki></ref> Similarly, the [[Didache]], a church order dated to the late 1st or early 2nd century, provides instructions for [[Believer's baptism|adult baptism]] but notes that children should receive teaching to prevent future sin, without explicitly addressing their baptism.<ref>Jefford, C. N. (1989). ''The sayings of Jesus in the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles''. Brill. pp. 87-88.</ref> Early 1st-century Christian texts, like 1 Clement and Psalm 51:5, highlight universal sinfulness, linking baptism to sin’s remission and laying groundwork for the doctrine of original sin, later justifying infant baptism. Yet, direct evidence for the practice in this period is absent, leaving its prevalence uncertain.<ref>Ferguson, E. (1979, April). Inscriptions and the origin of infant baptism. The Journal of Theological Studies, 30(1), 37–46.</ref>

=== Second century ===
Most of second-century Christian texts provide no explicit evidence for the practice of infant baptism.<ref name=":122" />{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} However, scholars like Wright and Aland identify literary traces emerging by the late second century.{{sfn|Aland|2004|p=10}}<ref name=":022" />{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} For example, the first clear reference to infant baptism comes from [[Tertullian]], who opposed it or advocated for its delay. In ''On Baptism'' (c. 200 AD), he acknowledges it as an established custom but argues against it, suggesting that baptism should be delayed until individuals can personally profess faith.<ref name=":32">{{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |title=Early Christians Speak: Faith and Life in the First Three Centuries |date=1999 |publisher=ACU Press |isbn=978-0-89112-045-2 |edition=3 |page=58 |jstor=j.ctv1k3nq1f}}</ref> Strange (1996) observed that Tertullian’s opposition to infant baptism marked a departure from prevailing practice, arguing that [[Patristics|patristic]] evidence suggests it was already a recognized norm.<ref name=":82" /> Additionally, Nuh Yilmaz (2020) notes that Tertullian's view did not resonate effectively in North African churches, where infant baptism continued as the general practice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Nuh |date=30 June 2020 |title=Tertullian's Understanding of Baptism |journal=Amasya İlahiyat Dergisi |issue=14 |pages=375–402 |doi=10.18498/amailad.693914}}</ref> [[North Africa]] remained the region with the strongest support for infant baptism, and according to Ferguson (1999) it may well have been where the practice originated.<ref name=":32" />
[[File:Tertullian2.png|left|thumb|244x244px|[[Tertullian]] (c. 160–220 AD) opposed infant baptism in his writings, provides the first clear evidence of its practice in early [[Christianity in the Roman Africa province|North African Christianity]]]]
Additionally, some advocates cite [[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyon]] who wrote that "infants, small children, youngsters, youths, and old folk" are "born again".<ref name=":122" /> Scholars such as Odd Magne Bakke (2005) and David P. Nelson (1996) interpret this as a reference to baptism, though Bakke qualifies that "reborn" (''renascuntur'') must be understood as a technical term for baptism.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=M. E. |date=25 June 1996 |title=Catechesis and baptism in the early Christian church |journal=In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi |volume=30 |issue=4 |doi=10.4102/ids.v30i4.1588}}</ref>{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}}{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=224–227}} Conversely, Peter Jenson (2012) and Robert L. Meyers (1988) argue that the statement lacks specificity regarding infants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meyers |first1=Ruth A. |title=Infant Communion: Reflections on the Case from Tradition |journal=Anglican and Episcopal History |date=1988 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=159–175 |jstor=42610259 }}</ref><ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence">{{cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Robin M. |title=Material and Documentary Evidence for the Practice of Early Christian Baptism |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |date=2012 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=371–405 |id={{Project MUSE|485368}} {{ProQuest|1081167146}} |doi=10.1353/earl.2012.0019 }}</ref>

Regardless, Christianity was growing in popularity and expansion during this period, structured [[catechesis]] became essential to prepare converts for faith amid persecution and [[Heresy#Christianity|heresies]]. This formalized approach to baptism, emphasizing instruction, according to Nelson (1996) likely reduced the practice of infant baptism, which required no prior preparation.<ref name=":1" />

Insights into early [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] viewed infants and young children as sinless or morally innocent. Notable examples include'':[[The Shepherd of Hermas]]'' (c. 100–150 AD) which portrays children as models of [[Disciple (Christianity)|discipleship]] and moral purity, inherently innocent and free of evil, serving as an example for believers.<ref name="Wright The apostolic fathers and infant baptism" /><ref>''The Shepherd of Hermas'', Similitude 9, Chapter 29, verses 1–3 (Sim. 9.29.1–3).</ref> [[Aristides of Athens]] (''Apology'', Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that Christian children are born [[Impeccability|sinless]] and, if they [[Infant mortality|die in infancy]], are celebrated for passing from life without sin: “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.”<ref name=":622">{{cite book |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |title=Early Christians Speak |date=1999 |publisher=ACU Press |isbn=978-0-89112-045-2 |pages=53–64 |edition=3 |jstor=j.ctv1k3nq1f.8 |chapter=The Beginning of Infant Baptism }}</ref> [[Athenagoras of Athens]] ''(On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD)'': stated that infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good."<ref name=":622" /> [[Justin Martyr]] (''[[First Apology of Justin Martyr|First Apology]]'', 15, c. 155 AD; ''[[Second Apology of Justin Martyr|Second Apology]]'', 10, c. 153 AD) described infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they can rationally choose to sin, emphasizing [[Free will#Christianity|free will]] and the "seed of the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]." He praised the purity of "disciples from childhood," suggesting no innate sinfulness.{{sfn|Bakke|2005|pp=56–60}}

=== Third century ===
Clearer evidence of infant baptism emerges in the third century.{{sfn|Aland|2004|p=10}} Yet from the third to the early fifth century, many Christian parents postponed baptizing their children.<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church" /> This delay was due to several factors: (1) the belief that waiting maximized baptism's spiritual benefits, (2) the custom of performing baptism only when death was near, (3) and the reluctance of unbaptized parents to have their children baptized.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

