Editing Hui people

{{Short description|Ethnoreligious Chinese-speaking ethnic group}}
{{Redirect|Hui Chinese|the group of dialects spoken on the borders of Anhui, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang|Huizhou Chinese||Hui (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Hui people
| native_name      = {{lang|zh|回族}}<br/>{{lang|zh-Arab|خُوِزُو}}
| image            = Hui man.jpg
| caption          = An elderly Hui man

| total            = '''11,377,914'''
| total_year       = 2020
| region1          = {{flag|China}}
| pop1             = 10,500,000
| ref1             = 
| region2          = {{flag|Singapore}}
| pop2             = <Unknown>
| region3          = {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| pop3             = <Unknown>
| region4          = {{flag|Taiwan}}
| pop4             = 60,000 (est.)
| region5          = {{flag|Myanmar}}
| pop5             = <Unknown>
| region6          = {{flag|Thailand}}
| pop6             = >3,247 (2000)
| region7          = {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
| pop7             = 67,000 (2016)
| region8          = {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| pop8             = 63,000 (2016)
| region9          = {{flag|Russia}}
| pop9             = 1,651 (2010)
| region10         = {{flag|Laos}}
| pop10            = 12,098 (2015)
| region11         = {{flag|Uzbekistan}}
| pop11            = 10,000 (2016)
| regions          = 
| languages        = Predominantly [[Mandarin Chinese]] and other [[Sinitic languages]]
| religions        = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]<ref>{{cite news|title=By choosing assimilation, China's Hui have become one of the world's most successful Muslim minorities|url=https://www.economist.com/news/china/21708274-choosing-assimilation-chinas-hui-have-become-one-worlds-most-successful-muslim|access-date=8 October 2016|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=8 October 2016|archive-date=7 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007185403/http://www.economist.com/news/china/21708274-choosing-assimilation-chinas-hui-have-become-one-worlds-most-successful-muslim|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alfaisalmag.com/?p=16608|title=الماتريدية وآثارها في الفكر الإنساني بدول طريق الحرير.. الصين نموذجا|work=Alfaisal Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://midad.com/article/221923/الحنفية-الماتريدية-في-بلاد-الصين|title=الحنفية الماتريدية في بلاد الصين|date=4 January 2020 |publisher=midad.com}}</ref>
| related          = [[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Bai people|Bai]], other 
[[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan peoples]] and [[Islam in China|Chinese Muslim communities]]
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Hui people
| c = 回族
| wuu = we zoh
| buc = Huòi-cŭk
| poj = Hôe-cok
| teo = Huê-tsôk
| h = Fui-tshuk
| j = wui4 zuk6
| y = wuìh juhk
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|ui|2|.|z|u|2}}
| xej = خُوِزُو
| zh-dungan = Хуэйзў
| p = Huízú
| tp = Hueí-zú
| w = Hui²-tsu²
| gr = Hweitzwu
| bpmf = ㄏㄨㄟˊ ㄗㄨˊ
| l = Islam ethnicity
}}

The '''Hui people'''{{efn|{{zh|c=回族|p=Huízú}}, [[Xiao'erjing]]: {{lang|zh-Arab|خُوِزُو}}, {{langx|dng|Хуэйзў}}}} are an East Asian [[ethnoreligious group]] predominantly composed of [[Islam in China|Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam]]. They are distributed throughout China, mainly in the [[Northwest China|northwestern provinces]] and in the [[Zhongyuan]] region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 [[Dungan people]] of [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]], the [[Panthays]] in [[Myanmar]], and many of the [[Chin Haw]]s in [[Thailand]] are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity.

The Hui were referred to as '''Hanhui'''{{efn|{{zh|c=汉回|p=hànhuí}}}} during the [[Qing dynasty]] to be distinguished from the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] Muslims, which were referred to as Chanhui.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Rong |year=2008 |title=Types of the Ethnic Relationships in Modern China |journal=Department of Sociology Institute of Sociology and Anthropology of Peking University |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |issn=1004-8804}}</ref>{{efn|{{zh|c=缠回|p=chánhuí}}}} The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] government also recognised the Hui as a branch of the [[Han Chinese]] rather than a separate ethnic group. In the [[National Assembly (Republic of China)|National Assembly of the Republic of China]], the Hui were referred to as [[1947 Chinese National Assembly election#Seats breakdown|Nationals in China proper with special convention]].<ref>Muslim Chinese : ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Gladney, Dru C. Cambridge, Mass,1996</ref> The Hui were referred to as '''Muslim Han people'''{{Efn|{{zh|c=汉人回教徒|p=hànrén huíjiàotú}}}} by Bai Chongxi, the Minister of National Defense of the Republic of China at the time and the founder of the [[Chinese Muslim Association]].<ref>{{Cite book |author= |title=白崇禧先生訪問紀錄(下冊) |publisher=中央研究院近代史研究所 |year=2005 |isbn=9789860459555 |pages=574}}</ref> Some scholars refer to this group as '''Han Chinese Muslims''','''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Onuma |first=Takahiro |title=250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing |publisher=Department of Islamic Area Studies, Center for Evolving Humanities, Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, The University of Tokyo |year=2009 |isbn=978-4-904039-09-0 |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=57}}</ref>'''{{Efn|{{zh|c=汉族穆斯林|p=hànzú mùsīlín}}}} '''Han Muslims''',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brose |first=Michael C. |year=2011 |title=Globalization and The Chinese Muslim Community in Southwest China |journal=Asia Pacific: Perspectives |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=61-80 |issn=2167-1699}}</ref>{{Efn|{{zh|c=汉穆|p=hànmù}}}} or '''Chinese Muslims''',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cieciura |first=Wlodzimierz |year=2018 |title=Chinese Muslims in Transregional Spaces of Mainland China, Taiwan, and Beyond in the Twentieth Century |journal=Review of Religion and Chinese Society |volume=5 |issue=2 |page=135-155 |doi=10.1163/22143955-00502002}}</ref>{{Efn|{{zh|c=华人穆斯林|p=huárén mùsīlín}}}} while others call them '''Chinese-speaking Muslims''' or '''Sino-Muslims'''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/816419264 |title=Liang an fen zhi: xue shu jian zhi, tu xiang xuan chuan yu zu qun zheng zhi (1945-2000) |publisher=Zhong yang yan jiu yuan jin dai shi yan jiu suo |year=2012 |isbn=978-986-03-3147-9 |editor-last=Yu |editor-first=Minling |edition= |location= |pages=395–428 |oclc=816419264}}</ref>

