Editing Ideology

{{Short description|Set of beliefs or values}}

An '''ideology''' is a set of [[belief]]s or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain [[knowledge]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Honderich|first=Ted|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond|title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-866132-0|pages=392}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=ideology|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/ideology|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211122517/https://www.lexico.com/definition/ideology|archive-date=2020-02-11|website=Lexico}}</ref> in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones".<ref>[[Maurice Cranston|Cranston, Maurice]]. [1999] 2014. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/ideology-society Ideology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609170434/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ideology-society |date=2020-06-09 }}" (revised). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> Formerly applied primarily to [[Economy|economic]], [[Political philosophy|political]], or [[Religion|religious]] theories and policies, in a tradition going back to [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Politics,%20Ideology%20and%20Discourse.pdf|title=Politics, Ideology, and Discourse|last=van Dijk|first=T. A.|date=2006|website=Discourse in Society|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708194631/http://www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Politics,%20Ideology%20and%20Discourse.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-08|access-date=2019-01-28}}</ref>

The term was coined by [[Antoine Destutt de Tracy]], a [[French Enlightenment]] aristocrat and [[philosopher]], who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In [[political science]], the term is used in a [[Linguistic description|descriptive]] sense to refer to [[List of political ideologies|political belief systems]].<ref name=":1" />

== Etymology ==
[[File:Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy.png|thumb|[[Antoine Destutt de Tracy]] coined the term ''ideology''.]]
The term ''ideology'' originates from [[French language|French]] {{lang | fr | idéologie}}, itself coined from combining {{Langx|el|idéā|italic=yes}} ({{Langx|grc|[[wikt:ἰδέα|ἰδέα]]|label= none|lit= notion, pattern}}; close to the [[Lockean]] sense of [[idea#John Locke|''idea'']]) and ''[[-logy|-logíā]]'' ({{Langx|grc|[[wikt:-λογῐ́ᾱ|-λογῐ́ᾱ]]|label= none|lit= the study of}}).

== History ==
The term "ideology" and the system of ideas associated with it were developed in 1796 by [[Antoine Destutt de Tracy]] (1754-1836), who crystallised his ideas while in prison (November 1793 to October 1794) pending trial during the [[Reign of Terror]] of {{circa | 1793}} to July 1794. While imprisoned he read the works of Locke and [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]].<ref>{{cite book|last1= Vincent|first1= Andrew|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA1|title= Modern Political Ideologies|date= 2009|publisher= John Wiley & Sons|isbn= 978-1-4443-1105-1|page= 1|language= en|access-date= 7 May 2020|archive-date= 3 August 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200803163747/https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA1|url-status= live}}</ref>

Hoping to form a secure foundation for the [[Human science|moral]] and [[political science]]s, Tracy devised the term for a "science of ideas", basing such upon two things: (1) the [[Sensation and perception psychology|sensations]] that people experience as they interact with the material world; and (2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. Tracy conceived of ''ideology'' as a [[liberal philosophy]] that would defend [[individual liberty]], [[property]], [[free markets]], and constitutional limits on state [[political power|power]]. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology is the most generic term because the 'science of ideas' also contains the study of their expression and deduction.<ref name="kennedy" /> The [[Fall of Maximilien Robespierre|coup d'état]] that overthrew [[Maximilien Robespierre]] in July 1794 allowed Tracy to pursue his work.<ref name="kennedy">{{cite journal |last= Kennedy |first= Emmet |date= Jul–Sep 1979 |title= "Ideology" from Destutt De Tracy to Marx |journal= Journal of the History of Ideas |volume= 40 |issue= 3 |pages= 353–368 |jstor= 2709242 |doi= 10.2307/2709242 }}</ref>{{request quotation|date=January 2025}} Tracy reacted to the terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic regime of 1799 to 1815 as part of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]){{clarify | reason = The [[Reign of Terror]] of 1793 to 1794 preceded the [[Napoleonic Era]] (1799-1815)|date=January 2025}} by trying to work out a [[rational]] system of ideas to oppose the [[irrational]] mob-impulses that had nearly destroyed him.

A subsequent early source for the near-original meaning of ''ideology'' is [[Hippolyte Taine]]'s work on the [[Ancien Régime]], ''Origins of Contemporary France'' ({{langx | fr | Les Origines de la France Contemporaine}}) volume I (1875). He describes ''ideology'' as rather like teaching philosophy via the [[Socratic method]], though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Tracy but also with his [[milieu]], and includes Condillac as one of its precursors.

[[Napoleon Bonaparte]] (1769-1821) came to view ''ideology'' as a term of abuse, which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracy's ''[[Institut national]]''.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} According to [[Karl Mannheim]]'s historical reconstruction of the shifts in the meaning of ''ideology'', the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents as "the ideologues".{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} Tracy's major book, ''The Elements of Ideology'' ({{langx | fr | Élémens d'idéologie}}, published 1804-1815), was soon translated into major European languages.