Despite this, inscriptions such as from [[Rome]]’s [[Catacomb of Priscilla]] mentions an infant who had received baptism before passing away. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death ([[Emergency baptism]]).<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> Scholars like Jeremias and Ferguson examined inscriptional evidence related to infant baptism, Aland argued that third-century inscriptions offered no significant new information. By that period, infant baptism was already well attested in existing literary sources.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Everett |date=1979 |title=Inscriptions and the Origin of Infant Baptism |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |volume=XXX |issue=1 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.1093/jts/XXX.1.37}}</ref>

These existing literary sources included: [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'' 21.3-5) directed: ''“The little children shall be baptized first. If they can speak for themselves, let them do so; otherwise, their parents or a relative should answer on their behalf.”''<ref name=":32" /> [[Origen]] claimed that infant baptism was an apostolic tradition passed down to the Church, though it remains uncertain whether his view stemmed from theological reasoning or scriptural exegesis.<ref name=":32" /> Regardless, his writings attests that the custom was already firmly rooted.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> [[Cyprian|Cyprian of Carthage]] further insisted that baptism should not be postponed, even for infants, asserting that God’s grace is ''"not given in greater or lesser measure based on the recipient’s age."''<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

=== Fourth century ===
The fourth century marked a turning point for Christianity as it transitioned from [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] to a [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|favored religion]] within the [[Roman Empire]]. This shift brought about divergent baptismal practices. In some areas, the longstanding [[Catechesis|catechumenate]] persisted, with rigorous pre-baptismal instruction exemplified by figures like [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] and [[Gregory of Nyssa]]. Simultaneously, infant baptism gained prominence, fueled by evolving theological understandings of [[original sin]]'s implications.<ref name=":43">{{cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=Kevin E. |date=May 2011 |title=Baptismal Theology and Practices and the Spiritual Nurture of Children Part I: Early and Medieval Church |journal=Christian Education Journal: Research on Educational Ministry |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=130–145 |doi=10.1177/073989131100800109}}</ref>

During this period, the Church strongly condemned [[Pelagianism]], which questioned the necessity of baptism for [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]], and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the [[Council of Florence]]’s ''Pro Jacobitis'' warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the [[Councils of Carthage|Council of Carthage]] and the [[Roman Catechism]] that taught [[Salvation of infants#Early church|unbaptized infants could not attain heaven]], demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vorachek |first1=William R. |last2=Pearson |first2=William R. |last3=Rule |first3=Gordon S. |title=Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of a Class-Mu Glutathione Transferase from Human Muscle, the Product of the GST4 Locus |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=1991 |volume=88 |issue=10 |pages=4443–4447 |doi=10.1073/pnas.88.10.4443 |doi-access=free |jstor=2357061 |pmid=2034681 |pmc=51676 |bibcode=1991PNAS...88.4443V }}</ref>

Several prominent Christian leaders, such as Tertullian, [[Rufinus of Assisi|Rufinus]], [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], [[Basil of Caesarea]], [[Ambrose]], [[Jerome]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], and [[Cyril of Alexandria]], attest to the widespread practice of [[Child dedication|infant ''dedication'']] or ''enrollment in the catechumenate'' rather than immediate baptism. This custom was observed across major Christian centers, from [[Carthage]] and [[Milan]] to [[Constantinople]] and [[Alexandria]]. Consequently, in the fourth century, dedicating infants and later instructing them in the catechumenate remained the normative practice, while infant baptism was generally administered only in cases of urgent necessity ([[emergency baptism]]).<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church">{{cite journal |last1=Messmer |first1=Andrew |title=Infant Dedication in the Early Church: Texts, Commentary, and Present-Day Application |journal=Journal of European Baptist Studies |date=19 December 2022 |pages=61–89 Pages |doi=10.25782/jebs.v22i2.1064 }}</ref>
[[File:Baptism-Of-St.-Augustine,-1702.jpg|thumb|287x287px|[[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine of Hippo]] being baptized in 387 AD]]
According to Andrew Messmer (2022), many prominent Christian leaders, though born into Christian families, were not baptized as infants but received it later in life. For instance, [[Novatian]] (200–258) was only baptized during a grave illness, while [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] (c. 329–390) waited until around age thirty. [[Basil of Caesarea]] was baptized at approximately 27 (c. 357), and [[Gregory of Nyssa]] between ages 23 and 28. [[Ambrose|Ambrose of Milan]] (340–397) remained unbaptized until his sudden election as bishop in 374, and [[John Chrysostom]] (347–407) was baptized around age 20 (c. 368). [[Jerome]] (347–420) received baptism at 19 (366), and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354–430), despite his devout mother Monica’s influence, delayed his baptism until age 33 (387). This pattern reflects the widespread practice of delaying baptism, even among those raised in Christian households.<ref name="Messmer Infant Dedication in the Early Church" />

Regarding their views, the early Church Fathers held divergent views on infant baptism, reflecting the theological tensions of their era. [[Augustine of Hippo]], in his [[Pelagianism#Pelagianism and Augustinianism|anti-Pelagian writings]], maintained that baptism was essential for cleansing original sin, asserting that only through this [[sacrament]] could infants be incorporated into Christ's flock. He issued grave warnings about the eternal consequences of dying unbaptized.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> In contrast, [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] adopted a more moderate position, arguing that since infants lack awareness of sin or grace, baptism should be deferred unless imminent danger threatened their lives - suggesting age three as an appropriate minimum or when children could actively participate in the rite.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> [[Jerome]] took a decidedly proactive stance, particularly in his correspondence with [[Laeta]] (403 AD), where he framed infant baptism as a fundamental parental obligation, implying negligence in those who delayed the sacrament. These differing perspectives illustrate the evolving theology surrounding baptismal practices in early Christianity.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

According to Robin M. Jensen (2012), archaeological evidence supports the existence of diverse baptismal practices in early Christianity. The variation in baptismal font designs suggests differences in liturgical customs, while third- and fourth-century funerary inscriptions confirm that some infants received emergency baptisms - though these do not demonstrate it was a widespread norm.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> The interpretation of iconographic evidence remains contested, as depictions of small figures undergoing baptism could represent either the baptism of Jesus or early instances of infant baptism.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> This ambiguity in material evidence mirrors the theological diversity seen in textual sources from the period.