The Hui were officially recognised as an ethnic group by the [[China|People's Republic of China]] government in 1954.<ref>{{Cite web |title=中国民族 |url=https://www.gov.cn/test/2005-07/26/content_17366_2.htm |access-date=2024-11-06 |website=www.gov.cn}}</ref> The government defines the Hui people to include all historically Muslim communities not included in China's other ethnic groups; they are therefore distinct from other Muslim groups such as the [[Uyghurs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lipman|1997|p=xxiii}} or {{harvnb|Gladney|1996|pp=18–20}} Besides the Hui people, nine other officially recognized ethnic groups of PRC are considered predominantly Muslim. Those nine groups are defined mainly on linguistic grounds: namely, six groups speaking [[Turkic languages]] ([[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]], [[Salar people|Salars]], [[Chinese Tatars|Tatars]], [[Uyghurs]] and [[Uzbeks]]), two [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]]-speaking groups ([[Bonan people|Bonan]] and [[Dongxiangs|Dongxiang]]) and one [[Iranian languages|Iranian]]-speaking group ([[Tajiks in China|Tajiks]]).</ref> 

The Hui predominantly speak [[Varieties of Chinese|Chinese]],{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=20}} while using some [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] phrases.{{sfn|Dillon|2013|pp=[{{google books |id=3sddAgAAQBAJ |plainurl=y |page=154}} 154–]}} The Hui ethnic group is unique among Chinese ethnic minorities in that it is not associated with a non-[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic language]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lipman|1997|p=50}} Of course, many members of some other Chinese ethnic minorities don't speak their ethnic group's traditional language anymore and practically no [[Manchu people]] speak the [[Manchu language]] natively anymore; but even the Manchu language is well attested historically. Meanwhile, the ancestors of today's Hui people are thought to have been predominantly native Chinese speakers of [[Islam|Islamic]] religion since no later than the mid or early [[Ming dynasty]]. [i.e. the late 14th to late 16th centuries]</ref> The Hui have a distinct connection with [[Islamic culture]].{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=20}} For example, they follow [[Islamic dietary laws]] and reject the consumption of [[pork]], the most commonly consumed meat in China,{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=13}} and have therefore developed their own variation of [[Chinese Islamic cuisine|Chinese cuisine]]. They also have a traditional dress code, with some men wearing white caps ([[Taqiyah (cap)|taqiyah]]) and some women wearing [[Headscarf|headscarves]], as is the case in many [[Islamic culture]]s.{{Islam and China|groups}}

== Definition ==

=== Ancestry ===
Hui Muslims descend from European, [[Arabs]], [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] Persians, Mongols, Turkic Uyghurs and other Central Asian immigrants.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} Their ancestors were of [[Middle Eastern]], [[Central Asia]]n and East Asian origin, who spread Islam in the area. Several medieval Chinese dynasties, particularly the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], Song and [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]], witnessed foreign immigration from predominantly Muslim [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], with both dynasties{{which|date=February 2018}} welcoming foreign Muslim traders from these regions and appointing Central Asian officials. In subsequent centuries, the immigrants gradually spoke Chinese and settled down, eventually forming the Hui.{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p=210}}

===Genetics===
A study in 2004 calculated that 6.7 percent of Hui peoples' [[Mitochondrial DNA|matrilineal genetics]] have a [[Genetic history of Europe|West-Eurasian]] origin and 93.3% are [[Genetic history of East Asians|East-Eurasian]], reflecting historical records of the population's frequent intermarriage, especially with Mongol women.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17462512/ | pmid=17462512 | date=2007 | last1=Hong | first1=W. | last2=Chen | first2=S. | last3=Shao | first3=H. | last4=Fu | first4=Y. | last5=Hu | first5=Z. | last6=Xu | first6=A. | title=HLA class I polymorphism in Mongolian and Hui ethnic groups from Northern China | journal=Human Immunology | volume=68 | issue=5 | pages=439–448 | doi=10.1016/j.humimm.2007.01.020 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15317881">{{Cite journal|pmid=15317881|year=2004|last1=Yao|first1=Y. G.|title=Different matrilineal contributions to genetic structure of ethnic groups in the silk road region in china|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=21|issue=12|pages=2265–80|last2=Kong|first2=Q. P.|last3=Wang|first3=C. Y.|last4=Zhu|first4=C. L.|last5=Zhang|first5=Y. P.|doi=10.1093/molbev/msh238|doi-access=free}}</ref> Studies of the [[Ningxia]] and [[Guizhou]] Hui also found only minor genetic contributions from West-Eurasian populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhou|first1=Boyan|last2=Wen|first2=Shaoqing|last3=Sun|first3=Huilin|last4=Zhang|first4=Hong|last5=Shi|first5=Ruiming|title=Genetic affinity between Ningxia Hui and eastern Asian populations revealed by a set of InDel loci|journal=Royal Society Open Science|year=2020|volume=7|issue=1|pages=190358|doi=10.1098/rsos.190358|pmid=32218926|pmc=7029925|bibcode=2020RSOS....790358Z}}</ref> Analysis of the Guizhou Hui's [[Y chromosome]]s showed a high degree of paternal North or Central Asian heritage, indicating the population formed through male-dominated migration, potentially via a northern route, followed by massive assimilation of Guizhou aborigines into Han Chinese and Hui Muslims.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Qiyan|last2=Zhao|first2=Jing|last3=Ren|first3=Zheng|last4=Sun|first4=Jin|last5=He|first5=Guanglin|last6=Guo|first6=Jianxin|last7=Zhang|first7=Hongling|last8=Ji|first8=Jingyan|last9=Liu|first9=Yubo|last10=Yang|first10=Meiqing|last11=Yang|first11=Xiaomin|date=2021|title=Male-Dominated Migration and Massive Assimilation of Indigenous East Asians in the Formation of Muslim Hui People in Southwest China|journal=Frontiers in Genetics|volume=11|page=618614|doi=10.3389/fgene.2020.618614|pmid=33505437|pmc=7834311|issn=1664-8021|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