In the century following Tracy's formulations, the term ''ideology'' moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. When post-Napoleonic governments adopted a [[reactionary]] stance, the concept influenced the Italian, Spanish and Russian thinkers who had begun to describe themselves as ''liberals'' and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activity in the early 1820s, including the [[Carbonari]] societies in France and Italy and the [[Decembrists in Russia]]. [[Karl Marx]] (1818-1883) adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he once described Tracy as a {{Langx|de|text=fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär|label= none}} (a "fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire").<ref>[[Antoine Destutt de Tracy|de Tracy, Antoine Destutt]]. [1801] 1817. ''Les Éléments d'idéologie'', (3rd ed.). p. 4, as cited in [[Karl Mannheim|Mannheim, Karl]]. 1929. "The problem of 'false consciousness.'" In ''Ideologie und Utopie''. 2nd footnote.</ref> The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting ([[euphemism treadmill]]), and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing [[political opinions]] and views of [[social group]]s.<ref>[[Terry Eagleton|Eagleton, Terry]] (1991) ''Ideology. An introduction'', Verso, p. 2</ref> While Marx situated the term within [[class struggle]] and domination,<ref>Tucker, Robert C (1978). ''The Marx-Engels Reader'', W. W. Norton & Company, p. 3.</ref><ref>Marx, ''MER'', p. 154</ref> others believed it was a necessary part of [[structural functionalism|institutional functioning]] and [[social cohesion|social integration]].<ref>Susan Silbey, [http://www.credoreference.com/entry/cupsoc/ideology "Ideology"]. {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042925/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/cupsoc/ideology/0 |date= 2021-06-01 }}. ''Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology''.</ref>

In parallel with post-Soviet Russian ideas about the [[mono-ideology|mono-ideologies]] of (for example) [[monotheism]], [[Walter Brueggemann]] (1933- ) has examined "ideological extension" in historical religious/political contexts.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Brueggemann
 |first1               = Walter
 |author-link1         = Walter Brueggemann
 |editor-last1         = Brueggemann
 |editor-first1        = Walter
 |editor-link1         = Walter Brueggemann
 |editor-last2         = Stroup
 |editor-first2        = George W.
 |editor-link2         = George Stroup
 |date                 = 1 January 1998
 |chapter              = 'Exodus' in the Plural (Amos 9:7)
 |title                = Many Voices, One God: Being Faithful in a Pluralistic World : in Honor of Shirley Guthrie
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=9I0HRC46744C
 |location             = Louisville, Kentucky
 |publisher            = Westminster John Knox Press
 |pages                = 16, 28
 |isbn                 = 9780664257576
 |access-date          = 6 January 2025
 |quote                = [...] ideological extension of the 'onlyness' of Yahweh to include the 'onlyness' of Israel, which I shall term ''mono-ideology''. [...] As Deuteronomy is a main force for mono-ideology in ancient Judaism, so it is possible to conclude that Calvinism has been a primary force for mono-ideology in modern Christian history because of its insistence upon God's sovereignty, which is very often allied with socioeconomic-political hegemony.
}} 
</ref>

==Definitions and analysis==
There are many different kinds of ideologies, including [[politics|political]], [[Social issues|social]], [[epistemological]], and [[ethics|ethical]]. Recent analysis tends to posit that ''ideology'' is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent, repeated patterns through the [[Subjectivity|subjective]] ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further [[thought]] grows. The belief in an ideology can range from passive acceptance up to fervent advocacy. Definitions, such as by [[Manfred Steger]] and [[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]], emphasize both the issue of patterning and [[Contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] claims to truth. They wrote: "Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps help people navigate the complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth."<ref>[[Paul James (academic)|James, Paul]], and [[Manfred Steger]]. 2010. [https://www.academia.edu/4510893 ''Globalization and Culture, Vol. 4: Ideologies of Globalism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429234210/https://www.academia.edu/4510893/Globalization_and_Culture_Vol._4_Ideologies_of_Globalism_2010_ |date=2020-04-29 }}. London: [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]].</ref>

Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of ''[[systematic ideology]]'' in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who attempt to explore the relationships between ideology and [[social system]]s.{{Example needed|date=February 2019}} David W. Minar describes six different ways the word ''ideology'' has been used:<ref>Minar, David W. 1961. "Ideology and Political Behavior." ''[[Midwest Journal of Political Science]]'' 5(4):317–31. {{doi|10.2307/2108991}}. {{JSTOR|2108991}}.</ref>
# As a collection of certain ideas with certain kinds of ''content'', usually normative;
# As the ''form or [[internal logic]]al structure'' that ideas have within a set;
# By the role ideas play in ''[[Human social interaction|human-social interaction]]'';
# By the role ideas play in the ''[[Organizational structure|structure of an organization]]'';
# As meaning, whose purpose is ''[[persuasion]]''; and
# As the ''locus'' of [[social interaction]].