=== Fifth century ===
[[File:Durand-ont01s.jpg|thumb|Medieval era [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] of an infant being baptized in a [[Baptismal font]]]]
By the late fifth century, theological debates increasingly emphasized original sin as the primary justification for infant baptism. The growing influence of [[Augustinianism|Augustinian theology]] in [[Western Christianity]] found formal expression when the [[Councils of Carthage|Council of Carthage]] (418 AD) affirmed that infants, while personally guiltless, bore the taint of Adam's original sin and consequently needed baptism for spiritual purification. This doctrinal development marked a significant shift in [[Sacrament|sacramental theology]], transforming infant baptism from a discretionary practice to a theological necessity in Western Christian thought.<ref name=":43" />

By the early sixth century, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of [[Sacrament of Penance|repeatable penance]] further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal [[Damnation#Christianity|damnation]]. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were [[Baptism|baptised]], [[Anointing|anointed]] ([[confirmation]]), and received [[Communion under both kinds|communion]] all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the [[Salvation#Christianity|salvific rite]].<ref name=":43" /> Writings from such as [[John the Deacon (Venetian chronicler)|John the Deacon]]’s letter (c. 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to [[original sin]].<ref name=":43" /> Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" /> In the sixth century, 526 AD, [[List of Byzantine emperors|eastern Roman emperor]], [[Justinian I]] made infant baptism compulsory.<ref name="Jensen Material and documentary evidence" />

=== Middle ages ===
The practice of infant baptism expanded significantly during the [[early Middle Ages]], particularly from the sixth century onward, largely due to concerns about high infant mortality rates. This led to the frequent administration of [[Emergency baptism|emergency baptisms]] (baptism in extremis), often performed in [[Medical respite care|respite]] [[Sanctuary#Sanctuary as a sacred place|sanctuaries]]. The sacrament became firmly established as a normative practice through the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian reforms of the ninth century]], and was further consolidated during the [[Gregorian Reform|Gregorian reforms of the eleventh and twelfth centuries]].<ref>{{cite journal |date=2001 |title=La protection spirituelle au Moyen Âge |journal=Cahiers de Recherches Médiévales |issue=8 |doi=10.4000/crm.376}}</ref>

== Denominations teachings & practices ==

=== Roman Catholic ===
{{further|Baptism#Catholicism}}
The [[Catholic Church]] requires a "founded hope" the child will be raised Catholic for licit baptism ([[1983 Code of Canon Law|Code of Canon Law]] 868 §1, 2° CIC). If absent, baptism is postponed (not denied) with explanation. The [[sacrament]] grants [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]], removes original sin, and unites the child with Christ.<ref name=":25">Jakubiak, T. (2018). The Founded Hope that an Infant will be Brought up in the Catholic Religion as a Condition for Baptism. ''Studia canonica'', ''52''(2), 491-508.</ref> Therefore, baptism is a fundamental sacrament in the Church, marking the initiation of an individual into Christian life and the Church community. It is essential for salvation, providing spiritual rebirth and access to other sacraments.<ref name=":25" />

The Church requires assurance that baptized infants will be raised Catholic (Canon 868 §1, 2° CIC). Parental consent is mandatory - at least one parent/guardian must approve. Baptism cannot be administered against parental wishes except in danger of death, when it may proceed regardless of objections.<ref name=":25" /> Additionally, baptism is seen as a one-time sacrament that marks a person’s commitment to Christ and cannot be repeated. If there is serious doubt about whether someone was baptized before or if it was done correctly, the Catholic Church allows a conditional baptism to be performed. Moreover, the practice of baptizing miscarried or stillborn infants is no longer done.<ref name=":35">{{Cite web |date=2025-03-05 |title=Roman Catholicism - Baptism, Sacraments, Faith {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism/Baptism |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Church recognizes both pouring ([[affusion]]) and [[Immersion baptism|immersion]] as valid baptismal methods, stating that the symbolic cleansing is preserved through the ritual use of water, even when full immersion isn't practiced.<ref name=":35" />

The Church acknowledges the importance of a personal decision in baptism, which infants cannot make. To address this, godparents are appointed to stand in for the child, committing to their Christian upbringing on behalf of the parents. The role of parents and godparents is strongly emphasized in the Church’s rite of infant baptism, first introduced in 1969 and later revised. As they grow, baptized children are expected to embrace the faith chosen for them, confirming the decision made on their behalf.<ref name=":35" />

Historically, such practices were developed gradually, rooted in early Christian tradition, [[original sin]], and sacramental theology. While adult baptism was initially dominant, the practice of baptizing infants became common by the third century. [[Cyprian|Cyprian of Carthage]] (c. 250 AD) defended it, arguing that baptismal grace should not be denied to children.<ref name=":44">Johnson, M. E. (1999). Baptismal" Spirituality" in the Early Church and Its Implications for the Church Today. pp. 188-211.</ref> In the fourth century, [[Augustine of Hippo]] linked baptism to original sin, asserting that it was necessary for salvation. His arguments shaped medieval sacramental theology, which emphasized that baptism remained valid regardless of personal faith ([[ex opere operato]]).<ref name=":44" /> The concept of ''[[limbo]]'' (''limbus infantium''), a speculative idea that unbaptized infants neither enter heaven nor suffer in hell, was never official Church doctrine. Though widely held from the 12th century onward, belief in limbo had largely faded by the 20th century.<ref name=":35" />

In-response to Protestant critiques, the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563) firmly upheld infant baptism as obligatory, solidifying its standard practice with support from godparents and catechesis. Today, the Church teaches that unbaptized infants are entrusted to God’s mercy, while maintaining that baptism remains essential for initiation into the faith and liberation from original sin.<ref name=":44" />