The East Asian Y-chromosome [[haplogroup O-M122]] is found in large quantities, about 24–30%, in other Muslims groups close to the Hui like the [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonan people|Bo'an]], and [[Salar people]]. While the Y chromosome [[haplogroup R1a]] (found among [[Central Asians]], [[South Asians]] and Europeans) are found among 17–28% of them. Western mtDNA makes up 6.6% to 8%. Other haplogroups include [[haplogroup D-M174|D-M174]], [[Haplogroup N-M231#N1a1 (M46/Page70/Tat, L395/M2080)|N1a1-Tat]], and [[Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)|Q]], commonly found among East Asians and Siberians. The majority of Tibeto-Burmans, Han Chinese, and [[Ningxia]] and [[Liaoning]] Hui share paternal Y chromosomes of East Asian origin which are unrelated to Middle Easterners and Europeans. In contrast to distant Middle Easterners and Europeans with whom the Muslims of China are not significantly related, East Asians, Han Chinese, and most of the Hui and Dongxiang of Linxia share more genes with each other. This indicates that native East Asian populations were culturally assimilated, and that the Hui population was formed through a process of [[cultural diffusion]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Yao|first1=Hong-Bing|last2=Wang|first2=Chuan-Chao|last3=Tao|first3=Xiaolan|last4=Shang|first4=Lei|last5=Wen|first5=Shao-Qing|last6=Zhu|first6=Bofeng|last7=Kang|first7=Longli|last8=Jin|first8=Li|last9=Li|first9=Hui|date=2016-12-07|title=Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of Chinese Muslim populations Dongxiang and Hui|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=38656|doi=10.1038/srep38656|pmid=27924949|pmc=5141421|bibcode=2016NatSR...638656Y|issn=2045-2322}}</ref>

An overview study in 2021 estimated that [[Genetic history of Europe|West Eurasian]]-related admixture among the average Northwestern Chinese minority groups was at ~9.1%, with the remainder being dominant [[Genetic history of East Asians|East-Eurasian]] ancestry at ~90.9%. The study also showed that there is a close genetic affinity among these ethnic minorities in [[Northwest China]] (including [[Uyghurs]], Huis, [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonan people|Bonans]], [[Yugur]]s and [[Salar people|Salars]]) and that these cluster closely with other [[East Asian people]], especially in [[Xinjiang]], followed by [[Mongolic peoples|Mongolic]], and [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic speakers]], indicating the probability of a shared recent common ancestor of "Altaic speakers".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Bin|last2=Chen|first2=Jinwen|last3=Yang|first3=Xiaomin|last4=Bai|first4=Jingya|last5=Ouyang|first5=Siwei|last6=Mo|first6=Xiaodan|last7=Chen|first7=Wangsheng|last8=Wang|first8=Chuan-Chao|last9=Hai|first9=Xiangjun|date=2021|title=The Genetic Structure and East-West Population Admixture in Northwest China Inferred From Genome-Wide Array Genotyping|journal=Frontiers in Genetics|volume=12|page=795570|doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.795570|issn=1664-8021|pmc=8724515|pmid=34992635|doi-access=free}}</ref> A genome study, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found only 3.66% West-Eurasian-like admixture among Hui people, while the [[Uyghurs]] harbored the relative highest amount of West-Eurasian-like admixture at 36.30%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Guanglin |last2=Wang |first2=Zheng |last3=Wang |first3=Mengge |last4=Luo |first4=Tao |last5=Liu |first5=Jing |last6=Zhou |first6=You |last7=Gao |first7=Bo |last8=Hou |first8=Yiping |date=November 2018 |title=Forensic ancestry analysis in two Chinese minority populations using massively parallel sequencing of 165 ancestry-informative SNPs |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29869338/ |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=39 |issue=21 |pages=2732–2742 |doi=10.1002/elps.201800019 |issn=1522-2683 |pmid=29869338|s2cid=46935911 }}</ref>

=== Official ===
[[File:Muslim_meat_shop_halal_sign,_Hankow_China,_1935.jpg|right|thumb|
A halal meat store sign in Hankou, {{Circa|1934–1935}}.
]]
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the term "Hui" was applied by the Chinese government to one of China's ten historically Islamic minorities.{{sfn|Lipman|1997|pp = xxii–xxiii}} Today, the Chinese government defines the Hui people as an ethnicity without regard to religion, and includes those with Hui ancestry who do not practice Islam.{{sfn|Gillette|2000|p = 12-13}}