For Willard A. Mullins, an ''ideology'' should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of ''[[utopia]]'' and ''historical myth''. An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics:<ref>Mullins, Willard A. 1972. "On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science." ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' 66(2):498–510. {{doi|10.2307/1957794}}.</ref>
# it must have power over [[cognition]];
# it must be capable of guiding one's [[evaluation]]s;
# it must provide guidance towards action; and
# it must be logically coherent.

[[Terry Eagleton]] outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology:<ref name=":2">[[Terry Eagleton|Eagleton, Terry]]. 1991. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk2h8zoHfcIC Ideology: An Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042911/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk2h8zoHfcIC&hl=en |date=2021-06-01 }}''. [[Verso Books|Verso]]. {{ISBN|0-86091-319-8}}.</ref>
# The process of production of meanings, signs and values in social life
# A body of ideas characteristic of a particular social group or class
# Ideas that help legitimate a dominant political power
# False ideas that help legitimate a dominant political power
# Systematically distorted communication
# Ideas that offer a position for a subject
# Forms of thought motivated by social interests
# Identity thinking
# Socially necessary illusion
# The conjuncture of [[discourse]] and power
# The medium in which conscious social actors make sense of their world
# Action-oriented sets of beliefs
# The confusion of linguistic and phenomenal reality
# [[Semiotics|Semiotic]] closure<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|197}}
# The indispensable medium in which individuals live out their relations to a [[social structure]]
# The process that converts social life to a natural reality

German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the ideology concept".<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110701015904/http://www.ideologieforschung.de/web/Christian_Duncker.html Christian Duncker]" (in German). ''Ideologie Forschung''. 2006.</ref> In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of [[epistemology]] and history, defining ''ideology'' in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly lay claim to absolute truth.

===Marxist interpretation===
[[File:Karl Marx 001 (3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Karl Marx]] posits that a society's dominant ideology is integral to its superstructure.]]
Marx's analysis sees ideology as a system of false consciousness that arises from the economic relationships, reflecting and perpetuating the interests of the dominant class.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |date=1974 |title=The German Ideology. [Students Edition] |chapter=I. Feuerbach: Opposition of the Materialist and Idealist Outlooks |pages=64{{hyphen}}68 |publisher=Lawrence & Wishart |isbn=9780853152170}}</ref>

In the Marxist [[base and superstructure]] model of society, ''base'' denotes the [[relations of production]] and [[modes of production]], and ''superstructure'' denotes the [[dominant ideology]] (i.e. religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling [[Class interest|class-interests]] determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the [[ruling class]] control the [[means of production]]. For example, in a [[feudal]] [[mode of production]], religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as [[liberalism]] and [[social democracy]] dominate. Hence the great importance of ideology justifies a society and politically confuses the alienated groups of society via [[false consciousness]]. Some explanations have been presented. [[Antonio Gramsci]] uses [[cultural hegemony]] to explain why the [[working-class]] have a false ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued: "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production."<ref>{{cite book|last=Marx|first=Karl|title="The German Ideology: Part I", The Marx-Engels Reader 2nd ed.|year=1978a|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|location=New York}}</ref>

The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the [[sociology of knowledge]],<ref>In this discipline, there are lexical disputes over the meaning of the word "ideology" ("false consciousness" as advocated by Marx, or rather "false position" of a statement in itself is correct but irrelevant in the context in which it is produced, as in [[Max Weber]]'s opinion): {{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|title=Eleggibilità più ampia senza i paletti del peculato d'uso? Un'occasione (perduta) per affrontare il tema delle leggi ad personam|journal=Diritto&Giustizia Edizione Online|date=2005|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89394794|access-date=|archive-date=2016-03-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160801/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89394794|url-status=}}</ref> viz. [[Karl Mannheim]], [[Daniel Bell]], and [[Jürgen Habermas]] et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed and progressed from the "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including [[Marxism]]) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist [[Pierre Bourdieu]]. [[Slavoj Žižek]] and the earlier [[Frankfurt School]] added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious but also [[unconscious mind|unconscious]] ideas.

