Editing Industrial and organizational psychology

{{Short description|Branch of psychology}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Psychology (sidebar)|all}}
'''Industrial and organizational psychology''' ('''I-O psychology''') "focuses the lens of psychological science on a key aspect of human life, namely, their work lives. In general, the goals of I-O psychology are to better understand and optimize the effectiveness, health, and well-being of both individuals and organizations."<ref>Rogelberg, S. C. (Ed.). (2007). Encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 1). SAGE Publications.</ref> It is an applied discipline within [[psychology]] and is an international profession. I-O psychology is also known as occupational psychology in the [[United Kingdom]], organisational psychology in [[Australia]], [[South Africa]] and [[New Zealand]], and work and organizational (WO) psychology throughout [[Europe]] and [[Brazil]]. Industrial, work, and organizational (IWO) psychology is the broader, more global term for the science and profession.<ref>Ones, D. S., Anderson, N., Viswesvaran, C., & Sinangil, H. K. (2018). The SAGE handbook of industrial, work & organizational psychology, 3v Personal Psychology and Employee Performance, Organizational Psychology, Managerial Psychology and Organizational Approaches. London: SAGE Publications.</ref><ref>Lewis, R., & Zibarras, L. (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=rC-ue21Ye1MC Work and occupational psychology: Integrating theory and practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101155554/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Work_and_Occupational_Psychology/rC-ue21Ye1MC |date=November 1, 2022 }}. London: SAGE.</ref><ref name="Spector P. E. 2021">Spector P. E. (2021). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and Practice 8th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.</ref>

I-O [[psychologist]]s are trained in the [[scientist–practitioner model]]. As an [[applied psychology]] field, the discipline involves both research and practice and I-O psychologists apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and the individuals within them.<ref>Truxillo, D. M.; Bauer, T. N.; Erdogan, B. (2016). ''Psychology and Work: Perspectives on Industrial and Organizational Psychology''. New York:  Psychology Press / Taylor & Francis.</ref> They contribute to an organization's success by improving the [[job performance]], [[Well-being|wellbeing]], [[motivation]], [[job satisfaction]] and the [[health and safety]] of employees.<ref>{{cite web |title=I/O Psychology Provides Workplace Solutions |year=2013 |website=American Psychological Association |url=https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/organizational}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pursuing a Career in I/O Psychology |year=2013 |website=American Psychological Association |url=https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/organizational/education-training}}</ref><ref>Riggio, R. E., & Johnson, S. K. (2022). Introduction to industrial/organizational psychology.</ref>

An I-O psychologist conducts research on employee [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], [[Behavior|behaviors]], [[Emotion|emotions]], [[motivation]], and [[Stress (biology)|stress]]. The field is concerned with how these things can be improved through recruitment processes, training and development programs, 360-degree feedback, change management, and other management systems and other interventions.<ref>''Building Better Organizations'' brochure. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from [http://www.siop.org/visibilitybrochure/memberbrochure.aspx SIOP.org] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190407193048/http://www.siop.org/visibilitybrochure/memberbrochure.aspx |date=2019-04-07 }}</ref> I-O psychology research and practice also includes the work–nonwork interface such as [[career management|selecting and transitioning into a new career]], [[occupational burnout]], [[unemployment]], [[retirement]], and [[work–family conflict]] and balance.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aamodt |first1=Michael G. |title=Industrial/Organizational Psychology: An Applied Approach |url=https://library.wbi.ac.id/repository/143.pdf |publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning |access-date=May 16, 2022 |archive-date=May 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516091641/http://library.wbi.ac.id/repository/143.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Rudolph, C. W., Allan, B., Clark, M., Hertel, G., Hirschi, A., Kunze, F., Shockley, K., Shoss, M., Sonnentag, S., & Zacher, H. (2021). Pandemics: Implications for research and practice in industrial and organizational psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 14(1-2), 1–35</ref>

I-O psychology is one of the 17 recognized professional specialties by the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/recognized.aspx |title=Recognized Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |work=APA.org |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=2018-12-02}}</ref> In the United States the profession is represented by Division 14 of the APA and is formally known as the [[Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology]] (SIOP).<ref>Koppes. L. L. (2000). ''A Brief History of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc. – A Division of the APA''. Washington, DC: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. [https://www.siop.org/About-SIOP/SIOP-Museum/Koppes-History#:~:text=The%20current%20Society%20for%20Industrial,in%20Sokal%2C%201992%2C%20p]</ref> Similar I-O psychology societies can be found in many countries. In 2009 the Alliance for Organizational Psychology was formed and is a federation of Work, Industrial, & Organizational Psychology societies and "network partners" from around the world.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://alliancefororganizationalpsychology.com/the-%22big-tent%22|title=Alliance for Organizational Psychology|first=Alliance for Organizational|last=Psychology|website=Alliance for Organizational Psychology|accessdate=March 8, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.eawop.org/alliance-eawop-siop-iaap | title=EAWOP - European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology }}</ref><ref>Machin, T., Machin, T., Jeffries, C. & Hoare, N. (Eds.) (2022), “The Australian handbook for careers in psychological science”. University of Southern Queensland.</ref>

==International==
I-O psychology is an international science and profession and depending on the region of the world, it is referred to by different titles. In North America, Canada and South Africa the title "I-O" psychology is used; in the United Kingdom, the field is known as occupational psychology. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine "protected titles" within the "practitioner psychologist"  professions. The profession is regulated by the [[Health and Care Professions Council]].<ref>[http://www.hpc-uk.org/aboutregistration/protectedtitles/ "Protected titles"], ''HPC-UK.org'', Health Professions Council. {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181107140106/http://www.hpc-uk.org/aboutregistration/protectedtitles/ |date=2018-11-07 }}. Retrieved 2013-09-01.</ref> In the UK, graduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the [[British Psychological Society]].

In Europe, someone with a specialist [[EuroPsy]] Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and a specialist in the work psychology field.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.europsy.eu/ |title=Europsy Home Page |website=Europsy}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2020|reason=Must cite a specific page, not just that a website exists.}} Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists. I-O psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe.

In Australia, the title "organisational psychologist" is protected by law and regulated by the [[Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency]] (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.psychologyboard.gov.au/Endorsement.aspx |title=Endorsement |work=PsychologyBoard.gov.au |publisher=Psychology Board of Australia |date=2010-07-01 |access-date=2013-09-01}}</ref>

In South Africa, industrial psychology is a registration category for the profession of psychologist as regulated by the [[Health Professions Council of South Africa]] (HPCSA).<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor/UserFiles/downloads/psych/sept_promulgated_scope_of_practice.pdf|title=Regulations Defining the Scope of the Profession of Psychology |work=HPCSA.co.za |publisher=Health Professions Council of South Africa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615070919/http://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor/UserFiles/downloads/psych/sept_promulgated_scope_of_practice.pdf|archive-date=2016-06-15|url-status= dead}}</ref>

In 2009 The Alliance for Organizational psychology was formed and is a federation of Work, Industrial, & Organizational Psychology societies and "network partners" from around the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://alliancefororganizationalpsychology.com/declaration-of-identity | title=Alliance for Organizational Psychology }}</ref> In 2021 The British Psychological Society (BPS) Division of Occupational Psychology (DOP) and the Australian Psychological Society's (APS) College of Organizational Psychology joined the Alliance. The Alliance currently has member organizations representing Industrial, Work and Organisational psychology and IWO psychologists from Australia, Britain, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Europe, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, South Africa and the United States.<ref name="auto"/>

==Historical overview==
The historical development of I-O psychology was paralleled in the US, the UK,<ref>Chimiel, N. (2000). "History and context for work and organizational psychology". In Chmiel, N. (ed.). ''Introduction to work and organizational psychology: A European perspective''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.</ref> Australia, Germany, the Netherlands,<ref>Shimmin, S.; van Strien, P. J. (1998). "History of the psychology of work and organization". In Drenth, P. J. D.; Thierry, H.; de Wolff, C. J. (eds.). ''Handbook of work and organizational psychology'' (pp. 71–99). Hove, England: Psychology Press.</ref> and Eastern European countries such as Romania.<ref>Pitariu, H. D. (1992). "I-O psychology in Romania: Past, Present, and Intentions". ''The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist'', 29 (4), 29–33.</ref> The roots of I-O psychology trace back to almost the beginning of psychology as a science, when [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. In the mid&ndash;1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists, [[Hugo Münsterberg]] and [[James McKeen Cattell]], who went on to have a major influence on the emergence of I-O psychology.<ref>Landy, F. J. (1997). "Early influences on the development of industrial and organizational psychology". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 82, 467–477.</ref> World War I was an impetus for the development of the field simultaneously in the UK and US.<ref>Spector, P.E. (2021). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</ref> Hugo Munsterberg, one of the founders of I-O psychology, wrote, "Our aim is to sketch the outlines of a new science which is intermediate between the modern laboratory psychology and the problems of economics: the psychological experiment is systematically to be placed at the service of commerce and industry" (p.&nbsp;3).<ref>Munsterberg, H. (2013). ''Psychology and Industrial Efficiency''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin</ref>

Instead of viewing performance differences as human "errors," Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of better understanding work behavior. [[Walter Dill Scott]], who was a contemporary of Cattell and was elected President of the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-O psychologist of his time. Scott, along with [[Walter Van Dyke Bingham]], worked at what was then [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (now Carnegie Mellon University), developing methods for selecting and training sales personnel.<ref>Feruson, L. (1965). ''The Heritage of Industrial Psychology''. Hartford, CT: Finlay Press.</ref>