=== Eastern Churches ===
[[File:Russian-baptism.JPG|thumb|Baptism by immersion in the Eastern Orthodox Church ([[Ascension Cathedral (Sophia, Pushkin)|Sophia Cathedral]], 2005)]]
The Eastern Orthodox Church practices infant baptism as a fundamental part of its [[Sacrament|sacramental theology]], viewing it as the child's initiation into the Church and participation in the life of Jesus.<ref name=":62">Heller, D. (2023). ''Baptism''. In B. N. Wolfe et al. (Eds.), ''St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology''. Retrieved March 5, 2025, from https://www.saet.ac.uk/Christianity/Baptism. pp.13-14.</ref> The baptism is performed through triple immersion in water, symbolizing the believer’s sharing in Christ’s death and resurrection.<ref name=":62" /> In [[Eastern Orthodox theology|Orthodox theology]], sacraments are considered effective by the very act of their completion ([[ex opere operato]]), meaning they impart divine grace regardless of the recipient’s personal understanding.<ref name=":7">House, H. W. (2000). ''Baptism for the forgiveness of sins: Sign, seal, or means of grace? (Part 1)''. Christian Research Journal, 22(2), 1–33.</ref>

The Orthodox Church, like the Roman Catholic Church, believes that baptism results in the forgiveness of sins, both original and [[Actual sin|actual]]. Through baptism, the newly baptized is "[[Galatians 3|clothed with Christ"]] and becomes a full member of the Church.<ref name=":7" /> The sacrament is viewed as a mystical communion with God, through which grace is given for salvation and spiritual transformation. This understanding reflects the Orthodox belief that sacraments are "[[Sacred mysteries#Eastern|Mysteries]]", divine means by which humanity experiences salvation and anticipates eternal life in [[Kingship and kingdom of God#Christianity|God’s kingdom]].<ref name=":7" />

Baptism in the Orthodox Church is immediately followed by [[Chrismation]] (Confirmation) and [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]], emphasizing the unity of these three sacraments.<ref name=":62" /> Chrismation, administered by the priest, involves anointing the baptized with [[Chrism|Holy Myron (Chrism]]), sealing them with the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The newly baptized, including infants, then receive the [[Eucharist]], partaking in consecrated wine and bread as their first communion.<ref name=":62" /> This integrated approach contrasts with many [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] traditions, where these sacraments are administered separately at different stages of life.

The baptism of infants is performed on the basis of the faith of the Church, rather than the personal profession of the child.<ref name=":62" /> The commitment of parents and godparents plays a crucial role, as they pledge to raise the child in the Orthodox faith. While infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, mirroring the [[Religion and circumcision#Judaism|Old Testament practice of circumcision]], this timing is not strictly required, and baptisms may occur at any time.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Henry Parker |display-authors=etal |date=1844 |title=The Epistles of S. Cyprian, with the Council of Carthage, on the Baptism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srdWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=12 December 2014 |publisher=Oxford, London}}</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox theology|Orthodox theology]] holds that baptism is essential for salvation and the remission of original sin, making it a vital sacrament in the life of every Orthodox Christian.<ref>Ware, K. (1993). The Orthodox Church: An introduction to Eastern Christianity (p. 284). Penguin UK.</ref>

=== Protestant ===

==== Lutheran Churches ====
[[File:Lutheran_baptism.jpg|left|thumb|Baptism of a child in Finland by a Lutheran pastor (2015)]]
[[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] uphold infant baptism by pointing to scriptural references where entire households were baptized (e.g., [[Acts 16]]:15). They argue that households in biblical times included children. According to [[Martin Luther]], baptism is not founded on personal faith, as one can never be certain of faith. Instead, it is based on God's word and commandment. The faith involved is that of those who bring the child to baptism (fides aliena), such as parents, godparents, and the church congregation.<ref name=":8">(Heller, 2023, pp. 10-15)</ref>

Lutherans believe that through baptism, the child receives infused faith, mediated by the prayers of the church, parents, and godparents. Baptism purifies and renews the child. Personal faith is not a prerequisite for baptism but is nourished by it, as the individual continually adheres to God's grace and renounces sin throughout life. [[Augsburg Confession|The Augsburg Confession (II)]] states that baptism is necessary for salvation. It is an assignment to Christ, a surrender into Jesus’ death and resurrection, and a gift of new life that calls the baptized to walk in faith.<ref name=":8" />

While baptism marks initiation into the church and incorporation into the people of God, it is viewed as the beginning of a lifelong journey. If not taken in faith, baptism remains incomplete. In the post-Reformation era, [[Lutheran orthodoxy]] reaffirmed the necessity of infant baptism. However, later movements such as [[Pietism]] and [[Rationalism]] emphasized inner experience over the sacrament, leading figures like [[John Wesley]] to argue that true rebirth occurs through personal transformation, not the outward ritual.<ref name=":8" />