=== Ideology and the commodity (Debord) ===
The French Marxist theorist [[Guy Debord]], founding member of the [[Situationist International]], argued that when the commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.e. when the process of [[commodification]] has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of society propagated by the commodity (as it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of [[exchange value]]), colonizes all of life and reduces society to a mere representation, [[The Society of the Spectacle]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Society of the Spectacle|publisher=Zone Books|author=Guy Debord|year=1995}}</ref>

=== Unifying agents (Hoffer) ===
The American philosopher [[Eric Hoffer]] identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology:<ref name=":3">[[Eric Hoffer|Hoffer, Eric]]. 1951. ''[[The True Believer]]''. [[Harper Perennial]]. p. 91, ''[[et seq]].''</ref>

# Hatred: "Mass movements can rise and spread without a [[God]], but never without belief in a [[devil]]."<ref name=":3" /> The "ideal devil" is a foreigner.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|93}}
# Imitation: "The less satisfaction we derive from being ourselves, the greater is our desire to be like others…the more we mistrust our judgment and luck, the more are we ready to follow the example of others."<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|101–2}}
# Persuasion: The proselytizing zeal of propagandists derives from "a passionate search for something not yet found more than a desire to bestow something we already have."<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|110}}
# Coercion: Hoffer asserts that violence and [[fanaticism]] are interdependent. People forcibly converted to [[Islam]]ic or [[communist]] beliefs become as fanatical as those who did the forcing. He says: "It takes fanatical faith to rationalize our cowardice."<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|107–8}}
# Leadership: Without the leader, there is no movement. Often the leader must wait long in the wings until the time is ripe. He calls for sacrifices in the present, to justify his vision of a breathtaking future. The skills required include: audacity, brazenness, iron will, fanatical conviction; passionate hatred, cunning, a delight in symbols; ability to inspire blind faith in the masses; and a group of able [[lieutenant]]s.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|112–4}} [[Charlatan]]ism is indispensable, and the leader often imitates both friend and foe, "a single-minded fashioning after a model." He will not lead followers towards the "[[Promised Land|promised land]]", but only "away from their unwanted selves".<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|116–9}}
# Action: Original thoughts are suppressed, and unity encouraged, if the masses are kept occupied through great projects, marches, exploration and industry.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|120–1}}
# Suspicion: "There is prying and spying, tense watching and a tense awareness of being watched." This pathological mistrust goes unchallenged and encourages [[conformity]], not [[dissent]].<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|124}}

===Ronald Inglehart===

[[Ronald Inglehart]] of the [[University of Michigan]] is author of the [[World Values Survey]], which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing 90% of global population. Results indicate that where people live is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East, people prefer traditional beliefs and are less tolerant of liberal values. [[Christianity in Europe|Protestant Europe]], at the other extreme, adheres more to secular beliefs and liberal values. Alone among high-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity.

==Political ideologies==
{{See also|List of political ideologies}}
In [[political science]], a political ideology is a certain ethical set of [[ideal (ethics)|ideals]], [[principle]]s, [[doctrine]]s, [[mythology|myths]], or [[symbol]]s of a [[social movement]], [[institution]], [[social class|class]], or large group that explains how [[society]] should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain [[social order]]. Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the [[economy]], the [[government]], the [[environmentalism|environment]], [[education]], [[health care]], [[labor law]], [[criminal law]], the [[justice system]], [[social security]] and [[social welfare|welfare]], [[Public administration|public policy and administration]], [[foreign policy]], [[rights]], [[freedoms]] and [[duties]], [[citizenship]], [[immigration]], [[culture]] and [[national identity]], [[military]] administration, and [[religion]].

Political ideologies have two dimensions:
# Goals: how society should work; and
# Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement.
A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate [[power (sociology)|power]] and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best [[form of government]] (e.g., [[democracy]], [[demagogy]], [[theocracy]], [[caliphate]] etc.), scope of government (e.g. [[authoritarianism]], [[libertarianism]], [[federalism]], etc.) and the best [[economic system]] (e.g. [[capitalism]], [[socialism]], etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, ''socialism'' may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age,<ref>[[Daniel Bell|Bell, D.]] 2000. ''[[The End of Ideology|The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties]]'' (2nd ed.)''.'' Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]]. p. 393.</ref> in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view is often associated with [[Francis Fukuyama]]'s writings on the ''[[end of history]]''.<ref>[[Francis Fukuyama|Fukuyama, Francis]]. 1992. ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]''. New York: [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]. p. xi.</ref> Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of [[human resource management]]) as ongoingly "generating ideology".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nienhueser |first1=Werner |date=October 2011 |title=Empirical Research on Human Resource Management as a Production of Ideology |journal=Management Revue |publisher=[[Nomos Publishing House|Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG]] |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=367–393 |doi=10.5771/0935-9915-2011-4-367 |issn=0935-9915 |quote=[...] current empirical research in HRM is generating ideology. |doi-access=free |jstor=41783697 |s2cid=17746690}}</ref>