Chinese census statistics count among the Hui (and not as officially recognized separate ethnic groups) the Muslim members of a few small non-Chinese-speaking communities. These include several thousand [[Utsuls]] in southern [[Hainan Province]], who speak an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] language ([[Tsat language|Tsat]]) related to the language of the Vietnamese [[Chams|Champa Muslim minority]]. According to anthropologist [[Dru C. Gladney|Dru Gladney]], they descend from Champa people who migrated to [[Hainan]].{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp = 33–34}} A small Muslim minority among [[Yunnan]]'s [[Bai people]] are classified as Hui as well, although they speak [[Bai language|Bai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladney|1996|pp= 33–34}} The Bai-speaking Hui typically claim descent from Hui refugees who fled to Bai areas after the 1873 defeat of the [[Panthay Rebellion]], and have since assimilated to the Bai culture.</ref> Some groups of [[Tibetan Muslims]] are classified as Hui as well.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp = 33–34}}

=== Huihui ===
''Huihui'' ({{lang|zh|回回}}) was the usual generic term for China's Muslims (White Hui), Persian Christians (Black Hui) and Jews (Blue Hui) during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing dynasties]]. It is thought to have had its origin in the earlier ''Huihe'' ({{lang|zh-hant|回紇}}) or ''Huihu'' ({{lang|zh-hant|[[:zh:回鶻|回鶻]]}}), which was the name for the [[Uyghur Khaganate|Uyghur State]] of the 8th and 9th centuries.<ref name="huihe">{{harvnb|Gladney|1996|p=18}}; or {{harvnb|Lipman|1997|pp=xxiii–xxiv}}</ref> Although the ancient Uyghurs were not Muslims<ref name="huihe"/> the name ''Huihui'' came to refer to foreigners, regardless of language or origin, by the time of the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] (1271–1368)<ref>{{harvnb|Gladney|2004|p=161}}; he refers to {{harvnb|Leslie|1986|pp=195–196}}</ref> and Ming dynasties (1368–1644).<ref name="huihe"/> The use of Hui to denote all foreigners—Muslims, [[Nestorian]] Christians, or Jews—reflects bureaucratic terminology developed over the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Arab were ''white cap'', Persians ''black cap'' and Jews ''blue cap'' Huihui. Islamic mosques and Jewish synagogues at the time were denoted by the same word, ''Qīngzhēnsì'' ({{lang|zh|清真寺}}: Temple of Purity and Truth).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ting Jiang |author2=Xiansheng Tian |chapter=The Hui People:Identity, Politics, Developments, and Problems |editor1=Xiaobing Li |editor2=Patrick Fuliang Shan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iB0oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |title=Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-498-50729-5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919014512/https://books.google.com/books?id=iB0oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |pages=123–138 [124]}}</ref>

[[Kublai Khan]] called both foreign Jews and Muslims in China ''Huihui'' when he forced them to stop [[halal]] and [[kosher]] methods of preparing food:<ref name="Donald Daniel Leslie 1998 12">{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |first=Donald Daniel |last=Leslie |year=1998 |page=12 |publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2010 }}</ref>
<blockquote>
"Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect{{nbsp}}... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision."
</blockquote>

The widespread and rather generic application of the name ''Huihui'' in Ming China was attested to by foreign visitors as well. [[Matteo Ricci]], the first [[Jesuit China missions|Jesuit]] to reach [[Beijing]] (1598), noted that "Saracens are everywhere in evidence ... their thousands of families are scattered about in nearly every province"{{sfn|Trigault|1953|pp=106–107}} Ricci noted that the term ''Huihui'' or ''Hui'' was applied by Chinese not only to "Saracens" (Muslims) but also to Chinese Jews and supposedly even to Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Trigault|1953|p=112}}. In [[Samuel Purchas]]'s translation (1625) ([https://archive.org/stream/hakluytusposthu14purcgoog Vol. XII], p. 466): "All these Sects the Chinois call, Hoei, the Jewes distinguished by their refusing to eate the sinew or leg; the Saracens, Swines flesh; the Christians, by refusing to feed on round-hoofed beasts, Asses, Horses, Mules, which all both Chinois, Saracens and Jewes doe there feed on." It's not entirely clear what Ricci means by saying that ''Hui'' also applied to Christians, as he does not report finding any actual local Christians.</ref> In fact, when the reclusive [[Wanli Emperor]] first saw a picture of Ricci and [[Diego de Pantoja]], he supposedly exclaimed, "Hoei, hoei. It is quite evident that they are Saracens", and had to be told by a [[eunuch]] that they actually weren't, "because they ate pork".{{sfn|Trigault|1953|p=375}} The 1916 ''[[Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics]]'', Volume 8 said that Chinese Muslims always called themselves Huihui or Huizi, and that neither themselves nor other people called themselves Han, and they disliked people calling them Dungan.{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p = 892}} French army Commandant Viscount D'Ollone wrote a report on what he saw among Hui in 1910. He reported that due to religion, Hui were classed as a different nationality from Han as if they were one of the other minority groups.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p = 80}}<ref>Mission d'Ollone, 1906–1909. Recherches sur les Musulmans chinois. Par le Commandant d'Ollone, le capitaine de Fleurelle, le capitaine Lepage, le lieutenant de Boyve. Étude de A. Vissière ... Notes de E. Blochet ... et de divers savants. Ouvrage orné de 91 photographies, estampages, cartes et d'une carte hors texte. Henri Marie Gustave d' OLLONE, Viscount.; Henri Eugène de BOYVE; E Blochet; Pierre Gabriel Edmond GRELLET DES PRADES DE FLEURELLE; Gaston Jules LEPAGE. Paris, 1911. {{OCLC|563949793}}.</ref>