The "industrial" side of I-O psychology originated in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of work performance. Industrial psychology crystallized during [[World War I]], in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty. Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million U.S. Army recruits. In 1917, together with other prominent psychologists, they adapted a well-known intelligence test the [[Stanford–Binet]], which was designed for testing one individual at a time, to make it suitable for group testing. The new test was called the [[Army Alpha]].<ref>Salas, E., DeRouin, R. E., & Gade, P. A. (2007). The military's contribution to our science and practice: People, places, and findings. In L. L. Koppes (Ed.). ''Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology'' (pp. 169-189). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</ref> After the War, increasing employment in the U.S. created opportunities for I-O psychology practitioners who called themselves "industrial psychologists"<ref>Koppes L. L, & Pickren, W. (2007). Industrial and organizational psychology: An evolving science and practice. In L. L. Koppes (Ed.). ''Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology'' (pp. 3-35). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.</ref>

The "organizational" side of the field was focused on employee behavior, feelings, and well-being. During World War I, with the U.K. government's interest in worker productivity in munitions factories, Charles Myers studied worker fatigue and well-being.<ref name="Myers">Myers, C. S. (1926). Industrial Psychology in Great Britain. London: Jonathan Cape.</ref> Following the war, [[Elton Mayo]] found that rest periods improved morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia textile factory.<ref>Mayo, E. (1924). Recovery and industrial fatigue. ''Journal of Personnel Research, 3'', 273–281.</ref><ref>Griffin, M. A.; Landy, F. J.; Mayocchi, L. (2002). "Australian influences on Elton Mayo: The construct of revery in industrial society". ''History of Psychology'', 5 (4), 356–375.</ref> He later joined the ongoing [[Hawthorne studies]], where he became interested in how workers' emotions and informal relationships affected productivity. The results of these studies ushered in the [[human relations movement]].<ref>Cullen, David O'Donald. ''A new way of statecraft: The career of Elton Mayo and the development of the social sciences in America, 1920–1940.'' ProQuest Dissertations and Theses; 1992; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text.</ref>

[[World War II]] brought renewed interest in ability testing. The U.S. military needed to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced jobs. There was also concern with morale and fatigue in war-industry workers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Postelwait |first=Cameron |date=September 14, 2023 |title=World War II and the Expansion of Industrial and Organizational Psychology: A Catalyst for Innovation |url=https://workforcewise.org/world-war-ii-and-the-expansion-of-industrial-and-organizational-psychology-a-catalyst-for-innovation/ }}</ref> In the 1960s [[Arthur Kornhauser]] examined the impact on productivity of hiring mentally unstable workers.<ref name="Zickar">{{Cite journal|doi =  10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.363|title = Remembering Arthur Kornhauser: Industrial psychology's advocate for worker well-being|year = 2003|last1 = Zickar|first1 = Michael J.|journal = Journal of Applied Psychology|volume = 88|issue = 2|pages = 363–369| pmid = 12731721}}</ref> Kornhauser also examined the link between industrial working conditions and worker mental health as well as the spillover into a worker's personal life of having an unsatisfying job.<ref>Kornhauser, A. (1965). ''Mental health of the industrial worker''. New York: Wiley.</ref><ref name="Bowling, K. 2010">Bowling, K., Eschleman, J.; Wang, Q (2010). "A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 83 (4), 915–934.</ref> Zickar noted that most of Kornhauser's I-O contemporaries favored management and Kornhauser was largely alone in his interest in protecting workers.<ref name="Zickar"/> Vinchur and Koppes (2010) observed that I-O psychologists' interest in job stress is a relatively recent development (p.&nbsp;22).<ref>Vinchur, A. J, & Koppes, L. L. (2010). A historical survey of research and practice in industrial and organizational psychology. In Zedeck, S. (ed.). ''APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref>

The industrial psychology division of the former American Association of Applied Psychology became a division within APA, becoming Division 14 of APA. It was initially called the Industrial and Business Psychology Division.<ref name="Kopes">Kopes, L. L. (2006). A brief history of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Accessed June 3, 2013. [http://www.siop.org/History/History.aspx] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404071938/http://www.siop.org/history/history.aspx|date=April 4, 2019}}</ref> In 1962, the name was changed to the Industrial Psychology Division. In 1973, it was renamed again, this time to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. In 1982, the unit become more independent of APA, and its name was changed again, this time to the [[Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology]].<ref name="Kopes" />

The name change of the division from "industrial psychology" to "industrial and organizational psychology" reflected the shift in the work of industrial psychologists who had originally addressed work behavior from the individual perspective, examining performance and attitudes of individual workers. Their work became broader. Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy subject of study.<ref name="Kopes" /> The emphasis on the "organizational" underlined the fact that when an individual joins an organization (e.g., the organization that hired them), they will be exposed to a common [[goal]] and a common set of operating procedures.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} In the 1970s in the UK, references to occupational psychology became more common than references to I-O psychology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Powers |first1=Kris |title=History of Industrial Organizational Psychology |url=https://workplacepsychology.pressbooks.com/chapter/psy104_ch01/ |access-date=11 April 2022 |language=en |date=2019}}</ref>

According to Bryan and Vinchur, "while organizational psychology increased in popularity through [the 1960s and 1970s], research and practice in the traditional areas of industrial psychology continued, primarily driven by employment legislation and case law".<ref name="Bryan">Bryan, L. L. K.; Vinchur, A. J. (2012). "A history of industrial and organizational psychology". Kozlowski, S. W. J. (ed.). ''The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology'' (pp. 22-75). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref><sup>p.&nbsp;53</sup> There was a focus on fairness and validity in selection efforts as well as in the job analyses that undergirded selection instruments. For example, I-O psychology showed increased interest in [[behaviorally anchored rating scales]].<ref name="Bryan" /> What critics there were of I-O psychology accused the discipline of being responsive only to the concerns of management.<ref name="Bryan" />

From the 1980s to 2010s, other developments in I-O psychology took place. Researchers increasingly adopted a multi-level approach, attempting to understand behavioral phenomena from both the level of the organization and the level of the individual worker.<ref name="Bryan" /> There was also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals. For example, an emphasis on organizational justice and the psychological contract took root, as well as the more traditional concerns of selection and training.<ref name="Bryan" /> Methodological innovations (e.g., [[meta-analyses]], [[structural equation modeling]]) were adopted. With the passage of the [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|American with Disabilities Act]] in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world, I-O psychology saw an increased emphasis on "fairness in personnel decisions."<ref name="Bryan" /> Training research relied increasingly on advances in [[educational psychology]] and [[cognitive science]].<ref name="Bryan" />

==Research methods==

I-O researchers employ both qualitative and quantitative methods, although quantitative methods are far more common. Basic [[Quantitative methods]] used in I-O psychology include [[correlation]], [[multiple regression]], and [[analysis of variance]]. More advanced statistical methods include [[logistic regression]], [[structural equation modeling]],<ref>Hayduk, L. A. (1987). ''Structural equations modeling with LISREL''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> and [[hierarchical linear modeling]] (HLM; also known as [[multilevel modeling]]).<ref>Raudenbush, S. W.; Bryk, A. S. (2001). ''Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods'' (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications.</ref> I-O researchers have also employed [[meta-analysis]].<ref>Hunter, J. E.; Schmidt, F. L. (1990). ''Methods of Meta-analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings''. Thousand Oaks, CA.</ref><ref>Hunter, J. E.; Schmidt, F. L. (1994). "Estimation of sampling error variance in the meta-analysis of correlations: Use of average correlation in the homogeneous case". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 79, 171–77.</ref><ref>Rosenthal, R.; DiMatteo, M. R. (2002). "Meta-analysis". In Pashler H.; Wixted, J. (eds.). ''Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 4: Methodology in Experimental Psychology'', 3rd ed., pp. 391–428. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.</ref> I-O psychologists also employ [[psychometric]] methods including methods associated with [[classical test theory]],<ref>Nunnally, J.; Bernstein, I. (1994). ''Psychometric Theory'' (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> [[generalizability theory]], and [[item response theory]] (IRT).<ref>Du Toit, Mathilda (2003). ''IRT from SSI''. Mooresville: Scientific Software International.</ref>

I-O psychologists have also employed [[qualitative methods]], which largely involve [[focus groups]], [[interviews]], and [[case studies]]. I-O psychologists conducting research on organizational culture have employed [[ethnographic]] techniques and [[participant observation]]. A qualitative technique associated with I-O psychology is Flanagan's [[critical incident technique]].<ref>Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. ''Psychological Bulletin, 51'', 327–58.</ref> I-O psychologists have also coordinated the use of quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogelberg |first1=S. G |last2=Brooks-Laber |first2=M. E. |date=2002 |chapter=Securing our collective future: Challenges facing those designing and doing research in industrial and organization psychology |editor=S. G. Rogelberg |title=Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology |pages=479–485 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Blackwell}}</ref>

==Topics==
{{anchor|Topics in organizational psychology}}
I-O psychologists deal with a wide range of topics concerning people in the workplace.