==== Methodist ====
[[File:First_century_of_national_existence;_the_United_States_as_they_were_and_are.._(1873)_(14764282955).jpg|thumb|Presbyterian-Congregational Alliance (1770–1852)]]
According to Campbell (1999), [[Methodism|Methodist churches]] affirm infant baptism, rooted in the [[Twenty-five Articles|seventeenth Article of Religion]]’s instruction to retain “the baptism of young children” (p. 107). Methodists have historically defended this practice against critics of infant baptism, grounding it in New Testament accounts of household baptisms ([[Acts 16]]:15, 33), Jesus’ embrace of children (e.g., [[Matthew 19]]:13–15), and the belief that all, including infants, require inclusion in the church’s covenantal fellowship.<ref>Campbell, T. A. (1999). ''Methodist doctrine: The essentials''. Abingdon Press. (pp. 73-133)</ref> For Methodists, infant baptism signifies “an acceptance of the prevenient grace of God and as a confession on the part of the church of its responsibility for children in general and for every child in particular.”<ref>{{cite book |title=Methodist Review, Volume 101 |date=1918 |publisher=G. Lane & P. B. Sandford |page=464 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="MannsMeyer19842">{{cite book |last1=Manns |first1=Peter |title=Luther's Ecumenical Significance: An Interconfessional Consultation |last2=Meyer |first2=Harding |date=1984 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0-8006-1747-9 |page=141 |language=English |quote=When modern Methodists expound infant baptism, they think first of " prevenient grace", for which infant baptism is said to be an effective, or at least a useful, sign.}}</ref> Methodist doctrine further emphasizes that justifying grace, essential for salvation, is received after repentance and a personal commitment to Christ as Savior.<ref name="UMC GBGM-Grace2">{{cite web |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/http://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archive-date=9 January 2008 |access-date=2 August 2007 |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM}}</ref><ref name="FMC20082">{{cite web |date=3 December 2008 |title=Baptism and Dedication |url=https://www.fmcic.ca/baptism-and-dedication/ |publisher=[[Free Methodist Church]] |quote=When they baptize babies, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear requests that God will bring the children to a personal faith that "owns" what the parents are promising at a time when the children (who "belong" from day one) cannot act for themselves. And when they dedicate children, pastors should make sure that their prayers include clear gratitude to God for the fact that he is already at work in the life of that child, who already "belongs" in the Christian community.  Here’s what must be stressed: whether at the time of baptism (in the adult baptism tradition) or at the time of confirmation when the vows made earlier by the parents are personally "owned" (in the infant baptism tradition), it is faith in Jesus (dependent trust, not mere cognitive affirmation) that is crucial. Paul goes so far as to say that without faith and obedience, the old rite of circumcision has no value (Romans 2:25). The same is true of baptism. With either rite, clear evangelistic follow-through is crucial.}}</ref> While many Methodist denominations, such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] and [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]], practice infant baptism for families who request it, they also offer a rite of child dedication for those who prefer to delay baptism until their child can consciously profess faith.<ref name="FMC20082" /><ref name="AWMC20142">{{cite book |title=The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference) |publisher=[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] |year=2014 |location=[[Salem, Ohio|Salem]] |pages=140–146 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches ====
[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], [[Congregationalism|Congregational]], and [[Reformed Christianity|Reformed churches]] administer infant baptism based on [[covenant theology]], viewing baptism as "a sign and seal of the covenant of grace" and the "visible Word of God" (Fesko 2010, p. 4). They argue that baptism replaces circumcision as the covenant sign and that just as infants were circumcised under the old covenant, so now infants should be baptized under the new covenant (p. 8). Baptism is not merely a human act of profession but is "God’s visible covenant promise when accompanied by the Word" and serves as a "[[Means of grace#Reformed theology|means of grace]]" (p. 6). This perspective stresses that baptism is grounded in "God’s covenant dealings with His people," not in an individual’s decision or [[Sola fide|personal faith alone]] (p. 3).<ref>Fesko, J. V. (2010). ''Word, water, and Spirit: A Reformed perspective on baptism''. Reformation Heritage Books.</ref><ref>Westminster Confession, Chapter 28, Section 1 and especially section 3. Baptized people are considered part of the covenant of grace by faith unless they prove otherwise by committing apostasy.</ref>

== Confirmation ==

For Catholic, Methodist Christians, and [[Wesleyan theology|Wesleyan]], Confirmation "strengthens" (the original meaning of the word "confirm")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/19/C0561900.html|title=Bartleby.com: Great Books Online -- Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more|website=www.bartleby.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417193920/http://www.bartleby.com/61/19/C0561900.html|archive-date=17 April 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="MCGB">{{cite web|url=http://www.methodist.org.uk/who-we-are/baptisms-weddings-and-funerals/baptism-and-confirmation|title=Baptism and Confirmation|year=2014|publisher=The Methodist Church in Britain|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707201151/http://www.methodist.org.uk/who-we-are/baptisms-weddings-and-funerals/baptism-and-confirmation|archive-date=7 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> the grace of [[Baptism]], by conferring an increase and deepening of that grace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt1sect2.htm|title=Catechism|website=www.usccb.org}}</ref><ref name="MCGB"/>

In [[Eastern Christianity]], including the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the [[Latin Church]] and its [[Latin liturgical rites]] of the Catholic Church, the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacrament]] is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the [[Episcopal Conference]] has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060718135812/http://www.deacons.net/Canon_Law/book_4.htm canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law]). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the [[Easter Vigil]] service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.<ref>cf. [http://bru.daniel.over-blog.com/ article] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224130336/http://bru.daniel.over-blog.com/ |date=24 December 2007 }} entitled ''Redonner tout son sens à l'initiation chrétienne : un défi à relever'' in ''Lumière et Vie'' 270 (June 2006), proposing the establishment of as many as seven such occasions.</ref>

Within [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Confirmation (Latter Day Saints)|confirmation]] or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete.<ref name="EoM Confirmation">{{cite encyclopedia |last= Craven |first= Rulon G. |contribution= Confirmation |contribution-url= http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5626 |pages= 310–311 |editor1-last= Ludlow |editor1-first= Daniel H |editor1-link= Daniel H. Ludlow |title= [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |location= New York |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishing]] |year= 1992 |isbn= 0-02-879602-0 |oclc= 24502140 }}</ref> Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Porter |first= Bruce Douglas |author-link= Bruce D. Porter |contribution= Gift of the Holy Ghost |contribution-url= http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3729 |pages= 543–544 |editor1-last= Ludlow |editor1-first= Daniel H |editor1-link= Daniel H. Ludlow |title= [[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |location= New York |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishing]] |year= 1992 |isbn= 0-02-879602-0 |oclc= 24502140 }}</ref> To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.<ref name="EoM Confirmation" />

== Comparison with believer’s baptism ==

=== Definition of believer’s baptism ===
[[Believer's baptism|Believer’s baptism]] emphasizes conscious faith and personal commitment as prerequisites. Advocates argue that household baptisms in Acts (e.g., Acts 16:15, 33) cited for infant baptism rely on an argument from silence, as no explicit biblical text mentions infant baptism. Historical records suggest infant baptism emerged in the late second century, lacking direct scriptural precedent.<ref name=":42">(Nettles et al., 2007, pp. 170-171)</ref> Rooted in [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline theology]] ([[Romans 6]]:4; [[Galatians 3]]:27), baptism symbolizes the burial of the “old self” and resurrection to new life in Christ through immersion. Groups like the Adventists view it as a public declaration of repentance and surrender to Christ’s lordship. [[Swiss Reformed Church of Saint-Maurice, Chavornay|Swiss Reformer]] [[Huldrych Zwingli]] emphasized baptism as a memorial act, not a sacramental means of grace.<ref name=":42" />