''Huizu'' is now the standard term for the "Hui nationality" (ethnic group), and ''Huimin'', for "Hui people" or "a Hui person". The traditional expression ''Huihui'', its use now largely restricted to rural areas, would sound quaint, if not outright demeaning, to modern urban Chinese Muslims.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp = 20–21}}
[[File:Shanghai-Lanzhou-Zhengzong-Niurou-Lamian-2782.jpg|thumb|
Halal (清真) restaurants offering [[Northwestern China|Northwestern]] beef ''[[lamian]]'' can be found throughout the country
]]

=== Other nomenclature ===
Islam was originally called Dashi Jiao during the [[Tang dynasty]], when Muslims first appeared in China. "Dashi Fa" literally means "Arab law" in [[Old Chinese]].{{sfn|Israeli|2002}} Since almost all Muslims in China were exclusively foreign Arabs or Persians at the time, it was rarely mentioned by the Chinese, unlike other religions like [[Zoroastrism]] or [[Mazdaism]], and [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christianity]], which gained followings in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |first=Donald Daniel |last=Leslie |year=1998 |publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2010 }}</ref> As an influx of foreigners, such as Persians, Jews and Christians, the majority of whom were Muslims who came from western regions, were labelled as [[Semu]] people, but were also mistaken by Chinese for Uyghur, due to them coming from the west (Uyghur lands).{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p = 33}} The name "Hui Hui" was applied to them, and eventually became the name applied to Muslims.

Another, probably unrelated, early use of the word ''Huihui'' comes from the ''[[History of Liao]]'', which mentions [[Yelü Dashi]], the 12th-century founder of the [[Kara-Khitan Khanate]], defeating the ''Huihui Dashibu'' ({{lang|zh|回回大食部}}) people near [[Samarkand]]—apparently, referring to his defeat of the [[Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty|Khwarazm]] ruler [[Ahmed Sanjar]] in 1141.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p = 13}} [[Khwarazm]] is referred to as ''Huihuiguo'' in the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]'' as well.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p = 15}}

While ''Huihui'' or ''Hui'' remained a generic name for all Muslims in Imperial China, specific terms were sometimes used to refer to particular groups, e.g. ''Chantou Hui'' ("[[turban]]ed Hui") for Uyghurs, ''Dongxiang Hui'' and ''Sala Hui'' for [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]] and [[Salar people]], and sometimes even ''Han Hui'' ({{lang|zh-hant|漢回}}) ("Chinese Hui") for the (presumably Chinese-speaking) Muslims more assimilated into the Chinese mainstream society.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladney|1996|p=18}}; {{harvnb|Lipman|1997|p=xxiii}}</ref><ref name="Garnaut">{{cite web|url=http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf |title=From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals |last=Garnaut |first=Anthony |publisher=Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University |page=95 |access-date=14 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309054654/http://www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:5612-Linxia-City-halal-bathhouse.jpg|thumb|A [[halal]] ({{lang|zh|清真}}) shower house in [[Linxia City]]]]

In the 1930s, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) defined the term Hui as indicating only [[Sinophone]] Muslims. In 1941, this was clarified by a CCP committee comprising ethnic policy researchers in a treatise entitled "On the question of Huihui Ethnicity" (回回民族问题, Huíhui mínzú wèntí). This treatise defined the characteristics of the Hui nationality as an ethnic group associated with, but not defined by, Islam and descended primarily from Muslims who migrated to China during the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), as distinct from the Uyghur and other Turkic-speaking ethnic groups in Xinjiang. The Nationalist government by contrast recognised all Muslims as one of "the five peoples"—alongside the [[Manchus]], [[Mongols]], [[Tibetans]], and [[Han Chinese]]—that constituted the Republic of China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.php?issue=005 |title=Editorial |work=China Heritage Quarterly |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314081901/http://chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.php?issue=005 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A traditional [[Chinese language|Chinese]] term for Islam is "{{lang|zh|回教}}" ([[pinyin]]: {{lang|zh-latn|Huíjiào}}, literally "the religion of the Hui"). However, since the early days of the PRC, thanks to the arguments of such Marxist Hui scholars as [[Bai Shouyi]], the standard term for "Islam" within the PRC has become the [[transliteration]] "{{lang|zh-hant|伊斯蘭教}}" (pinyin: {{lang|zh-latn|Yīsīlán jiào}}, literally "Islam religion").{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp = 18–19}}{{sfn|Gladney|2004|pp = 161–162}} The more traditional term ''Huijiao'' remains in use in Singapore, Taiwan and other overseas Chinese communities.<ref>On the continuing use of ''Huijiao'' in Taiwan, see {{harvnb|Gladney|1996|pp=18–19}}</ref>

'''Qīngzhēn''': ({{lang|zh|清真}}, literally "pure and true") has also been a popular term for Muslim culture since the Yuan or Ming dynasty. Gladney suggested that a good translation for it would be the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] {{lang|zh-latn|tahára}}. i.e. "ritual or moral purity"{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp=12–13}} The usual term for a mosque is {{lang|zh-latn|qīngzhēn sì}} ({{lang|zh|清真寺}}), i.e. "true and pure temple", and {{lang|zh-latn|qīngzhēn}} is commonly used to refer to halal eating establishments and bathhouses.