===Job analysis===
{{main|Job analysis}}
[[Job analysis]] encompasses a number of different methods including, but not limited to, interviews, questionnaires, task analysis, and observation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-and-samples/toolkits/pages/performingjobanalysis.aspx|title=Performing Job Analysis|website=Society for Human Resources Management|access-date=January 20, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.managementstudyguide.com/job-analysis-methods.htm|title=Job Analysis Methods|website=www.managementstudyguide.com|access-date=2019-01-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Sage encyclopedia of industrial and organizational psychology|others=Rogelberg, Steven G.|isbn=9781483386881|edition=Second|location=Thousand Oaks, California|oclc=964360168|last1 = Rogelberg|first1 = Steven G.|date=2016-10-11}}</ref> A job analysis primarily involves the systematic collection of information about a job. A task-oriented job analysis involves an assessment of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies a job requires. By contrast, a worker-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the work. Information obtained from job analyses are used for many purposes, including the creation job-relevant selection procedures, the development of criteria for [[performance appraisals]], the conducting of performance appraisals, and the development and implementation of training programs.<ref>Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Job and work analysis. Sage.</ref>

===Personnel recruitment and selection===
{{main|Personnel selection}}
I-O psychologists design (a) recruitment processes and (b) personnel selection systems. Personnel [[recruitment]] is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization. Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements, placing ads, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants. <ref>Ones, D. S., Anderson, N., Viswesvaran, C., & Sinangil, H. K. (2018). The SAGE handbook of industrial, work & organizational psychology, 3v Personal Psychology and Employee Performance, Organizational Psychology, Managerial Psychology and Organizational Approaches. London: SAGE Publications.</ref>

Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. Personnel selection systems employing I-O psychology methods use quantitative data to determine the most qualified candidates. This can involve the use of psychological tests, [[Biographical Information Blanks]], [[interviews]], work samples, and [[assessment center]]s.<ref>Spector, P. E. (2021) ''Industrial and organizational psychology research and practice'' 8th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley</ref>

Personnel selection procedures are usually validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant to personnel selection, using one or more of the following types of validity: [[content validity]], [[construct validity]], and/or [[criterion validity|criterion-related validity]]. I-O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts. SIOP (e.g., ''Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.siop.org/_Principles/principles.pdf |title=The SIOP principles |access-date=2009-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105104659/http://www.siop.org/_Principles/principles.pdf |archive-date=2015-01-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>) and APA together with the [[National Council on Measurement in Education]] (e.g., ''Standards for educational and psychological testing''<ref>[''The standards for educational and psychological testing'' http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards.aspx {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230161701/http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards.aspx |date=December 30, 2016 }}]</ref> are sources of those standards. The [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]]'s ''Uniform guidelines'' are also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uniformguidelines.com/|title=Uniform Employee Selection Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures|website=www.uniformguidelines.com}}</ref>

A meta-analysis of selection methods found that [[g factor (psychometrics)|general mental ability]] (g factor) was the best overall predictor of job performance and attainment in training.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schmidt |first1=Frank L. |last2=Hunter |first2=John E. |title=The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=1998 |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=262–274 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.262|s2cid=16429503 }}</ref>

===Performance appraisal/management===
{{main|Performance appraisal|Performance management}}
Performance appraisal or [[performance evaluation]] is the process in which an individual's or a group's work behaviors and outcomes are assessed against managers' and others' expectations for the job.<ref name="Miner">Miner, J. B. (1992). ''Industrial-organizational Psychology''. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Performance appraisal is used for a variety of purposes including alignment with organizational objectives, the basis for employment decisions (promotion, raises and termination), feedback to employees, and training needs assessment.<ref>Cascio, W.F. (1998). Applied Psychology in Human Resource Management 5th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.</ref> Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations and information relevant to helping a worker improve their performance (e.g., coaching, mentoring). Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes.<ref name="Miner"/>

===Individual assessment and psychometrics===
{{main|Individual assessment|Psychometrics}}
[[Individual assessment]] involves the measurement of [[individual differences]]. I-O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees.<ref name="A and U">Anastasi, A.; Urbina, S. (1997). ''Psychological Testing'', 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.</ref> The constructs measured pertain to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process. These assessments can include written tests, aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor tests, [[personality test]]s, integrity and reliability tests, work samples, [[simulation]]s, and [[assessment centre]]s.<ref name="A and U" />

===Occupational health, safety and well-being===
{{main|Occupational health psychology}}

A more recent focus of I-O field is the health, safety, and well-being of employees.<ref name="Spector P. E. 2021"/> Topics include [[occupational safety]], [[occupational stress]], and workplace bullying, aggression and violence.

====Occupational stress====
{{main|Occupational stress}}

There are many features of work that can be stressful to employees. Research has identified a number of job stressors (environmental conditions at work) that contribute to strains (adverse behavioral, emotional, physical, and psychological reactions).<ref>J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway, M. R. Frone (eds.) (2005). Handbook of work stress. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage</ref> Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes. For example, a job stressor such as conflict with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors.<ref name="Spector and Fox">Spector, P. E.; Fox, S. (2005).  "The stressor-emotion model of counterproductive work behavior". In Fox, S.; Spector, P. E. (eds.). ''Counterproductive Workplace Behavior: Investigations of Actors and Targets'' (pp. 151–174). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref> A number of prominent models of job stress have been developed to explain the job stress process, including the [[person-environment fit|person-environment (P-E) fit]] model,<ref>Caplan, R. D.; Cobb, S.; French, J. R. P., Jr.; Harrison, R. V.; Pinneau, S. R., Jr. (1975). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XdK7AAAAIAAJ ''Job Demands and Worker Health: Main Effects and Occupational Differences''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101155553/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Job_Demands_and_Worker_Health/XdK7AAAAIAAJ |date=November 1, 2022 }}, Publication No. (NIOSH) 75–160. Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare / US Government Printing Office.</ref> which was developed by University of Michigan social psychologists, and the [[Occupational health psychology#Demand-control-support model|demand-control(-support)]]<ref>Karasek, R. A. (1979). "Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign". ''Administrative Science Quarterly'', 24, 285–307.</ref> and [[Occupational stress#Effort-reward imbalance model|effort-reward imbalance]] models,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1037/1076-8998.1.1.27|title = Adverse health effects of high-effort/Low-reward conditions|year = 1996|last1 = Siegrist|first1 = Johannes|journal = Journal of Occupational Health Psychology|volume = 1|issue = 1|pages = 27–41|pmid = 9547031| s2cid=2480400 }}</ref> which were developed by sociologists.

Research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations, including police,<ref>Hart, P.; Wearing, A.; Heady, B. (1995). "Police stress and well-being: Integrating personality, coping and daily work experiences". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 68, 133–156</ref> general practitioners,<ref>Twellaar, M.; Winnants, H.; Houkes, I. (2008). "Specific determinants of burnout among male and female general practitioners: A cross-lagged panel analysis". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 81, 249–276</ref> and dentists.<ref>Demattio, M.; Shuggars, D.; Hays, R. (1993). "Occupational stress, life stress and mental health among dentists". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 66, 153–162</ref> Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life.<ref>Swanson, V.; Power, K.; Simpson, R. (1998). "Occupational stress and family life: A comparison of male and female doctors". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 71, 237–260</ref><ref>Vinokur, A. D.; Pierce, P. F.; Buck, C. L. (1999). "Work-family conflicts of women in the Air Force: Their influence on mental health and functioning". ''Journal of Organizational Behaviour'', 20, 865–878.</ref> Other I-O researchers have examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male- and female-dominated industries,<ref>Gardiner, M.; Tiggemann, M. (1999). [https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/096317999166699 Gender differences in leadership style, job stress and mental health in male- and female-dominated industries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712171050/https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/096317999166699 |date=July 12, 2022 }} ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 72 (3), 301–315.</ref> and unemployment-related distress.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1348/096317905X70823|title = Incongruence as an explanation for the negative mental health effects of unemployment: Meta-analytic evidence|year = 2006|last1 = Paul|first1 = Karsten Ingmar|last2 = Moser|first2 = Klaus|journal = Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|volume = 79|issue = 4|pages = 595–621}}</ref><ref>Ullah, K. (1990). "The association between income, financial strain and psychological well-being among unemployed youths". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 82, 317–330.</ref><ref>VanYperen, M.; Schaufeli, K. (1992). "Unemployment and psychological distress among graduates: A longitudinal study". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 65, 291–305.</ref> Occupational stress has also been linked to lack of fit between people and their jobs.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/0001-8791(87)90042-X|title=Person-environment fit theory and organizations: Commensurate dimensions, time perspectives, and mechanisms|year=1987|last1=Caplan|first1=Robert D.|journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior|volume=31|issue=3|pages=248–267|hdl=2027.42/26479|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

====Occupational safety====
{{main|Occupational health and safety}}
Accidents and safety in the workplace are important because of the serious injuries and fatalities that are all too common.<ref name="Barling & Frone">Barling, J.; Frone, M. R. (2010). "Occupational injuries: Setting the stage". In Barling, J.; Frone, R. (eds.). ''The Psychology of Workplace Safety'' (pp. 3–12). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref> Research has linked accidents to psychosocial factors in the workplace including overwork that leads to [[Fatigue (safety)|fatigue]], [[workplace violence]], and working night shifts.<ref>Spector, P. E. (2021). ''Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and Practice'' (8th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.</ref> "Stress audits" can help organizations remain compliant with various occupational safety regulations.<ref>Munir, F.; McDermott, H. (2013). "Design of environments and work: Health, safety and wellbeing". In Lewis, R.; Zibarris, L. (eds.). [https://books.google.com/books?id=rC-ue21Ye1MC ''Work and occupational psychology: Integrating theory and practice''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101155554/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Work_and_Occupational_Psychology/rC-ue21Ye1MC |date=November 1, 2022 }}(pp. 217–257). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage</ref> Psychosocial hazards can affect [[musculoskeletal disorder]]s.<ref name="Barling & Frone" /><ref name="Sprigg, C. A. 2007">Sprigg, C. A.; Stride, C. B.; Wall, T. D.; Holman, D. J.; Smith, P. R. (2007). "Work characteristics, musculoskeletal disorders, and the mediating role of psychological strain: A study of call center employees". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 92 (5), 1456–1466.</ref> A psychosocial factor related to accident risk is safety climate, which refers to employees' perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.65.1.96|title=Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications|year=1980|last1=Zohar|first1=Dov|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=65|issue=1|pages=96–102|pmid=7364709}}</ref> By contrast, [[psychosocial safety climate]] refers to management's "policies, practices, and procedures" aimed at protecting workers' psychological health.<ref>Dollard, M.;  Bakker, A. (2010). "Psychosocial safety climate as a precursor to conducive work environments, psychological health problems, and employee engagement". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 83, 579–599.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1037/a0036599|title=Psychosocial safety climate, emotional demands, burnout, and depression: A longitudinal multilevel study in the Malaysian private sector|year=2014|last1=Idris|first1=Mohd Awang|last2=Dollard|first2=Maureen F.|last3=Yulita|journal=Journal of Occupational Health Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=291–302|pmid=24802994}}</ref> Research on safety leadership is also relevant to understanding employee safety performance. Research suggests that safety-oriented [[transformational leadership]] is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices.<ref>Clarke, S. (2013). "Safety leadership: A meta-analytic review of transformational and transactional leadership styles as antecedents of safety behaviours". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 86, 22–49.</ref>