=== Key theological differences ===
Believer’s baptism prioritizes responsible baptism, requiring the baptized to become competent to know Christ. It is effective only when joined with faith and presupposes that baptized can respond for themselves to the baptismal interrogations and thus bear witness to personal faith.<ref name=":34">McMaken, W.T. (2013). ''The Sign of the Gospel'': ''Toward an Evangelical Doctrine of Infant Baptism after Karl Barth''. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. <nowiki>https://muse.jhu.edu/book/27359</nowiki>. (pp. 8-57).</ref> However, infant baptism primarily rests on God’s initiative, viewing baptism as a sign of grace and covenant membership, not requiring personal faith but depending on the church’s faith.<ref name=":34" />

== Debates regarding infant baptism ==
The debate over infant baptism engages [[ecclesiology]], [[Covenant theology|covenant]], and [[Faith#Christianity|faith]], often sparking controversy. Tom J. Nettles et al. (2007) in ''Understanding Four Views on Baptism'' highlight two irreconcilable traditions: believer’s baptism, emphasizing personal faith, and infant baptism, prioritizing covenantal continuity. These frameworks “simply cannot be mixed” without undermining theological integrity (p. 21)<ref>Nettles, T. J., Pratt, R. L., Jr., Kolb, R., & Castelein, J. D. (2007). ''Understanding four views on baptism''. Zondervan.</ref>

=== Arguments for ===
Proponents of infant baptism base their position on a covenantal framework, equating the practice with the Old Testament rite of circumcision. In Reformed theology, baptism signifies a child’s inclusion in God’s covenant community and membership within the visible church, mirroring circumcision’s role in ancient Israel.<ref name=":03">(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 70)</ref> [[B. B. Warfield]] noted this continuity, arguing that God’s inclusion of children in the covenant community, established during Abraham’s time, still grants them access to church membership and sacraments.<ref name=":03" /> Luther defended infant baptism as an act of obedience to Christ’s directive to bring children to God, grounding the practice in divine authority rather than human choice.<ref name=":13">(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 124)</ref>

=== Arguments against ===
Critics of infant baptism maintain that the New Testament portrays baptism reserved for individuals who consciously respond to the gospel and profess faith, rather than as a covenantal rite applied to infants.<ref name=":24">(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 40)</ref> They state that the absence of explicit biblical examples where baptism is administered to those incapable of understanding or articulating belief, therefore weakens its symbolic role in affirming Christian identity.<ref>(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 111)</ref>

As for the historical viewpoint, critics argue that infant baptism originated as a post-apostolic ecclesiastical innovation, lacking direct biblical or apostolic authorization, and dismiss it as a human tradition unsupported by divine revelation.<ref>(Nettles et al., 2007, p. 198)</ref>

Regarding consent, [[Mary McAleese]], a Catholic legal scholar and former [[President of Ireland|Irish president]], posits in her doctoral research that infant baptism functions as “enforced membership” within the Catholic Church, raising questions about consent and lifelong obligations imposed on children. She suggests that baptized individuals should later have the opportunity to formally affirm or renounce their membership, aligning with modern principles of freedom of conscience, belief, and religion. McAleese observes that the Catholic Church has yet to fully integrate these principles into its sacramental theology.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGarry |first=Patsy |date=22 June 2018 |title=Infant Baptism is enforced membership of the Catholic Church, says Mary McAleese |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/social-affairs/religion-and-beliefs/infant-baptism-is-enforced-membership-of-the-catholic-church-says-mary-mcaleese-1.3540706 |access-date=16 December 2018 |newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref>

=== Opposing denominations ===
These doctrinal positions shape baptismal practices across Christian traditions, exemplified by: [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]] (e.g., [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]]), [[Baptists|Baptist Traditions]] ([[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern]], [[Reformed Baptists|Reformed]]), [[Churches of Christ]], [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]]/[[Charismatic Christianity|Charismatic]] groups ([[Assemblies of God]], [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostals]]). Additionally, several [[nontrinitarian]] religious groups also oppose infant baptism, including [[Oneness Pentecostals]], [[Christadelphians]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[United Church of God]], and [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS)]].<ref name="EoM Infant Baptism2">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |location=New York |last=Norman |first=Keith E. |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |pages=682–683 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |contribution=Infant Baptism |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/3795 |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow}}</ref>

Specifically, the LDS Church has stated that little children are considered both [[Original sin#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|born without sin]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |location=New York |last=Merrill |first=Byron R. |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |pages=1052–1053 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |contribution=Original sin |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/4025 |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow}}</ref> and [[Fate of the unlearned#Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|incapable of committing sin]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |location=New York |last=Rudd |first=Calvin P. |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |pages=268–269 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |contribution=Children: Salvation of Children |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5591 |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow}}</ref> They have no need of baptism until age eight,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |location=New York |last=Hawkins |first=Carl S. |author-link=Carl S. Hawkins |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |pages=92–94 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |contribution=Baptism |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5499 |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow}}</ref> when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions.<ref name="EoM Accountability2">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |location=New York |last=Warner |first=C. Terry |author-link=C. Terry Warner |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |page=13 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |contribution=Accountability |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5446 |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow}}</ref> However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinance]] to [[Naming and blessing of children|name and bless children]], customarily performed on infants.<ref>{{citation |last=Bangerter |first=Lowell |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |page=268 |year=1992 |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Daniel H |editor1-link=Daniel H. Ludlow |contribution=Children: Blessing of Children |contribution-url=http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5591 |location=New York |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140}}</ref>