In contrast, the Uyghurs were called "Chan Tou Hui" ("Turban Headed Muslim"), and the Turkic Salars called "Sala Hui" (Salar Muslim), while Turkic speakers often referred to Hui as "Dungan".<ref name="Garnaut" />{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p = xxiii}}

'''Zhongyuan ren''': During the [[Qing dynasty]], the term ''Zhongyuan ren'' ({{zh|labels=no |c=中原人 |l=people from the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]]}}) was the term for all Chinese, encompassing [[Han Chinese]] and Hui in Xinjiang or Central Asia. While Hui are not Han, they consider themselves to be Chinese and include themselves in the larger group of ''Zhongyuan ren''.<ref>{{cite book| first=Richard V. |last=Weekes| title=Muslim peoples: a world ethnographic survey |volume=1| url={{google books |itiOSRAAACAAJ |plainurl=yes |page=334}}| access-date=28 November 2010| year=1984| publisher=Greenwood Press| isbn=0-313-23392-6| page=334}}</ref> The [[Dungan people]], descendants of Hui who fled to Central Asia, called themselves ''Zhongyuan ren'' in addition to the standard labels ''lao huihui'' and ''huizi''.<ref>{{cite book| first1=James Stuart |last1=Olson |first2=Nicholas Charles |last2=Pappas| title=An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires| url={{google books |CquTz6ps5YgC |plainurl=yes |page=202}}| access-date=28 November 2010| year=1994| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn=0-313-27497-5| page=202}}</ref> {{lang|zh-Latn|Zhongyuan ren}} was used by Turkic Muslims to refer to ethnic Chinese. When Central Asian invaders from [[Kokand]] invaded [[Kashgar]], in a letter the Kokandi commander criticised the Kashgari Turkic Muslim Ishaq for allegedly not behaving like a Muslim and wanting to be a {{lang|zh-Latn|Zhongyuan ren}} (Chinese).{{sfn|Millward|1998|p=215}}<ref>{{cite book| first=Laura |last=Newby| title=The Empire and the Khanate: a political history of Qing relations with Khoqand c. 1760–1860| url={{google books |KTmO416hNQ8C |plainurl=yes |page=148}}| access-date=28 November 2010| year=2005| publisher=BRILL| isbn=90-04-14550-8| page=148}}</ref>

Some Uyghurs barely see any difference between Hui and Han. A Uyghur social scientist, Dilshat, regarded Hui as the same people as Han, deliberately calling Hui people Han and dismissing the Hui as having only a few hundred years of history.{{sfn|Bellér-Hann|2007|p = 185}}

'''Pusuman''': ''Pusuman'' was a name used by Chinese during the [[Yuan dynasty]]. It could have been a corruption of ''[[wiktionary:Musalman|Musalman]]'' or another name for Persians. It means either Muslim or Persian.<ref>{{cite book| first=Ralph| last=Kauz| editor-first=Ralph| editor-last=Kauz| title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea| url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=YJibpHfnw94C|page=89}}| access-date=28 June 2010| date=20 May 2010| publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn=978-3-447-06103-2| page=89}}</ref>{{sfn|Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History|1986|p=90}} Pusuman Kuo (Pusuman Guo) referred to the country where they came from.<ref>{{cite book| first=Gabriel| last=Ronay| title=The Tartar Khan's Englishman| url={{google books |hihtAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes|page=111}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=1978| publisher=Cassell| isbn=0-304-30054-3| page=111}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=_GzXtdv_QHYC|title=13|page=13}}|title=The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253-55: as narrated by himself, with two accounts of the earlier journey of John of Pian de Carpine|author=Willem van Ruysbroeck |editor=William Woodville Rockhill|year=1900|publisher=Printed for the Hakluyt Society|page=13|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> The name "Pusuman zi" (pusuman script), was used to refer to the script that the HuiHui (Muslims) were using.{{sfn|Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History|1986}}

'''Muslim Chinese''': The term ''Chinese Muslim'' is sometimes used to refer to Hui people, given that they speak Chinese, in contrast to, e.g., Turkic-speaking Salars. During the Qing dynasty, ''Chinese Muslim'' (Han Hui) was sometimes used to refer to Hui people, which differentiated them from non-Chinese-speaking Muslims. However, not all Hui are Muslims, nor are all Chinese Muslims, Hui. For example, [[Li Yong (television host)|Li Yong]] is a famous [[Han Chinese]] who practices Islam and [[Hui Liangyu]] is a notable atheist Hui. In addition, most Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kirghiz and [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]] in China are Muslims, but are not Hui.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

[[John Stuart Thomson]], who traveled in China, called them "Mohammedan Chinese".<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OPUTAAAAIAAJ|page=411}}|title=China revolutionized|first=John Stuart |last=Thomson|year=1913 |publisher=The Bobbs-Merrill company|page=411|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> They have also been called "Chinese Mussulmans", when Europeans wanted to distinguish them from [[Han Chinese]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Zv9WAAAAMAAJ |page=203}}|title=Chinese Central Asia |first=Clarmont Percival|last=Skrine|year=1926|publisher=Methuen|page=203|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

=== Non-Muslim Huis ===
Throughout history, the identity of Hui people has been fluid, often changing as was convenient.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=o5gvAQAAIAAJ}}|title=Dissertation abstracts international: The humanities and social sciences, Issue 12|year=2002|publisher=University Microfilms International|access-date=13 June 2011}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=[[WP:SOURCEACCESS]] Does not seem like a neutral POV.|date=December 2022}} Some identified as Hui out of interest in their ancestry or because of government benefits. These Hui are concentrated on the southeast coast of China, especially [[Fujian]] province.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Bettina |last1=Gransow |first2=Pál |last2=Nyíri |first3=Shiaw-Chian |last3=Fong| title=China: new faces of ethnography| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nPmAAAAAMAAJ |page=125}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=2005| publisher=Lit Verlag| isbn=3-8258-8806-1| page=125}}</ref>

Some Hui clans around [[Quanzhou]] in Fujian, such as the [[Ding (surname)|Ding]] and [[Guo]] families, identify themselves by ethnicity and no longer practice Islam. In recent years, more of these clans have identified as Hui, increasing the official population.{{sfn|Gladney|2004|p=294}}<ref>{{cite book| first=Robert W. |last=Hefner| title=Market cultures: society and morality in the new Asian capitalisms| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=YOjZAAAAMAAJ |page=113}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=1998| publisher=Westview Press| isbn=0-8133-3360-1| page=113}}</ref>{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=287}} They provided evidence of their ancestry and were recognized as Hui.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=287}} Many clans across Fujian had genealogies that demonstrated Hui ancestry.<ref>{{cite book| first1=Chibli |last1=Mallat |first2=Jane Frances |last2=Connors |title=Islamic family law| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=goEwYQVb6HIC |page=364}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=1990| publisher=BRILL| isbn=1-85333-301-8| page=364}}</ref> These clans inhabited Fujian, Taiwan, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.{{sfn|Oi|Walder|1999|p=62}} None of these clans were Muslims but they do not offer pork during their [[ancestral worship]].