====Workplace bullying, aggression and violence====
{{main|Workplace bullying|Workplace aggression|Workplace violence}} 
I-O psychologists are concerned with the related topics of workplace bullying, aggression, and violence.<ref>Coyne, I.; Garvin, F. (2013). "Employee relations and motivation". In Lewis, R.;  Zibarris, R. (ed.). [https://books.google.com/books?id=rC-ue21Ye1MC Work and Occupational Psychology: Integrating Theory and Practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101155554/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Work_and_Occupational_Psychology/rC-ue21Ye1MC |date=November 1, 2022 }}. Sage</ref> For example, I-O research found that exposure to workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking.  Ruminative thinking is associated with poor well-being.<ref>Niven, K.; Sprigg, C.; Armitage, J.; Satchwell, A. (2013). "Ruminative thinking exacerbates the negative effects of workplace violence". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 86 (1), 67–84.</ref> Research has found that interpersonal aggressive behaviour is associated with worse team performance.<ref>Aube, C.; Rousseau, V. (2011). "Interpersonal aggression and team effectiveness: The mediating role of team goal commitment". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 84(3), 565–580.</ref>

====Relation to occupational health psychology====

A new discipline, [[occupational health psychology]] (OHP), emerged from both [[health psychology]] ''and'' I-O psychology as well as [[occupational medicine]].<ref name = "Everly">Everly, G.S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P.A. Keller & L.G. Ritt (Eds.), ''Innovations in clinical practice: A source book'' (Vol. 5, pp. 331-338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.</ref><ref name = "Schonfeld">Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C.-H. (2017). ''Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health''. New York: Springer Publishing Company.</ref> OHP concerns itself with such topic areas as the impact of occupational stressors on mental and physical health, the health impact of [[involuntary unemployment]], violence and bullying in the workplace, psychosocial factors that influence accident risk and safety, work–family balance, and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health.<ref name = "Schonfeld"/><ref name="Houdmont">Houdmont, J., & Leka, S. (2010). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In S. Leka & J. Houdmont (Eds.). ''Occupational health psychology'' (pp. 1–30). John Wiley: Hoboken, NJ.</ref> Spector observed that one of the problems facing I-O psychologists in the late 20{{sup|th}} century who were interested in the health of working people was resistance within the field to publishing papers on worker health.<ref name = "Spector1">{{Cite web |url=https://paulspector.com/what-is-occupational-health-psychology/ |title=Spector, P. (2019). What Is Occupational Health Psychology? |date=December 30, 2019 |access-date=September 29, 2021 |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628235736/https://paulspector.com/what-is-occupational-health-psychology/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 21{{sup|st}} century, OHP topics have become popular at the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology conference.<ref>Highhouse, S., & Schmitt, N. W. (2012). A snapshot in time: Industrial-organizational psychology today. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.). Handbook of psychology, industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 3 – 13). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.</ref>

=== Work design ===
{{main|Work design}}
[[Work design]] concerns the "content and organisation of one's work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=Sharon K.|date=2014-01-03|title=Beyond Motivation: Job and Work Design for Development, Health, Ambidexterity, and More|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115208|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=65|issue=1|pages=661–691|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115208|pmid=24016276|hdl=20.500.11937/69541|issn=0066-4308|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Research has demonstrated that work design has important implications for individual employees (e.g., level of engagement, job strain, chance of injury), teams (e.g., how effectively teams co-ordinate their activities), organisations (e.g., productivity, safety, efficiency targets), and society (e.g., whether a nation utilises the skills of its population or promotes effective aging).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=G.|first=Parker, Sharon Morgeson, F. Johns|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1060604883|title=One hundred years of work design research: Looking back and looking forward|journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology|date=2017|volume=102|issue=3|pages=403–420|publisher=American Psychological Association|doi=10.1037/apl0000106|pmid=28182465|hdl=20.500.11937/69907|s2cid=21566577|oclc=1060604883|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

I-O psychologists review job tasks, relationships, and an individual's way of thinking about their work to ensure that their roles are meaningful and motivating, thus creating greater productivity and job satisfaction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Areas of Expertise • Society for Industrial & Organisational Psychology Australia|url=https://siopa.org.au/about/i-o-psychologists/areas-of-expertise/|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Society for Industrial & Organisational Psychology Australia|language=en}}</ref> Deliberate interventions aimed at altering work design are sometimes referred to as ''work redesign.'' Such interventions can be initiated by the management of an organization (e.g., [[job rotation]], [[job enlargement]], [[job enrichment]]) or by individual workers (e.g., [[job crafting]], role innovation, idiosyncratic ideals).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knight|first1=Caroline|last2=Parker|first2=Sharon K|date=2019-10-01|title=How work redesign interventions affect performance: An evidence-based model from a systematic review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0018726719865604|journal=Human Relations|volume=74|issue=1|pages=69–104|doi=10.1177/0018726719865604|hdl=20.500.11937/76392|s2cid=210583587|issn=0018-7267|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Training and training evaluation===
{{main|Training}}
Training involves the systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.<ref name="Goldstein, I. L. 2002">Goldstein, I. L.; Ford, J. K. (2002). ''Training in Organizations: Needs Assessment, Development, and Evaluation'' (4th ed). Belmont, California: Wadsworth.</ref> Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires, training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively. Evidence indicates that training is often effective, and that it succeeds in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee.<ref>Arthur, W.; Bennett, W.; Edens, P. S.; Bell, S. T. (2003). "Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 88, 234–245.</ref>

Similar to performance management (see above), an I-O psychologist would employ a [[job analysis]] in concert with the application of the principles of [[instructional design]] to create an effective training program.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} A training program is likely to include a [[summative evaluation]] at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level. Kirkpatrick<ref>Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1977). Evaluating training programs: Evidence versus proof. Training and Development Journal, 31, 9-12</ref> describes four levels of criteria by which to evaluate training:
:*Reactions are the extent to which trainees enjoyed the training and found it worthwhile.
:*Learning is the knowledge and skill trainees acquired from the training.
:*Behavior is the change in behavior trainees exhibit on the job after training, for example, did they perform trained tasks more quickly?
:*Results are the effect of the change in knowledge or behavior on the job, for example, was overall productivity increased or costs decreased?

Training programs often include [[formative assessments|formative evaluations]] to assess the effect of the training as the training proceeds. Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I-O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is ongoing.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

The foundation for training programs is [[learning]]. Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories: cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes.<ref>Kraiger, K.; Ford, J. K.; Salas, E. (1993). "Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 78, 311–328.</ref> Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or the knowledge of rules, facts, and principles (e.g., police officer training covers laws and court procedures). Skill-based training aims to impart procedural knowledge (e.g., skills needed to use a special tool) or technical skills (e.g., understanding the workings of software program). Affective training concerns teaching individuals to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that predispose trainees to behave a certain way (e.g., show commitment to the organization, appreciate diversity).<ref>Campbell, J. P.; McCloy, R. A.; Oppler, S. H.; Sager, C. E. (1993). "A theory of performance". In Schmitt N.; Borman, W. C. (eds.). ''Personnel Selection in Organizations'' (pp. 35–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.</ref>

A [[needs assessment]], an analysis of corporate and individual goals, is often undertaken prior to the development of a training program.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schultz |first1=Duane P. |first2=Sydney |last2=Ellen |title=Psychology and Work Today: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology |edition=10th |date=2010 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-205-68358-1}}</ref>{{rp|page=164}} In addition, a careful [[training needs analysis]] is required in order to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what should be taught, and who will be trained.<ref name="Goldstein, I. L. 2002" /> A training needs analysis typically involves a three-step process that includes [[organizational analysis]], [[task analysis]], and [[person analysis]].<ref>Dierdorff, E. C.; Surface, E. A. (2008). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Erich-Dierdorff/publication/220005677_Assessing_Training_Needs_Do_Work_Experience_and_Capability_Matter/links/59662150a6fdcc85dd3ba371/Assessing-Training-Needs-Do-Work-Experience-and-Capability-Matter.pdf "Assessing training needs: Do work experience and capability matter?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712171049/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Erich-Dierdorff/publication/220005677_Assessing_Training_Needs_Do_Work_Experience_and_Capability_Matter/links/59662150a6fdcc85dd3ba371/Assessing-Training-Needs-Do-Work-Experience-and-Capability-Matter.pdf |date=July 12, 2022 }} ''Human Performance'', 21, 28–48.</ref>

An organizational analysis is an examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Organizational Analysis |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/strategy/organizational-analysis/ |website=Corporate Finance Institute |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> The results of an organizational analysis help to determine where training should be directed. The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Training and Development: Needs Analysis |url=https://hr-guide.com/Training/Determining_Training_Needs.htm |website=hr-guide.com |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> It systematically assesses manager, peer, and technological support for [[transfer of training]]. An organizational analysis also takes into account the [[organisation climate|climate]] of the organization and its subunits. For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in subunits of the organization (e.g., production), then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety.<ref>Zohar, D. (2002a). [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-00102-014 "Modifying supervisory practices to improve subunit safety: A leadership-based intervention model"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712171036/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-00102-014 |date=July 12, 2022 }}. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 87, 587–596.</ref> A task analysis uses the results of a job analysis to determine what is needed for successful job performance, contributing to training content. With organizations increasingly trying to identify "core competencies" that are required for all jobs, task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies.<ref>Shippmann, J. S.; et al. (2000). "The practice of competency modeling". ''Personnel Psychology'', 53, 703–740.</ref> A person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need. Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address.