There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the [[political spectrum]] (e.g. [[left-wing politics|left]], [[center (politics)|center]], or [[right-wing politics|right]]). They may also be distinguished by [[Single-issue politics|single issues]] around which they may be built (e.g. [[civil libertarianism]], [[Pro-Europeanism|support]] or [[Euroscepticism|opposition to European integration]], [[Marijuana political parties|legalization of marijuana]]). They may also be distinguished by [[political strategy|political strategies]] (e.g. [[populism]], [[Personalist dictator|personalism]]). The classification of political ideology is difficult, however, due to [[Cultural relativism|cultural relativity]] in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatism]] much of the world calls [[liberalism]] or [[neoliberalism]]"; a [[conservatism in Finland]] would be labeled [[socialism in the United States]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ribuffo |first=Leo P. |author-link=Leo P. Ribuffo |date=January 2011 |title=Twenty Suggestions for Studying the Right Now that Studying the Right Is Trendy |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/409734 |journal=[[Historically Speaking (journal)|Historically Speaking]] |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=2–6 |doi=10.1353/hsp.2011.0013 |issn=1944-6438 |s2cid=144367661}}</ref>

Philosopher [[Michael Oakeshott]] defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in the tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ''ideologies'' from [[Political philosophy|political ''philosophies'']].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blattberg |first=Charles |date=2009 |title=Political Philosophies and Political Ideologies |url=https://philpapers.org/archive/BLAPPA-2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042926/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1755117 |archive-date=2021-06-01 |journal=[[Public Affairs Quarterly]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=193–217 |ssrn=1755117 |s2cid=142824378 |doi=10.1515/9780773576636-002|isbn=978-0-7735-7663-6 }}</ref>

Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens the commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a [[Postmodernism|post-modernist]] trap".<ref>{{cite book|last=Žižek|first=Slavoj|author-link=Slavoj Žižek|title=The Sublime Object of Ideology|date=2008|publisher=[[Verso Books|Verso]]|isbn=978-1-84467-300-1|edition=2nd|location=London|pages=xxxi, 25–27}}</ref> [[Peter Sloterdijk]] advanced the same idea already in 1988.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sloterdijk |first=Peter |date=1988 |title=Critique of Cynical Reason |url=https://archive.org/details/critiqueofcynica00slot |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-0-8166-1586-5}}</ref>

Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically [[Heritability|heritable]].<ref>[[Thomas J. Bouchard Jr.|Bouchard, Thomas J.]], and [[Matt McGue]]. 2003. "[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/neu.10160 Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences (ePDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723113707/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/neu.10160 |date=2020-07-23 }}." ''[[Journal of Neurobiology]]'' 54(1):44–45. {{doi|10.1002/neu.10160}}. {{PMID|12486697}}</ref><ref>Cloninger, et al. (1993).</ref><ref>Eaves, L. J., and [[Hans Eysenck|H. J. Eysenck]]. 1974. "[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v249/n5454/abs/249288a0.html Genetics and the development of social attitudes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327080316/http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v249/n5454/abs/249288a0.html |date=2017-03-27 }}." ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 249:288–89. {{doi|10.1038/249288a0}}.</ref><ref>[[John Alford (professor)|Alford, John]], Carolyn Funk, and [[John Hibbing|John R. Hibbing]]. 2005. "[http://www.uky.edu/AS/PoliSci/Peffley/pdf/Alford,%20et%20al%202005%20APSR%20Genetics.pdf Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809045236/http://www.uky.edu/AS/PoliSci/Peffley/pdf/Alford,%20et%20al%202005%20APSR%20Genetics.pdf |date=2017-08-09 }}." ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' 99(2):153–167.</ref><ref>[[Pete Hatemi|Hatemi, Peter K.]], [[Sarah Medland|Sarah E. Medland]], Katherine I. Morley, [[Andrew C. Heath]], and Nicholas G. Martin. 2007. "[https://genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/Hatemi501Published.pdf The genetics of voting: An Australian twin study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720165619/http://www.genepi.qimr.edu.au/contents/p/staff/Hatemi501Published.pdf |date=2008-07-20 }}." ''[[Behavior Genetics (journal)|Behavior Genetics]]'' 37(3):435–448. {{doi|10.1007/s10519-006-9138-8}}.</ref><ref>[[Pete Hatemi|Hatemi, Peter K.]], J. Hibbing, J. Alford, N. Martin, and L. Eaves. 2009. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180337_Is_There_a_Party_in_Your_Genes Is there a 'party' in your genes?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601042914/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180337_Is_There_a_Party_in_Your_Genes |date=2021-06-01 }}" ''[[Political Research Quarterly]]'' 62 (3):584–600. {{doi|10.1177/1065912908327606}}. {{SSRN|1276482}}.</ref><ref>Settle, Jaime E., [[Christopher Dawes (author)|Christopher T. Dawes]], and [[James H. Fowler]]. 2009. "[http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf The heritability of partisan attachment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616133630/http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/heritability_of_partisan_attachment.pdf |date=2010-06-16 }}." ''[[Political Research Quarterly]]'' 62(3):601–13. {{doi|10.1177/1065912908327607}}.</ref>