In Taiwan, the Hui clans who followed [[Koxinga]] to Formosa to defeat the Dutch settlers no longer observe Islam and their descendants embrace the [[Chinese folk religion]]. The Taiwanese branch of the Guo (Kuo in Taiwan) clan with Hui ancestry does not practice Islam, yet does not offer pork at their ancestral shrines. The [[Chinese Muslim Association]] counts these people as Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |title=Islam in Taiwan|first=Peter G. |last=Gowing|newspaper=SAUDI ARAMCO World|date=July–August 1970 |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197004/islam.in.taiwan.htm|access-date=5 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911170917/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197004/islam.in.taiwan.htm|archive-date=11 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also on [[Taiwan]], one branch of the Ding (Ting) clan that descended from [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]] resides in [[Taisi Township]] in [[Yunlin County]]. They trace their descent through him via the Quanzhou Ding family of Fujian. While pretending to be [[Han Chinese]] in Fujian, they initially practiced Islam when they came to Taiwan 200 years ago, but their descendants have embraced Buddhism or Taoism.<ref>{{cite news|title=FEATURE: Taisi Township re-engages its Muslim roots |last=Loa |first=Iok-Sin|newspaper=Taipei Times|page=4|date=31 August 2008|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/08/31/2003421916|access-date=29 May 2011|archive-date=20 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920182058/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/08/31/2003421916|url-status=live}}</ref>

An attempt was made by the Chinese Islamic Society to convert the Fujian Hui of Fujian back to Islam in 1983, by sending four Ningxia imams to Fujian.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=irRGAAAAMAAJ |page=499}}|title=The Journal of Asian studies, Volume 46, Issues 3–4|year=1987|publisher=Association for Asian Studies|page=499|access-date=13 June 2011}}</ref> This futile endeavour ended in 1986, when the final Ningxia imam left. A similar endeavour in Taiwan also failed.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p = 279}}

Until 1982, a Han could "become" Hui by converting to Islam. Thereafter, a converted Han counts instead as a "Muslim Han". Symmetrically, Hui people consider other Hui who do not observe Islamic practices as still Hui, and that their Hui nationality cannot be lost.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p = 245}} For both of these reasons, simply calling them "Chinese Muslims" is no longer accurate, strictly speaking, just as with [[Bosniaks]] in former Yugoslavia.

== Population ==
The Hui nationality is the most widely distributed ethnic minority in China, and it is also the main ethnic minority in many provinces. There are 10,586,087 Hui people in China (2010 census), accounting for 0.79% of the total population, making them the third largest ethnic group after Han Chinese and [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]].

[[Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region]] and [[Gansu Province]] have a Hui population of more than one million. In Ningxia, 33.95% of the population are of Hui ethnicity. Hui are the major minority in [[Qinghai]] (15.62%), [[Gansu]] and [[Shaanxi]] and is the overall major minority in [[Henan]] and [[Anhui]].

==Subgroups==
=== Dungan ===
{{See also|Dungan people#Name}}
[[File:Karakol-Dungan-Mosque-Minaret-3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The minaret of the Dungan mosque in [[Karakol]], Kyrgyzstan]]
[[File:Dungan mosque in Karakol.jpg|thumb|Dungan mosque in [[Karakol]], Kyrgyzstan]]
Dungan ({{zh|s = 东干族|t = 東干族|p = Dōnggānzú}}; {{langx|ru|Дунгане}}) is a term used in [[Central Asia]] and in [[Xinjiang]] to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslim people. In the censuses of Russia and Central Asian nations, the Hui are distinguished from Chinese, termed Dungans. However, in both China and Central Asia members of this ethnic group call themselves Lao Huihui or Zhongyuanren, rather than Dungan. Zhongyuan 中原, literally means "The Central Plain," and is the historical name of [[Shaanxi]] and [[Henan]] provinces. Most Dungans living in Central Asia are descendants of Hui people from Gansu and Shaanxi.{{citation needed|date = September 2014}}

Hui people are referred to by Central Asian Turkic speakers and Tajiks by the [[ethnonym]] ''[[Dungan people|Dungan]]''. [[Joseph Fletcher (historian)|Joseph Fletcher]] cited Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century [[Kashgar]]ian [[Sufi]] master [[Muhammad Yusuf Khoja|Muhammad Yūsuf]] (or, possibly, his son [[Afaq Khoja]]) inside the [[Ming dynasty|Ming Empire]] (in today's [[Gansu]] and/or [[Qinghai]]), where the preacher allegedly converted ''ulamā-yi Tunganiyyāh'' (i.e., "Dungan [[ulema]]") into [[Sufism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lipman|1997|p=59}}, based on: {{cite book |author-link=Joseph Fletcher (historian)|first=Joseph |last=Fletcher |chapter=The Naqshbandiya in Northwest China |title=Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia|editor-first=Beatrcie|editor-last=Manz|place=London |publisher=Variorum|year=1995}}</ref>

As early as the 1830s, ''Dungan'', in various spellings appeared in both English and German, referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, James Prinsep in 1835 mentioned Muslim "Túngánis" in ''Chinese Tartary''.<ref>{{cite book |first=James |last=Prinsep |title=Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khoten |publisher=The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal | issue=48 |date=December 1835 |page=655 |url={{google books|nK4IAAAAQAAJ|plainurl=yes|page=655}} |isbn=1-4021-5631-6}}</ref> The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired currency in English and other western languages when books in the 1860–70s discussed the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–77)|Dungan Revolt]].