===Motivation in the workplace===
{{main|Work motivation}}
Work motivation reflects the energy an individual applies "to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration"<ref name="Pinder">Pinder, C. C. (2008). ''Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior'' (2nd ed). New York: Psychology Press.</ref> Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to I-O psychology. [[Motivation]] is generally thought of as a theoretical construct that fuels behavior. An [[incentive]] is an anticipated reward that is thought to incline a person to behave a certain way.<ref name="Dec">Deckers, L. (2010). ''Motivation: Biological, Psychological and Environmental'' (3rd ed.), pp. 2–3). Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson.</ref> Motivation varies among individuals. Studying its influence on behavior, it must be examined together with ability and environmental influences. Because of motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance, many organizations structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage unproductive behaviors.<ref name="jex" /><ref name="Mitchell">Mitchell, T. R.; Daniels, D. (2003). "Motivation". In Borman, W. C.; Ilgen, D. R.; Klimoski, R. J. ''Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 12: Industrial Organizational Psychology'', pp. 225–254. New York: Wiley.</ref>

Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Educational Psychology Interactive: Motivation |url=http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html |website=www.edpsycinteractive.org |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from their life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.<ref name="Mitchell" />

===Organizational climate===
{{main|Organizational climate}}
Organizational climate is the perceptions of employees about what is important in an organization, that is, what behaviors are encouraged versus discouraged.<ref>Zohar, D. (2010). Thirty years of safety climate research: Reflections and future directions. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(5), 1517-1522. http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&NEWS=N&PAGE=fulltext&D=psyc&AN=2010-02683-001 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101155605/https://ovidsp.dc2.ovid.com/ovid-a/ovidweb.cgi?QS2=434f4e1a73d37e8c79928b3a11777fe7a745c18a3182cd1f24f55b738b47983da16ff4b92e9128ffb4ae039d2bcd57e177e2bf6763d88d71747c6eb9a4ae22022f4c872846e7b566d19359e40a842b2335b39df3fc4292dcc41224b09766a4a95f12b4b9a57b5b22ce2ed14347f2274f3ec3306bff6c63bc4b519c119614f43cf33e982792622db266871d0a5af096c0c3d4a8ae7ed145f55cf101dd8f93988df77bfa8c2103a01985564a0c6064a86a1d5437b41422c2d80923d9a41dc2d62f13e6feda8610b0f6bfe127a07583aadb2267ec1729a1ec79a1ca44f0b7d1804a39552d0fd96e139ddf963837bd059c6a |date=November 1, 2022 }}</ref> It can be assessed in individual employees (climate perceptions) or averaged across groups of employees within a department or organization (organizational climate). Climates are usually focused on specific employee outcomes, or what is called “climate for something”.<ref>Schneider, B., & Reichers, A. E. (1983). On the etiology of climates. Personnel Psychology, 36, 19-39.</ref> There are more than a dozen types of climates that have been assessed and studied. Some of the more popular include:

*Customer [[service climate]]: The emphasis placed on providing good service. It has been shown to relate to employee service performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1177/1938965510363783|title = What Matters More?|year = 2010|last1 = Way|first1 = Sean A.|last2 = Sturman|first2 = Michael C.|last3 = Raab|first3 = Carola|journal = Cornell Hospitality Quarterly|volume = 51|issue = 3|pages = 379–397|s2cid = 56241003}}</ref>
*Diversity climate: The extent to which organizations value differences among employees and expect employees to treat everyone with respect. It has been linked to [[job satisfaction]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.05.001|title = Hotel managers' perceived diversity climate and job satisfaction: The mediating effects of role ambiguity and conflict|year = 2013|last1 = Madera|first1 = Juan M.|last2 = Dawson|first2 = Mary|last3 = Neal|first3 = Jack A.|journal = International Journal of Hospitality Management|volume = 35|pages = 28–34}}</ref>
*Ethical climate: The extent to which organizational emphasize ethical practices.<ref>Mulki, J., & Lassk, F. G. (2019). Joint impact of ethical climate and external work locus of control on job meaningfulness. ''Journal of Business Research'', ''99'', 46-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.007</ref>
*Innovation climate: The extent to which organizations encourage employees to use new approaches.<ref>Pei, G. (2017). Structuring leadership and team creativity: The mediating role of team innovation climate. ''Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal'', ''45''(3), 369-376. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.5677</ref>
*Psychosocial safety climate: Organizations with such climates emphasize the importance of psychological health and well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/1359432X.2017.1380626|title = Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) and enacted PSC for workplace bullying and psychological health problem reduction|year = 2017|last1 = Dollard|first1 = Maureen F.|last2 = Dormann|first2 = Christian|last3 = Tuckey|first3 = Michelle R.|last4 = Escartín|first4 = Jordi|journal = European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|volume = 26|issue = 6|pages = 844–857|s2cid = 149363690|doi-access = free}}</ref>
*[[Safety climate]]: Such organizations emphasize safety and have fewer accidents and injuries.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1037/a0019164|title=Safety climate and injuries: An examination of theoretical and empirical relationships|year=2010|last1=Beus|first1=Jeremy M.|last2=Payne|first2=Stephanie C.|last3=Bergman|first3=Mindy E.|last4=Arthur|first4=Winfred|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=95|issue=4|pages=713–727|pmid=20604591}}</ref>

Climate concerns organizational policies and practices that encourage or discourage specific behaviors by employees. Shared perceptions of what the organization emphasizes (organizational climate) is part of organizational culture.

===Organizational culture===
{{main|Organizational culture}}
While there is no universal definition for organizational culture, a collective understanding shares the following assumptions:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hofstede |first=G. |date=1990 |title=Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. |journal=Administrative Science Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=286–316 |doi=10.2307/2393392 |jstor=2393392 |s2cid=147745936 }}</ref>{{rp|2}}
{{blockquote|...&nbsp;that they are related to history and tradition, have some depth, are difficult to grasp and account for, and must be interpreted; that they are collective and shared by members of groups and primarily ideational in character, having to do with values, understandings, beliefs, knowledge, and other intangibles; and that they are holistic and subjective rather than strictly rational and analytical.}}

Organizational culture has been shown to affect important organizational outcomes such as performance, attraction, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burkus |first1=David |title=How to Tell if Your Company Has a Creative Culture |url=https://hbr.org/2014/12/how-to-tell-if-your-company-has-a-creative-culture |journal=Harvard Business Review |access-date=11 April 2022 |date=2 December 2014}}</ref> Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service). Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture.

In addition to an overall culture, organizations also have subcultures.<ref name="Khatib">{{Cite journal |last=Khatib |first=Taysir |date=1996 |title=Organizational culture, subcultures, and organizational commitment |url= https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/11540/ |journal=Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations |via=Iowa State University Digital Repository}}</ref> Subcultures can be departmental (e.g. different work units) or defined by geographical distinction.<ref name="Khatib" /> While there is no single "type" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.

===Group behavior===
{{main|Group behavior}}
Group behavior involves the interactions among individuals in a collective. Most I-O group research is about teams which is a group in which people work together to achieve the same task goals.<ref name="jex"/> The individuals' [[opinions]], [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], and adaptations affect group behavior, with group behavior in turn affecting those opinions, etc.<ref>Goldstone, R.; Roberts, M.; Gureckis, T. (2008). "Emergent processes of group behavior". ''Group Behavior'', 17, 1–15.</ref> The interactions are thought to fulfill some need satisfaction in an individual who is part of the collective.<ref name="jex" />

====Team effectiveness====
{{main|Team effectiveness}}
Organizations often organize teams because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than an individual can accomplish.<ref name="jex" /> I-O research has examined the harm workplace aggression does to team performance.<ref>Rousseau, V.;  Aube, C. (2011). "Interpersonal aggression and team effectiveness: The mediating role of team goal commitment". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 84 (3), 565–580.</ref>

====Team composition====
Team composition, or the configuration of team member knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics, fundamentally influences teamwork.<ref>Bell, S. T.; Brown, S. G.; Colaneri, A.; Outland, N. (2018). "Team composition and the ABCs of teamwork". ''American Psychologist'', 73 (4), 349-362.</ref> Team composition can be considered in the selection and management of teams to increase the likelihood of team success.<ref>Bell, S. T.; Outland, N. (2017). "Team Composition Over Time". In Salas, E.; Vessey, W. B.; Landon, L. B. (eds.). ''Team Dynamics Over Time: Advances in Psychological Theory, Methods and Practice'' ("Research on Managing Groups and Teams" series, Vol. 18), pp. 3–27. Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing.</ref> To achieve high-quality results, teams built with members having higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around members having lesser skills; teams that include members with a diversity of skills are also likely to show improved team performance.<ref>Guzzo, R. A.; Shea, G. P. (1992). [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-97201-005 "Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712171035/https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-97201-005 |date=July 12, 2022 }}. ''Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology'', Vol. 3, pp. 269–313. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press</ref><ref name="Barrick">Barrick, M. R.; Stewart, S. L.; Neubert, M. J.; Mount, M. K. (1998). "Relating member ability and personality to work-team processes and team effectiveness". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 83, 377–91.</ref> Team members should also be compatible in terms of personality traits, values, and work styles.<ref name="Barrick" /><ref>Van Vianen, A. E.; De Dreu, C. K. (2001). "Personality in teams: Its relationship to social cohesion, task cohesion, and team performance". ''European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology'', 10 (2), 97–120.</ref> There is substantial evidence that personality traits and values can shape the nature of teamwork, and influence team performance.<ref>Bell, S. T. (2007). "Deep-level composition variables as predictors of team performance: A meta-analysis". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 92 (3), 595-615.</ref><ref>Peeters, M. A.; Van Tuijl, H. F.; Rutte, C. G.; Reymen, I. M. (2006). "Personality and team performance: A meta‐analysis". ''European Journal of Personality'', 20 (5), 377-396. European Association of Personality Psychology.</ref>