===Ideology and state===
{{main|Ideocracy}}
When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ''ideocracy''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC6FAAAAMAAJ|title=Jaroslaw Piekalkiewicz, Alfred Wayne Penn. Politics of Ideocracy|isbn=978-0-7914-2297-7|last1=Piekalkiewicz|first1=Jaroslaw|last2=Penn|first2=Alfred Wayne|year=1995|publisher=State University of New York Press |access-date=2020-08-27|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413211428/https://books.google.com/books?id=xC6FAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for the reigning social order.

In ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]'', [[Crane Brinton]] said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime.<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 2." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as [[Vladimir Lenin]] and [[Robespierre]] may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries.<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 6." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> This stage is soon followed by [[Thermidor]], a reining back of [[revolutionary]] enthusiasm under [[Pragmatism|pragmatists]] like Napoleon and [[Joseph Stalin]], who bring "[[Return to normalcy|normalcy]] and equilibrium".<ref>[[Crane Brinton|Brinton, Crane]]. 1938. "Chapter 8." ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''.</ref> Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas>[[Fanaticism|fanatics]]>practical men of action") is reiterated by [[J. William Fulbright]],<ref>[[J. William Fulbright|Fulbright, J. William]]. 1967. ''The Arrogance of Power''. ch. 3–7.</ref> while a similar form occurs in [[Eric Hoffer]]'s ''[[The True Believer]]''.<ref>[[Eric Hoffer|Hoffer, Eric]]. 1951. ''[[The True Believer]]''. ch. 15–17.</ref>

==Epistemological ideologies==

Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant [[paradigm]] or [[mindset]] can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist [[James J. Gibson]] believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of [[self-awareness]] and [[cognition]] itself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibson |first1=James J. |title=The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception |date=1979 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> Linguist [[George Lakoff]] has proposed a [[cognitive science of mathematics]] wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lakoff |first1=George |title=Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics Into Being |date=2000 |publisher=Basic Books}}</ref>

[[Deep ecology]] and the modern [[ecology movement]] (and, to a lesser degree, [[Green parties]]) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madsen |first1=Peter |title=Deep Ecology |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/deep-ecology |website=Britannica |access-date=2021-04-10 |archive-date=2021-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413203553/https://www.britannica.com/topic/deep-ecology |url-status=live }}</ref> Some notable economically based ideologies include [[neoliberalism]], [[monetarism]], [[mercantilism]], [[mixed economy]], [[social Darwinism]], [[communism]], [[laissez-faire]] economics, and [[free trade]]. There are also current theories of safe trade and [[fair trade]] that can be seen as ideologies.

== Psychological explanations of ideology ==
A large amount of research in [[psychology]] is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology,<ref name="Jost2009">{{cite journal |last1=Jost |first1=John T. |author1-link=John Jost |last2=Federico |first2=Christopher M. |last3=Napier |first3=Jaime L. |date=January 2009 |title=Political Ideology: Its Structure, Functions, and Elective Affinities |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=307–337 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600 |pmid=19035826}}</ref><ref name="Schlenker2012">{{cite journal |last1=Schlenker |first1=Barry R. |last2=Chambers |first2=John R. |last3=Le |first3=Bonnie M. |date=April 2012 |title=Conservatives are happier than liberals, but why? Political ideology, personality, and life satisfaction |journal=[[Journal of Research in Personality]] |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=127–146 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2011.12.009}}</ref><ref name="Saucier2000">{{cite journal |last1=Saucier |first1=Gerard |author-link=Gerard Saucier |date=2000 |title=Isms and the structure of social attitudes. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=366–385 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.366 |pmid=10707341}}</ref> with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Greenberg |first1=Jeff |title=Handbook of experimental existential psychology |last2=Koole |first2=Sander Leon |last3=Pyszczynski |first3=Thomas A. |date=2004 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-59385-040-1 |location=New York}}</ref>{{Rp|page=269}} Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=269}}

Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of [[Interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid [[existential threat]], and maintain valued [[interpersonal relationship]]s.<ref name="jost2008">[[John Jost|Jost, John T.]], Alison Ledgerwood, and Curtis D. Hardin. 2008. "Shared reality, system justification, and the relational basis of ideological beliefs." pp. 171–186 in ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'' 2.</ref> The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to the adoption of system-justifying [[worldview]]s.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |author=Lee S. Dimin |title=Corporatocracy: A Revolution in Progress |year=2011 |pages=140}}</ref> Psychologists generally agree that [[personality traits]], individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common.<ref name=":5" />