== Challenges & controversies ==

=== Injury and death ===
In October 2020, a [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] priest in [[Cyprus]] was accused of harming an infant during a baptism near [[Limassol]]. Video evidence showed the priest forcefully immersing the crying baby into a metal font, causing the child's legs to repeatedly strike the container. The parents filed a complaint, alleging the priest ignored their requests for gentle handling and responded, “I am responsible for the baptism.” The mother, Ntina Shitta, reported the baby was “red and in shock” afterward, describing the event as a “ruined” milestone. The priest issued a public apology on October 19, denying intent to harm and claiming he acted to prevent the baby from slipping, expediting the ritual upon noticing distress. Church authorities launched an investigation, but no immediate charges or disciplinary actions were announced.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Tasos Kokkinidis |date=20 October 2020 |title=Greek Orthodox Priest is Accused of Injuring Baby During Baptism |url=https://greece.greekreporter.com/2020/10/20/greek-orthodox-priest-is-accused-of-injuring-baby-during-baptism/ |access-date=7 February 2021 |work=[[Greek Reporter]]}}</ref>

On February 5, 2021, a six-week-old baby died in [[Suceava|Suceava, Romania]], within a [[Romanian Orthodox Church]], after a baptism involving triple immersion in holy water, led to cardiac arrest and liquid in the lungs. A manslaughter inquiry targeted the priest involved. Archbishop Calinic of Arges called for reviewing baptism practices, favoring alternatives like sprinkling, while the [[Archdiocese of Tomis|Archbishop of Tomis]] defended the traditional ritual, rejecting change. A petition for safer baptisms gained 60,000 signatures.<ref>{{Cite news |author=AFP |date=4 February 2021 |title=Orthodox Church under fire in Romania after baby dies following baptism |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/04/orthodox-church-baptism-under-fire-in-romania-after-babys-death |accessdate=6 February 2021 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name="McGrath2">{{Cite news |author=Stephen McGrath |date=5 February 2021 |title=Romania baptisms: Six-week-old baby's death sparks calls for change |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-55948364 |access-date=6 February 2021 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

=== Catholic forced baptism & custody ===
{{Main|Postremo mense|Forced conversion to Christianity}}

==== ''Postremo mense'' ====
In 1747, [[Pope Benedict XIV]] issued [[papal bull]] ''Postremo mense'', about baptizing Jewish children, building on old Church traditions. Benedict XIV said it’s usually wrong to baptize a Jewish child without the parents’ permission, but it’s permissible if the child is dying. If a child is baptized, even improperly, the Church must take them from non-baptized Jewish parents to raise them as Christians.'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cunningham |first1=James J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sB7lrpjH7dkC&pg=PA112 |title=Summa Theologiae: Volume 57, Baptism and Confirmation: 3a. 66-72 |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521029650 |pages=112 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Caffiero |first1=Marina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAch17-SogIC&pg=PA46 |title=Forced Baptisms: Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome |date=2012 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520254510 |page=46}}</ref>''' These ideas matched earlier thinkers like [[Thomas Aquinas]] and were supported by later figures like [[Alphonsus Liguori]].'''<ref name="caffiero56">{{cite book |last1=Caffiero |first1=Marina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAch17-SogIC&pg=PA56 |title=Forced Baptisms: Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome |date=2012 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520254510 |page=56}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Carlen |first1=Claudia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4uNVAAAAYAAJ |title=Papal Pronouncements, a Guide, 1740-1978: Benedict XIV to Paul VI |date=1990 |publisher=Pierian Press |isbn=9780876502730 |page=6 |language=en |accessdate=13 January 2018}}</ref>''' The Church punished unauthorized baptisms, but the baptism’s effects still stood. In 1751, Benedict issued a ''[[Probe te meminisse]]'' reinforcing these rules and setting penalties for Jewish converts who left Catholicism.'''<ref name="caffiero56" /><ref name=":10" />'''

==== Edgardo Mortara case (1858) ====
In 1858, six-year-old Jewish boy [[Mortara case|Edgardo Mortara]] was removed from his family in [[Bologna]], then part of the [[Papal States]], after a Catholic servant had baptized him as an infant during an illness, citing concern for his spiritual salvation. Under papal law, which required Catholic children to be raised in the faith, authorities declined requests from Edgardo’s parents to return him, despite appeals to figures such as Cardinal Giuseppe Milesi Ferretti and Archbishop [[Michele Viale-Prelà|Michele Viale-Prèla]]. Efforts by the family and Jewish leaders to negotiate with officials were unsuccessful. Due to the emotional strain of the separation, Edgardo’s mother, Marianna, was temporarily relocated from the home. The Church assumed custody of Edgardo, prompting widespread international criticism.<ref>Kertzer, D. I. (1997). The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara. United States: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. (pp. 9-10).</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Grew |first=Raymond |year=2000 |title=Review of ''The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara'', by David I. Kertzer |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=189–191 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/68.1.189 |issn=1477-4585 |jstor=1465729}}</ref>

==== Baptism during the Holocaust ====
During the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], many Jewish children in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|Nazi-occupied Poland]] were hidden and rescued by Catholic convents and monasteries. The motivations of the rescuers varied. While many nuns acted out of Christian compassion and humanitarian duty, the issue of religious conversion became controversial. Some children were baptized, sometimes as a protective measure, but this led to postwar disputes about their religious identity and custody. After the war, tensions arose between Jewish organizations and the Catholic Church over whether baptized children should be returned to the Jewish community or remain in Catholic care.<ref>Bogner, N. (1999). The convent children: The rescue of Jewish children in Polish convents during the Holocaust (N. Greenwood, Trans.). ''[[Yad Vashem|Yad Vashem Studies]]'', 27, 235–285. https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/resources/rescue-of-jewish-children-in-polish-convents.html</ref>

==== Finaly Affair ====
Jewish boys [[Finaly Affair|Robert and Gérald Finaly]], hidden by Catholics during WWII, were baptized. Postwar, their Catholic caretaker refused to return them to Jewish relatives, citing their baptism. Legal battles ended with their return to Jewish family in 1953.<ref>Jones, P. D. (1983). The finaly affair: Issues and implications. ''Religion'', ''13''(3), 177-203.</ref><ref>Kertzer, D. I., & Benedetti, R. (2020). The Vatican’s Role in the Finaly Children’s Kidnapping Case. ''Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations'', ''15''(1).</ref>

== Other religious traditions ==

=== Yazidism ===
[[File:Baptîzma êzidiyan.jpg|thumb|[[Baptism#Yazidi Baptism|Baptism]] of a Yazidi child in [[Lalish]]]]In [[Yazidism]], ''Mor kirin'' ("to seal") is a baptism ritual typically performed at birth to initiate children into the faith. Holy water from the [[Kaniya Sipî]] (White Spring) at [[Lalish]], the holiest Yazidi site.<ref name=":9">Kreyenbroek, P. G. (2005). ''Yazidis ii. Initiation in Yazidism''. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved April 28, 2025, from http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazidis-ii-initiation-in-yazidism</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4FpDDbrvqkC&pg=PA31 |title=Yezidism in Europe: Different Generations Speak about Their Religion |date=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06060-8 |language=en}}</ref> Alternatively, one may use the slightly less holy Zimzim spring.