====Team task design====
A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team. Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals, and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work.<ref name="jex">Jex, S. M., Britt, T. W. (2014). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (3rd ed), Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</ref> When a given task is appropriate for a team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.44|title = Work groups: From the Hawthorne studies to work teams of the 1990s and beyond|year = 2000|last1 = Sundstrom|first1 = Eric|last2 = McIntyre|first2 = Michael|last3 = Halfhill|first3 = Terry|last4 = Richards|first4 = Heather|journal = Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice|volume = 4|pages = 44–67}}</ref>

[[Job characteristic theory]] identifies core job dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction, performance, etc. These dimensions include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.<ref>Hackman, J. R.; Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of job diagnostic survey. ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 60, 159-170.</ref> The dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors who perform team tasks that are challenging, interesting, and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than team members who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics.<ref name="jex" />

====Organizational resources====
Organizational support systems affect the team effectiveness<ref name="Sun1990">Sundstrom, E.; De Meuse, K. P.; Futrell, D. (1990). "Work teams: Applications and effectiveness". ''American Psychologist'', 45 (2), 120–33.</ref> and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment. During the chartering of new teams, organizational enabling resources are first identified. Examples of enabling resources include facilities, equipment, information, training, and leadership.<ref name="jex" /> Team-specific resources (e.g., budgetary resources, human resources) are typically made available. Team-specific human resources represent the individual contributors who are selected to be team members. Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task assignment) involve these team-specific resources.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} Teams also function in dynamic multi-team environments. Teams often must respond to shifting organizational contingencies.<ref>Salas, E.; Stagl, K.; Burke, C. (2004). "25 years of team effectiveness in organizations: Research themes and emerging needs". In Cooper, C.; Robertson, I. (eds.). ''International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology'', Vol. 19, pp. 47–91. Chichester, UK: Wiley</ref>

====Team rewards====
Organizational reward systems drive the strengthening and enhancing of individual team member efforts; such efforts contribute towards reaching team goals.<ref>Luthans, F.; Kreitner, R. (1985). ''Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond: An Operant and Social Learning Approach'' (2nd ed.). Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman</ref> In other words, rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team.<ref name="Sun1990" />

Several design elements are needed to enable organizational reward systems to operate successfully. First, for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members, the group's tasks must be highly interdependent. If this is not the case, individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment.<ref>Wageman, R.; Baker, G. (1997). "Incentives and cooperation: The joint effects of task and reward interdependence on group performance". ''Journal of Organizational Behavior'', 18, 139–158.</ref> Second, individual-level reward systems and team-level reward systems must be compatible.<ref>Dematteo, J. S.; Eby, L. T.; Sundstrom, E. (1998). "Team-based rewards: Current empirical evidence and directions for future research". ''Research in Organizational Behavior, 20'', 141–183.</ref> For example, it would be unfair to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did most of the work. That team member would most likely view teams and teamwork negatively, and would not want to work on a team in the future. Third, an organizational culture must be created such that it supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude towards team-based rewards.<ref>Haines, V. Y.; Taggar, S. (2006). "Antecedents of team reward attitude"". ''Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice'', 10, 194–205.</ref>

====Team goals====
Goals potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements: difficulty, acceptance, and specificity.<ref>Lock, E. A.; Latham, G. P. (1990). ''A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance''. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall</ref> Under difficult goal conditions, teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members.<ref>Whitney, K. (1994). "Improving group task performance: The role of group goals and group efficacy". ''Human Performance'', 7, 55–78.</ref> When team members commit to team goals, team effectiveness is a function of how supportive members are with each other.<ref>Aube, C.; Rousseau, V. (2005). "Team goal commitment and team effectiveness: The role of task interdependence and supportive behaviors". ''Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice'', 9, 189–204.</ref> The goals of individual team members and team goals interact. Team and individual goals must be coordinated. Individual goals must be consistent with team goals in order for a team to be effective.<ref>Mitchell, T. R.; Silver, W. R. (1990). "Individual and group goals when workers are interdependent. Effects on task strategy and performance"". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 75, 185–193.</ref>

===Job satisfaction and commitment===
{{main|Job satisfaction}}
Job satisfaction is often thought to reflect the extent to which a worker likes their job, or individual aspects or facets of jobs.<ref>Spector, P.E. (1997). ''Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Causes and Consequences''. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.</ref> It is one of the most heavily researched topics in I-O psychology. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field. It has been linked to important job outcomes including absenteeism, accidents, [[counterproductive work behavior]], customer service, [[cyberloafing]], job performance, [[organizational citizenship behavior]], physical and psychological health, and turnover.<ref>Spector, P. E. (2022). ''Job satisfaction: From assessment to intervention''. New York: Routledge.</ref> A meta-analyses found job satisfaction to be related to life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.<ref>Bowling, K.; Eschleman, J.; Wang, Q. (2010). "A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being". ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', 83 (4), 915–934.</ref>

===Productive behavior===
Productive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization.<ref name="jex" /> When an employee begins a new job, there is a transition period during which they may not contribute significantly. To assist with this transition an employee typically requires job-related training. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee.<ref name="jex" /> IO psychologists are ordinarily more focused on productive behavior than job or task performance, including in-role ''and'' extra-role performance. In-role performance tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of the job; extra-role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required by job but nonetheless contribute to organizational effectiveness. By taking both in-role and extra-role performance into account, an I-O psychologist is able to assess employees' effectiveness (how well they do what they were hired to do), efficiency (outputs to relative inputs), and productivity (how much they help the organization reach its goals). Three forms of productive behavior that IO psychologists often evaluate include job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (see below), and innovation.<ref name="jex" />

====Job performance====
{{main|Job performance}}
[[Job performance]] represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals.<ref name="campbell1990">Campbell, J. P. (1990). ''Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology''. In Dunnette, M. D.; Hough, L. M. (eds.). ''Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology'', Vol 1. (2nd ed.), pp. 687–732). Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.</ref> These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities.<ref name="campbell1990" /> In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving results (productivity), the results that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency), or the value an organization places on a given level of performance, effectiveness, productivity or efficiency (utility).<ref name="jex" />

To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs. Performance is commonly broken into two major categories: in-role (technical aspects of a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member). While this distinction in behavior has been challenged<ref>Morrison, E. W. (1994). "Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the employee's perspective". ''Academy of Management Journal'', 37, 1543–67.</ref> it is commonly made by both employees and management.<ref name="VanDyneLePine1998">Van Dyne, LePine (1998). "Helping and Voice Extra-role Behaviors: Evidence of Construct and Predictive Validity". ''The Academy of Management Journal'', Vol. 41, No. 1 (February 1998), pp. 108–119.</ref> A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in-role and extra-role categories.<ref name="campbell1990" /><ref name="Campbell1994">Campbell, J. P. (1994). "Alternative models of job performance and their implications for selection and classification". In Rumsey, M. G.; Walker, C. B.; Harris, J. H. (eds.). ''Personnel Selection and Classification'' (pp. 33–51). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.</ref> Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency and non-job-specific task proficiency as in-role dimensions, while written and oral communication, demonstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra-role dimensions.<ref name="jex" /> Murphy's model of job performance also broke job performance into in-role and extra-role categories.<ref name="Murphy1994">Murphy, K. R. (1994). "Toward a broad conceptualization of jobs and job performance: Impact of changes in the military environment on the structure, assessment, and prediction of job performance". In Rumsey, M. G.; Walker, C. B.; Harris, J. H. (eds.). ''Personnel Selection and Classification'' (pp. 85–102), Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.</ref> However, task-orientated behaviors composed the in-role category and the extra-role category included interpersonally-oriented behaviors, down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors.<ref name="jex" /> However, it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skills tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on tests, high-fidelity simulations, symbolic simulations, task ratings and global ratings.<ref name=Murphy1989>Murphy, K. R. (1989).  "Dimensions of job performance". In Dillon R.; Pelligrino, J. W. (eds.). ''Testing: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives'' (pp. 218–247). New York: Praeger</ref> These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance.<ref name="jex" /> Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role categories.<ref name="VanDyneLePine1998" /> Here, in-role performance was reflected through how well "employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees' job."<ref name="jex2008104">Jex, S. M.; Britt, T. W. (2008). ''Organizational Psychology''. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons</ref> Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra-role category.

To assess job performance, reliable and valid measures must be established. While there are many sources of error with [[Performance Rating (Work Measurement)|performance ratings]], error can be reduced through rater training<ref name="Pulakos1984">Pulakos, E. D. (1984). "A comparison of rater training programs: Error training and accuracy training". ''Journal of Applied Psychology'', 69, 581–588)</ref> and through the use of behaviorally-anchored rating scales. Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor, average, and superior performance.<ref name="campbell1990" /> Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as changing performance criteria, the structure of the job itself<ref name="Murphy1994" /> and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, acceptance and the justification of poor performance, and lack of importance of individual performance.

The determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants of Job Performance,<ref name="campbell1990" /><ref name="Campbell1994" /> job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflective of an employee's choices regarding whether to expend effort, the level of effort to expend, and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen).<ref name="jex" /> The interplay between these factors show that an employee may, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation.