[[Just-world theory]] posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as a sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=270–271}}

[[Terror management theory]] posits that ideology is used as a [[defence mechanism]] against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of [[self-esteem]] and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather the ideology that they are currently aware of.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=271}}

[[System justification theory]] posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing [[uncertainty]] and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=272}} According to system justification theory,<ref name="jost2008" /> ideologies reflect ([[Unconscious mind|unconscious]]) [[motivational processes]], as opposed to the view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking.<ref name="jost2008" />

== Ideology and the social sciences ==

=== Semiotic theory ===

According to semiotician [[Bob Hodge (linguist)|Bob Hodge]]:<ref>[[Bob Hodge (linguist)|Hodge, Bob]]. "[http://www.semioticon.com/seo/I/ideology.html# Ideology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905215511/http://www.semioticon.com/seo/I/ideology.html |date=2008-09-05 }}." ''Semiotics Encyclopedia Online''. Retrieved 12 June 2020.</ref><blockquote>[Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]]'s '[[episteme]]' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage, is too confined to verbal systems. '[[Worldview]]' is too [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]], '[[propaganda]]' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life.</blockquote>Authors such as [[Michael Freeden]] have also recently incorporated a [[semantics|semantic]] analysis to the study of ideologies.

=== Sociology ===
[[Sociology|Sociologists]] define ''ideology'' as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Sociology|last=Macionis|first=John J.|date=2010|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-205-74989-8|edition=13th|location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.|page=257|oclc=468109511}}</ref> Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to justify the systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies use a society's symbol system to organize social relations in a [[hierarchy]], with some social identities being superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed along through the society's major social institutions, such as the media, the family, education, and religion.<ref name=witt_2018>{{Cite book|title=SOC 2018|last=Witt|first=Jon|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2017|isbn=978-1-259-70272-3|edition=5th|location=[S.l.]|page=65|oclc=968304061}}</ref> As societies changed throughout history, so did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality.<ref name=":0" />

Sociological examples of ideologies include [[racism]], [[sexism]], [[heterosexism]], [[ableism]], and [[ethnocentrism]].<ref name=witt_2018 />