Individuals originating from regions near Lalish frequently translate the ''mor kirin'' ceremony as 'baptism,' due to its observable similarities with Christian baptismal rites.<ref name=":9" />

The rite is performed by either a male or female member of a shaikh or pir family who serves as the officiating ''Mijêwir'' (custodian) at Lalish, specifically holding the position of ''Micêwirê Kaniya Sipî'' (custodian of the White Spring) during the ceremony.<ref name=":9" />

The officiant pours holy water from one of Lalish's sacred springs over the child's head in three ritual motions. While the ideal age for reception is nine or ten years, practical considerations often lead to earlier administration. Although circumcision is not a religious requirement, some families observe the practice due to regional customs.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Parry |first1=O. H. (Oswald Hutton) |date=1895 |title=Six months in a Syrian monastery; being the record of a visit to the head quarters of the Syrian church in Mesopotamia, with some account of the Yazidis or devil worshipers of Mosul and El Jilwah, their sacred book |url=https://archive.org/stream/sixmonthsinasyr00parrgoog/sixmonthsinasyr00parrgoog_djvu.txt |publisher=London : H. Cox}}</ref>

According to [[Yazidis|Iraqi Yazidi]] tradition, individuals who die without undergoing ''mor kirin'' must be ritually washed by their ''shaikh'', ''pir'', or designated "Brother/Sister of the Hereafter" ([[Kurdish language|Kurd.]] ''Birayê/Xuşka Axiretê''). If none of these are available, another person may perform the washing in their name. For those unable to travel to Lalish, the rite may be conducted using holy water transported from the sacred springs of Lalish to their location.<ref name=":9" />

However, adherence to this practice varies geographically. Yazidis originating from areas near Lalish observe the custom more consistently than those from [[Yazidism in Turkey|Turkey]] or [[Yazidis in Armenia|Armenia]], among whom the ritual has largely diminished in perceived necessity.<ref name=":9" />

While the ''mor kirin'' ceremony may reflect historical Christian influences, its origins remain speculative. Given the significance of water in pre-Islamic Iranian religions, the rite could equally stem from earlier indigenous traditions.<ref name=":9" />

== See also ==

* [[Anabaptists]]
* [[Aqiqah]]
* [[Baptism]]
* [[Believer's baptism]]
* [[Sacraments of initiation]]
* [[Infant communion]]
* [[William Wall (theologian)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last1=Aland |first1=Kurt |title=Did the Early Church Baptize Infants? |date=2004 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-59244-541-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bakke |first1=Odd Magne |title=When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood in Early Christianity |date=2005 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-1-4514-1530-8 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Infant baptism}}

=== Support ===
* ''[https://www.churchfathers.org/infant-baptism/ Early Church Fathers on Baptism]''
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910141514/http://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/LCMS/wa_baptism.pdf What About Holy Baptism?]'' by Dr. A.L. Barry (Lutheran perspective)
* ''[http://www.fivesolas.com/fs_bapt.htm Baptism]'' by Francis Schaeffer (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
* ''[http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/ric_pratt/TH.Pratt.New.Covenant.Baptism.pdf JEREMIAH 31: INFANT BAPTISM IN THE NEW COVENANT]'' by Dr. Richard Pratt (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
* {{Cite book|first=James M. |last=Chaney |author-link=James McDonald Chaney |title=William the Baptist |url=http://www.doulosresources.org/books/william/william.html |publisher=[[Doulos Resources]] |location=Oakland, TN |year=2009 |page=160 |isbn=978-1-4421-8560-9 |oclc=642906193 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402082610/http://www.doulosresources.org/books/william/william.html |archive-date=2 April 2011 |df=dmy-all }} (Reformed Presbyterian perspective)
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20100328005503/http://www.catholic.com/library/Infant_Baptism.asp Infant Baptism]'' Catholic Answers guide, with [[Imprimatur]]
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080430212045/http://www.catholic.com/library/Early_Teachings_of_Infant_Baptism.asp Early Teachings of Infant Baptism]'' teachings on Baptism by the [[Church Fathers]], with [[Imprimatur]]
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20120320184635/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7067 Infant Baptism]'' (by Jordan Bajis, Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America website)
* ''[http://www.vimeo.com/27776932 Infant Baptism]'' by Canon Tom Gordon (Orthodox Anglican perspective)
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070830132648/http://www.gbod.org/worship/articles/water_spirit/ By Water and the Spirit]'' (United Methodist perspective)
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517010250/http://www.davidmacd.com/catholic/infant_baptism.htm Infant Baptism discussed at www.CatholicBridge.com]'' (Catholic perspective)
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512021802/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/lifeevents/baptismconfirm/ Baptism, Confirmation and the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith]'' (Anglican Church perspective)

=== Opposition ===

* ''[http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/I5533.html Infant Baptism]'' in the ''Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online''
* ''[http://www.biblebb.com/files/MAC/INFBAP.HTM A Scriptural Critique of Infant Baptism]'' by Pastor John MacArthur
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080506142545/http://ag.org/top/Beliefs/gendoct_11_accountability.cfm The Assemblies of God on Baptism]''

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Baptism]]
[[Category:Infancy|Baptism]]
[[Category:Christianity and children]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Limbo]]