Regardless of the job, three determinants stand out as predictors of performance: (1) general mental ability (especially for jobs higher in complexity); (2) job experience (although there is a law of diminishing returns); and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness (people who are dependable and achievement-oriented, who plan well).<ref name="jex" /> These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well. Further, an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.<ref name="Baron">Baron, R.; Handley, R.; Fund, S. (2006). "The impact of emotional intelligence on performance". In Druskat, V. U.; Sala, F.; Mount, G. (eds.). ''Linking Emotional Intelligence and Performance at Work: Current Research Evidence with Individuals and Groups'' (pp. 3–19). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates</ref><ref name="Goleman">Goleman, D. (1998). ''Working with Emotional Intelligence''. New York: Bantam Books.</ref>

====Organizational citizenship behavior====
{{main|Organizational citizenship behavior}}
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are another form of workplace behavior that IO psychologists are involved with. OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization and other workers. Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization."<ref name="Organ1988">Organ, D. W. (1988). ''Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome''. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books / D. C. Heath and Co.</ref> Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue.<ref name="Organ1988" /><ref name="Organ1977">Organ, D. W. (1977). "Inferences about trends in labor force satisfaction: A causal-correlational analysis". ''Academy of Management Journal'', 20 (4), 510–19. {{doi|10.2307/255353}}</ref><ref name="Organ1994">Organ, D. W. (1994). "Organizational citizenship behavior and the good soldier". In Rumsey, M. G.; Walker, C. B.; Harris, J. (eds.). ''Personnel Selection and Classification'' (pp. 53–67). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates</ref> OCBs have also been categorized in other ways too, for example, by their intended targets individuals, supervisors, and the organization as a whole.<ref name="WilliamsAnderson">Williams, L. J.; Anderson, S. E. (1994). "Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behavior". ''Journal of Management'', 17, 601–617</ref> Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs include "compulsory OCBs", which are engaged in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure rather than out of good will.<ref name="Vigoda2006">Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2006). Compulsory citizenship behavior: Theorizing some dark sides of the Good Soldier Syndrome in organizations. ''Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour'', 36, 77–93. {{doi|10.1111/j.1468-5914.2006.00297}}.</ref> The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has been the subject of some debate.<ref name="Vigoda2006" />

Other research suggests that some employees perform OCBs to influence how they are viewed within the organization. While these behaviors are not formally part of the job description, performing them can influence performance appraisals.<ref name="jex" /> Researchers have advanced the view that employees engage in OCBs as a form of "impression management," a term coined by [[Erving Goffman]].<ref>Goffman, E. (1959). ''The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life''. New York: Anchor Books.</ref> Goffman defined impression management as "the way in which the individual&nbsp;... presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them. Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs are not performed out of good will, positive affect, etc., but instead as a way of being noticed by others, including supervisors.<ref name="Bolino">Bolino, M. C. (1999). "Citizenship and impression management: Good soldiers or good actors?" ''Academy of Management Review'', 24(1), 82–98. {{doi|10.2307/259038}}</ref>

====Innovation====
{{main|Innovation}}
Four qualities are generally linked to creative and innovative behaviour by individuals:<ref name="jex" /> 
* Task-relevant skills (general mental ability and job specific knowledge). Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained through higher education; however, it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field.<ref name="jex" />
* Creativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time, to abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems). The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex and Britt as productive forgetting.<ref name="jex" /> Creativity-relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points. One must be able to take on the perspective of various users. For example, an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation, and compliance officer.
* Task motivation (internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment).<ref name="jex" />

At the organizational level, a study by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation:<ref>Damanpour, F. (1991). "Organizational innovation: A meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators". ''Academy of Management Journal'', 34, 555–590.</ref><ref name="jex" />

# A population with high levels of technical knowledge
# The organization's level of specialization
# The level an organization communicates externally
# Functional differentiation.

===Counterproductive work behavior===
{{main|Counterproductive work behavior}}
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization. These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations. Some CWBs have instrumental motivations (e.g., theft).<ref name="Spector and Fox" /> It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors.<ref name="Spector and Fox" /> For instance, an employee who sabotages another employee's work may do so because of lax supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (person) that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior. There is evidence that an emotional response (e.g., anger) to job stress (e.g., unfair treatment) can motivate CWBs.<ref name="Spector and Fox" />

The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective [[job performance]], [[absenteeism]], [[job turnover]], and [[accident]]s. Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and [[sexual harassment]].

===Leadership===
{{main|Leadership}}
Leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose, and to work towards shared objectives.<ref>Yukl, G. (2010). ''Leadership in Organizations'' (7th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson.</ref> A distinction should be made between leadership and [[management]]. Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments. Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well, leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values. Managers deal with complexity, while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change. Managers undertake the tasks of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving. In contrast, leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision, aligning people to shared goals, communicating, and motivating.<ref>Daft, R. L. (2011). ''Leadership'' (5th ed.). Australia: Cengage.</ref>

Approaches to studying leadership can be broadly classified into three categories: Leader-focused approaches, contingency-focused approaches, and follower-focused approaches.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Ben |last1=Mulholland |title=Leadership Theories: How to Be the Perfect Leader for Your Team {{!}} Process Street {{!}} Checklist, Workflow and SOP Software |url=https://www.process.st/leadership-theories/ |access-date=25 April 2022 |date=31 October 2019}}</ref>

====Leader-focused approaches====
Leader-focused approaches look to organizational leaders to determine the characteristics of effective [[leadership]]. According to the [[Trait theory|trait approach]], more effective leaders possess certain traits that less effective leaders lack. More recently, this approach is being used to predict leader emergence. The following traits have been identified as those that predict leader emergence when there is no formal leader: high intelligence, high needs for dominance, high self-motivation, and socially perceptive.<ref>Hughes, R. L.; Ginnett, R. C.; Curphy, G. J. (2009). ''Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience'' (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Another leader-focused approached is the ''behavioral approach'', which focuses on the behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders. There are two categories of leadership behaviors: ''[[consideration and initiating structure]]''. Behaviors associated with the category of consideration include showing subordinates they are valued and that the leader cares about them. An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when problems arise in or out of the office. Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include facilitating the task performance of groups. One example of an initiating structure behavior is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals. The final leader-focused approach is ''[[Power (social and political)|power]] and [[social influence|influence]]''. To be most effective, a leader should be able to influence others to behave in ways that are in line with the organization's mission and goals. How influential a leader can be depends on their social power – their potential to influence their subordinates. There are six bases of power: [[French and Raven's bases of power|French and Raven's classic five bases]] of coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent power, plus informational power. A leader can use several different tactics to influence others within an organization. These include: rational [[persuasion]], inspirational appeal, consultation, [[ingratiation]], exchange, personal appeal, coalition, legitimating, and pressure.<ref name="Jex, S. M. 2008">Jex, S. M.; Britt, T. W. (2008). ''Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach'' (2nd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.</ref>

====Contingency-focused approaches====
Of the 3 approaches to leadership, contingency-focused approaches have been the most prevalent over the past 30 years. Contingency-focused theories base a leader's effectiveness on their ability to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly.<ref name="Jex, S. M. 2008" /> These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately "read" a situation and skillfully employ a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand. A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency-focused theories will follow.{{According to whom|date=October 2023}}

The [[Fiedler contingency model]] holds that a leader's effectiveness depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. [[Path–goal theory]] asserts that the role of the leader is to help their subordinates achieve their goals. To effectively do this, leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet the situational factors. The situational factors are a product of the characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment. The [[leader–member exchange theory]] (LMX) focuses on how leader–subordinate relationships develop. Generally speaking, when a subordinate performs well or when there are positive exchanges between a leader and a subordinate, their relationship is strengthened, performance and job satisfaction are enhanced, and the subordinate will feel more commitment to the leader and the organization as a whole.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goleman |first= Daniel |title=Primal Leadership |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781578514861 |url-access=registration |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard Business School Press|isbn= 9781578514861 }}</ref> [[Vroom-Yetton decision model|Vroom-Yetton-Jago model]] focuses on decision-making with respect to a ''feasibility set.''<ref name="Jex, S. M. 2008" />

====Organizational development====
{{Main|Organization development}}
I-O psychologists may also become involved with organizational change, a process which some call [[organizational development]] (OD). Tools used to advance organization development include the '''survey-feedback technique'''. The technique involves the periodic assessment (via surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings. The results are conveyed to organizational stakeholders, who may want to take the organization in a particular direction. Another tool is the '''[[team-building]] technique'''. Because many if not most tasks within an organization are completed by small groups and/or teams, team building can become important for organizational success. In order to enhance a team's [[morale]] and [[problem-solving]] skills, I-O psychologists help the groups to improve their [[self-confidence]], group cohesiveness, and working effectiveness.<ref name="schultz">
{{cite book |first1=Duane P. |last1=Schultz |first2=Sydney |last2=Ellen |title= Psychology and Work Today: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology |edition=10th |date=2010 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-205-68358-1}}
</ref>{{request quotation|date=April 2023}}

===Work–nonwork interface===

An important topic in I-O is the connection between people’s working and nonworking lives. Two concepts are particularly relevant. [[Work–family conflict]] is the incompatibility between the job and family life.<ref>Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(2), 249–276.</ref> Conflict can occur when stressful experiences in one domain spillover into the other, such as someone coming home in a bad mood after having a difficult day at work. It can also occur when there are time conflicts, such as having a work meeting at the same time as a child’s doctor’s appointment.

[[Work–family enrichment]] (also called work–family facilitation) occurs when one domain provides benefits to the other.<ref>Hill, E. (2005). Work-family facilitation and conflict, working fathers and mothers, work-family stressors and support. Journal of Family Issues, 26(6), 793–819.</ref>  For example, a spouse might assist with a work task or a supervisor might offer assistance with a family problem.