==Quotations==
* "We do not need…to believe in an ideology. All that is necessary is for each of us to develop our good human qualities. The need for a sense of universal responsibility affects every aspect of modern life." — [[Dalai Lama]]<ref>[[Matthew Bunson|Bunson, Matthew]], ed. 1997. ''The Dalai Lama's Book of Wisdom''. [[Ebury Publishing|Ebury Press]]. p. 180.</ref>
* "The function of ideology is to stabilize and perpetuate dominance through masking or illusion." — [[Sally Haslanger]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haslanger|first1=Sally|author1-link=Sally Haslanger|year=2017|title=I – Culture and Critique|journal=Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume|volume=91|pages=149–73|doi=10.1093/arisup/akx001|doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/116882|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
* "[A]n ideology differs from a simple opinion in that it claims to possess either the key to history, or the solution for all the 'riddles of the universe,' or the intimate knowledge of the hidden universal laws, which are supposed to rule nature and man." — [[Hannah Arendt]]<ref>[[Hannah Arendt|Arendt, Hannah]]. 1968. ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]].'' [[Harcourt (publisher)|Harcourt]]. p. 159.</ref>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* ''[[The Anatomy of Revolution]]''
* [[Belief#Belief systems]]
* [[Capitalism]]
* [[Dogma]]
* [[Feminism]]
* [[Hegemony]]
* [[-ism]]
* [[List of communist ideologies]]
* [[List of ideologies named after people]]
* [[Ideocracy]]
* [[Noble lie]]
* [[Politicisation]]
* [[Social criticism]]
* [[Socially constructed reality]]
* [[State collapse]]
* [[State ideology of the Soviet Union]]
* ''[[The True Believer]]''
* [[World Values Survey]]
* [[World view]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* [[Louis Althusser|Althusser, Louis]]. [1970] 1971. "[[Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses]]." In ''[[Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays]]''. Monthly Review Press {{ISBN|1-58367-039-4}}.
* Belloni, Claudio. 2013. ''Per la critica dell’ideologia:'' ''Filosofia e storia in Marx.'' Milan: Mimesis.
* [[Guy Debord|Debord, Guy]]. 1967 [[The Society of the Spectacle]]. Bureau of Public Secrets 2014 (Annotated Edition)
* Duncker, Christian 2006. ''Kritische Reflexionen Des Ideologiebegriffes''. {{ISBN|1-903343-88-7}}.
* —, ed. 2008. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20091213073427/http://ideologieforschung.de/web/Welcome.html Ideologiekritik Aktuell]." ''Ideologies Today'' 1''.'' London. {{ISBN|978-1-84790-015-9}}.
* [[Terry Eagleton|Eagleton, Terry]]. 1991. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk2h8zoHfcIC Ideology: An Introduction]''. [[Verso Books|Verso]]. {{ISBN|0-86091-319-8}}.
* [[Jacques Ellul|Ellul, Jacques]]. [1965] 1973. ''[[Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes]]'', translated by [[Konrad Kellen|K. Kellen]] and J. Lerner. New York: [[Random House]].
* [[Michael Freeden|Freeden, Michael]]. 1996. ''Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-829414-6}}
* [[Lewis Samuel Feuer|Feuer, Lewis S.]] 2010. ''Ideology and Ideologists.'' Piscataway, NJ: [[Transaction Publishers]].
* [[Peter Gries|Gries, Peter Hays]]. 2014. ''The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs''. Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]].
* Haas, Mark L. 2005. ''[http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-Clash-of-Ideologies-Middle-Eastern-Politics-and-American-Security-by-Mark-L-Haas.php The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics, 1789–1989]''. [[Cornell University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8014-7407-8}}.
* [[David Hawkes (professor of English)|Hawkes, David]]. 2003. ''Ideology'' (2nd ed.). [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|0-415-29012-0}}.
* [[Paul James (academic)|James, Paul]], and [[Manfred Steger]]. 2010. [https://www.academia.edu/4510893 ''Globalization and Culture, Vol. 4: Ideologies of Globalism'']. London: [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]].
* [[György Lukács|Lukács, Georg]]. [1967] 1919–1923. ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/history/index.htm History and Class Consciousness]'', translated by R. Livingstone. Merlin Press.
* [[Sinisa Malesevic|Malesevic, Sinisa]], and [[Iain McKenzie|Iain Mackenzie]], eds. ''Ideology after Poststructuralism''. London: [[Pluto Press]].
* [[Karl Mannheim|Mannheim, Karl]]. 1936. ''Ideology and Utopia.'' Routledge.
* [[Marx, Karl]]. [1845–46] 1932. ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/index.htm The German Ideology].''
* [[Kenneth Minogue|Minogue, Kenneth]]. 1985. ''Alien Powers: The Pure Theory of Ideology''. [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|0-312-01860-6}}.
* Minar, David W. 1961. "Ideology and Political Behavior." ''[[Midwest Journal of Political Science]]'' 5(4):317–331. {{doi|10.2307/2108991}}. {{JSTOR|2108991}}.
* Mullins, Willard A. 1972.:)) "On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science." ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' 66(2):498–510. {{doi|10.2307/1957794}}.
* [[Marius Ostrowski|Ostrowski, Marius S.]] 2022. ''[https://www.politybooks.com/bookdetail?book_slug=ideology--9781509540723 Ideology]''. Cambridge: [[Polity (publisher)|Polity]]. {{ISBN|978-1509540730}}.
* Owen, John. 2011. [http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-clash-of-ideas-in-world-politics-john-owen.php ''The Clash of Ideas in World Politics: Transnational Networks, States, and Regime Change, 1510–2010'']. [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-14239-4}}.
* [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. 2002. ''[[The Blank Slate|The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature]]''. New York: [[Penguin Group]]. {{ISBN|0-670-03151-8}}.
* {{ill|Marcello Sorce Keller|lt=Sorce Keller, Marcello|de||fr||it}}. 2007. "Why is Music so Ideological, Why Do Totalitarian States Take It So Seriously: A Personal View from History, and the Social Sciences." ''Journal of Musicological Research'' 26(2–3):91–122.
* Steger, Manfred B., and Paul James. 2013. "[https://www.academia.edu/4311113 Levels of Subjective Globalization: Ideologies, Imaginaries, Ontologies]." ''Perspectives on Global Development and Technology'' 12(1–2):17–40. {{doi|10.1163/15691497-12341240}}
* [[Jef Verschueren|Verschueren, Jef]]. 2012. ''Ideology in Language Use: Pragmatic Guidelines for Empirical Research''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-1-107-69590-0}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://truth-out.org/opinion/item/12972-the-perverts-guide-to-ideology-how-ideology-seduces-us-and-how-we-can-try-to-escape-it ''The Pervert's Guide to Ideology'': How Ideology Seduces Us – and How We Can (Try to) Escape It]
* [http://www.autodidactproject.org/guidideo.html Ideology Study Guide]
* [http://www.marx2mao.com/Other/LPOE70ii.html#s5 Louis Althusser's "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses"]

{{Political ideologies}}
{{navboxes
|list=
{{Ethics}}
{{World view}}
{{Social philosophy}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ideologies| ]]
[[Category:1790s neologisms]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]
[[Category:Concepts in social philosophy]]