===Relation to organizational behavior and human resource management===

I-O psychology and [[organizational behavior]] researchers have sometimes investigated similar topics.<ref>Miner, J.(2006) ''Organizational Behavior 3: Historical Origins, Theoretical Foundations, and the Future''. Wiley.</ref> The overlap has led to some confusion regarding how the two disciplines differ.<ref>Jex, S. M.; Britt, T.W. (2008). ''Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach'' (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.</ref> Sometimes there has been confusion within organizations regarding the practical duties of I-O psychologists and  [[human resource management|human resource management specialists]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.findmypathway.com/blog/human-resources-vs-organisational-psychology/ |title=Human Resources vs Organisational Psychology |date=2018-10-21 |work=Find My Pathway |access-date=2018-10-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guest |first=David E. |date=1994 |title=Organizational psychology and human resource management: Towards a european approach |journal=European Work and Organizational Psychologist |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=251–270 |doi=10.1080/13594329408410488 |issn=0960-2003}}</ref>

==As an occupation==

===Training===

The minimum requirement for working as an IO psychologist is a master's degree. Normally, this degree requires about two to three years of postgraduate work to complete. Of all the degrees granted in IO psychology each year, approximately two-thirds are at the master's level.<ref name="schultz" />{{rp|page=18}}
 
A comprehensive list of US and Canadian master's and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).<ref name="siop.org">{{cite web |url= http://my.siop.org/GTP |title= GTP |work= My.SIOP.org |access-date= December 31, 2018 |archive-date= January 7, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190107160826/http://my.siop.org/GTP |url-status= dead }}</ref> Admission into IO psychology PhD programs is highly competitive; many programs accept only a small number of applicants each year.
 
There are graduate degree programs in IO psychology outside of the US and Canada. The SIOP web site lists some of them.<ref name="siop.org" />

In Australia, organisational psychologists must be accredited by the [[Australian Psychological Society]] (APS). To become an organisational psychologist, one must meet the criteria for a general psychologist's licence: three years studying bachelor's degree in psychology, 4th-year honours degree or postgraduate diploma in psychology, and two-year full-time supervised practice plus 80 hours of professional development. There are other avenues available, such as a two-year supervised training program after honours (i.e. 4+2 pathway), or one year of postgraduate coursework and practical placements followed by a one-year supervised training program (i.e. 5+1 pathway).<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.findmypathway.com/psychology/psychology-internships/ |title=Psychology Internship Pathways |work=Find My Pathway |access-date=2018-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.psychologyboard.gov.au/Registration/Provisional.aspx |publisher=Psychology Board of Australia |title=Provisional registration |work=PsychologyBoard.gov.au |access-date=2018-10-25}}</ref> After this, psychologists can elect to specialise as Organisational Psychologists in Australia.

===Competencies===

There are many different sets of competencies for different specializations within IO psychology and IO psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists. For example, an IO psychologist specializing in selection and recruiting should have expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while they might not need to know much about executive coaching. Some IO psychologists specialize in specific areas of consulting whereas others tend to generalize their areas of expertise. There are basic skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to be an effective IO psychologist, which include being an independent learner, [[interpersonal skills]] (e.g., listening skills), and general consultation skills (e.g., skills and knowledge in the problem area).<ref>Cummings, T. G.; Worley, C. G. (2015). ''Organization Development and Change''. Boston: Cengage.</ref>

===Job outlook===

''U.S. News & World Report'' lists I-O Psychology as the third best science job, with a strong job market in the U.S.<ref>''U.S. News & World Report'' (2021). Industrial Psychologist Overview. https://money.usnews.com/careers/best-jobs/industrial-psychologist {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808153549/https://money.usnews.com/careers/best-jobs/industrial-psychologist |date=August 8, 2021 }}</ref> 
In the 2020 SIOP salary survey,<ref>Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (2020). "Income & Employment Report 2020". Bowling Green, Ohio: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.</ref> the median annual salary for a PhD in IO psychology was $125,000; for a master's level IO psychologist was $88,900. The highest paid PhD IO psychologists were self-employed consultants who had a median annual income of $167,000. The highest paid in private industry worked in IT ($153,000), retail ($151,000) and healthcare ($147,000). The lowest earners were found in state and local government positions, averaging approximately $100,000, and in academic positions in colleges and universities that do not award doctoral degrees, with median salaries between $80,000 and $94,000.

== Ethical principles ==
An IO psychologist, whether an academic, consultant or an employee of an organization, is expected to maintain high [[Medical ethics|ethical]] standards.<ref>Biech, E. (ed.) (2007). "The ethics of the business". ''The Business of Consulting: The Basics and Beyond'' (pp. 231–244). San Francisco, California: Pfeiffer.</ref> SIOP encourages its members to follow the [[APA Ethics Code]].<ref>Blackman, G. (2023). Committee for the advancement of professional ethics (CAPE). Retrieved from https://www.siop.org/Career-Center/Professional-Ethics#apa</ref> With more organizations becoming global, it is important that when an IO psychologist works outside their home country, the psychologist is aware of rules, regulations, and cultures of the organizations and countries in which the psychologist works, while also adhering to the ethical standards set at home.<ref>Mobley, W. H. (2008). "Rules of thumb for international consultants". In Hedge, J. W.; Borman, W. C. (eds.). ''The I/O Consultant: Advice and Insights for Building a Successful Career'' (pp. 309–314). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref>Lowman, R. L. (2018). Ethical issues and standards in research and applications of industrial, work and organizational psychology. In D. S. Ones, N. Anderson, C. Viswesvaran, & H. K. Sinangil (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology: Personnel psychology and employee Performance. (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp.39–51). SAGE Publications.</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Applied psychology]]
* [[Behavioral risk management]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Employment law]]
* [[European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology]]
* [[Fail fast (business)]]
* [[Human resources development]]
* [[Human resource management]]
* [[Individual psychological assessment]]
* [[Industrial Revolution]]
* [[Industrial sociology]]
* [[Kick the cat]]
* [[Kiss up kick down]]
* [[Machiavellianism in the workplace]]
* [[Mechanization]]
* [[Narcissism in the workplace]]
* [[Occupational stress]]
* [[Occupational safety and health]]
* [[Occupational health psychology]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]
* [[Organizational learning]]
* [[Organizational socialization]]
* [[Outline of psychology]]
* [[Personnel psychology]]
* [[Psychopathy in the workplace]]
* [[Quality of working life]]
* [[Society for Occupational Health Psychology]]
* [[Systems psychology]]
}}

==References==
;Footnotes
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Anderson, N.; Ones, D. S.; Sinangil, H. K.; Viswesvaran, C. (eds.). (2002). ''Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology, Volume 1: Personnel Psychology''. Thousand Oaks, California: [[SAGE Publications]]
* Anderson, N.; Ones, D. S.; Sinangil, H. K.; Viswesvaran, C. (eds.). (2002). ''Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology, Volume 2: Organizational Psychology''. SAGE Publications
* Borman, W. C.; Ilgen, D. R.; Klimoski, R. J. (eds.). (2003). ''Handbook of psychology: Vol 12 Industrial and organizational psychology''. Hoboken, New Jersey: [[John Wiley & Sons]].
* Borman, W. C.; Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). "Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance". In: Schmitt, N.; Borman, W. C. (eds.). ''Personnel Selection''. San Francisco: [[Jossey-Bass]] (pp.&nbsp;71–98).
* Bryan, L. L. K.; Vinchur, A. J. (2012). "A history of industrial and organizational psychology". Kozlowski, S. W. J. (ed.). ''The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology'' (pp.&nbsp;22–75). New York: [[Oxford University Press]].
* Campbell, J. P.; Gasser, M. B.; Oswald, F. L. (1996). "The substantive nature of job performance variability". In Murphy, K. R. (ed.). ''Individual Differences and Behavior in Organizations'' (pp.&nbsp;258–299). Jossey-Bass.
* Copley, F. B. (1923). ''Frederick W. Taylor: Father of Scientific Management'', Vols. I and II. New York: Taylor Society.
* Dunnette, M. D. (ed.). (1976). ''Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology''. Chicago: [[Rand McNally]].
* Dunnette, M. D.; Hough, L. M. (eds.). (1991). ''Handbook of Industrial/Organizational Psychology'' (4 Volumes). Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press.
* Eunson, Baden: ''Behaving – Managing Yourself and Others.'' McGraw-Hill, Sidney 1987.
* Guion, R.M. (1998). ''Assessment, Measurement and Prediction for Personnel Decisions''. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
* Hunter, J. E.; Schmidt, F. L. (1990). ''Methods of Meta-analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings''. Newbury Park, California: SAGE Publications.
* Jones, Ishmael (2008). ''The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture''. New York: Encounter Books.
* Koppes, L. L. (ed.). (2007). ''Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
* Lant, T. K. "Organizational Cognition and Interpretation". In Baum (ed)., ''The Blackwell Companion to Organizations''. Oxford: [[Blackwell Publishers]].
* Lowman, R. L. (ed.). (2002). ''The California School of Organizational Studies Handbook of Organizational Consulting Psychology: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory, Skills and Techniques''. Jossey-Bass.
* Rogelberg, S. G. (ed.). (2002). ''Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
* Sackett, P. R.; Wilk, S. L. (1994). "Within group norming and other forms of score adjustment in pre-employment testing". ''American Psychologist'', 49, 929–954.
* Schmidt, F. L.; Hunter, J. E. (1998). "The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings". ''Psychological Bulletin'', 124, 262–274.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090802103848/http://psychology.uwo.ca/csiop/ Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology]
* [http://dop.bps.org.uk/ British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology's (DOP) website]
* [http://www.siopsa.org.za/ Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa]
* [https://eaohp.org  European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology]
* [[European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology]]
* [http://www.siop.org Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology]
* [https://www.alliancefororganizationalpsychology.com/ Alliance for Organizational Psychology]

{{Wikiquote}}

{{Aspects of organizations}}
{{Psychology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Industrial and Organizational Psychology}}
[[Category:Industrial and organizational psychology| ]]
[[Category:Applied psychology]]
[[Category:Behavioural sciences]]
[[Category:Systems psychology]]
[[Category:Workplace|psych]]