Later authors continued to use variants of the term for Xinjiang Hui people. For example, [[Owen Lattimore]], writing ca. 1940, maintained the terminological distinction between these two related groups: the Donggan or "Tungkan" (the older [[Wade-Giles]] spelling for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in the 17–18th centuries, vs. e.g. the "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems".<ref>{{cite journal|first=Owen |last=Lattimore |author-link=Owen Lattimore |title=Inner Asian Frontiers of China|journal=The Geographical Journal |date=1941 |volume=97 |issue=1 | page=183|doi=10.2307/1787115 |jstor=1787115 |bibcode=1941GeogJ..97...59R }}</ref>

The name "Dungan" sometimes referred to all Muslims coming from [[China proper]], such as Dongxiang and Salar in addition to Hui. Reportedly, the Hui disliked the term Dungan, calling themselves either Huihui or Huizi.{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p = 892}}

In the Soviet Union and its successor countries, the term "Dungans" (дунгане) became the standard name for the descendants of Chinese-speaking Muslims who emigrated in the 1870s and 1880s to the [[Russian Empire]], mostly to today's [[Kyrgyzstan]] and south-eastern [[Kazakhstan]].{{sfn|Gladney|1996|pp = 33, 399}}

=== Panthay ===
{{Main|Panthay}}
[[File:Kunming - Riverside Halal Beef Restaurant - P1340576.JPG|thumb|Muslim restaurant in [[Kunming]], Yunnan]]
The [[Panthay]] are a group of Chinese Muslims in [[Myanmar]] (Burma) and [[Yunnan|Yunnan Province]]. In [[Thailand]], Chinese Muslims are referred to as [[Chin Haw|Chin Ho]] ({{lang|th|จีนฮ่อ}}).

=== Utsul ===
{{Main|Utsul}} 
The Utsuls of [[Hainan]] are a [[Chamic languages|Chamic]]-speaking ethnic group which lives southernmost tip of the island near the city of [[Sanya]]. They are thought to be descendants of [[Chams|Cham]] [[refugee]]s who fled their homeland of [[Champa]] in what is now modern Central [[Vietnam]] to escape the [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|Vietnamese invasion]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=James Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC&q=cham+hainan&pg=PA41 |title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=0-313-28853-4 |page=41}}</ref> Although they are culturally, ethnically and linguistically distinct from the Hui, the Chinese government nevertheless classifies them as Hui due to their Islamic faith.

== History ==
{{See also|History of Islam in China|Iranians in China|Islam in China (1912–present)}}

=== Origins ===

[[File:Prayers at Dongguan mosque.jpg|thumb|right|Hui people praying in the [[Dongguan Mosque]], [[Xining]]]]

Many Hui are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers. On the southeast coast (e.g., [[Guangdong]], [[Fujian]]) and in major trade centers elsewhere in China, some are of mixed local and foreign descent. The foreign element, although greatly diluted, came primarily from [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] (''Bosi'') traders, who brought Islam to China. These foreigners settled and gradually intermarried, while assimilating into Chinese culture.{{sfn|Lipman|1997|pp=24}}

Early European explorers speculated that T'ung-kan (Dungans, i.e. Hui, called "Chinese Mohammedans") in [[Xinjiang]], originated from [[Khwarezm|Khorezmians]] who were transported to China by the Mongols, and descended from a mixture of Chinese, Iranian and Turkic peoples. They also reported that the T'ung-kan were [[Shafi'ite]]s, as were the [[Khwarezmian dynasty|Khorezmians]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Roerich |last1=Museum |first2=George |last2=Roerich |title=Journal of Urusvati Himalayan Research Institute, Volumes 1–3| url={{google books |id=yBO3pmzzhWkC|plainurl=y|page=526}}| access-date=28 June 2010| date=August 2003| publisher=Vedams eBooks| isbn=81-7936-011-3| page=526}}</ref>

The Hui people of [[Yunnan]] and [[Northwestern China]] resulted from the convergence of Mongol, Turkic, and Iranian peoples or other Central Asian settlers recruited by the Yuan dynasty, either as artisans or as officials (the ''[[semu]]''). The Hui formed the second-highest stratum in the Yuan ethnic hierarchy (after the Mongols but above Chinese).{{sfn|Lipman|1997|pp=31}}{{sfn|Dillon|1999|pp=19–21}} A proportion of the ancestral nomad or military ethnic groups were originally [[Nestorian Christians]], many of whom later converted to Islam under the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

However, Hui peoples from [[Gansu]], along with their Dongxian neighbors, did not receive substantial gene flow from Western and Central Asia or European populations during their Islamization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yao |first1=Hong-Bing |last2=Wang |first2=Chuan-Chao |last3=Tao |first3=Xiaolan |last4=Shang |first4=Lei |display-authors=3 |date=2016 |title=Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of Chinese Muslim populations Dongxiang and Hui |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |issue=38656 |page=38656 |doi=10.1038/srep38656 |pmid=27924949 |pmc=5141421 |bibcode=2016NatSR...638656Y }}</ref>

==== Sects of Islam ====
{{main|Muslim groups in China}}
[[File:5741-Linxia-Huasi-Gongbei.jpg|thumb|The [[Sufi]] mausoleum (''[[gongbei (Islamic architecture)|gongbei]]'') of [[Ma Laichi]] in [[Linxia City]], China.]]

Most Hui people are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], and their Islamic sects can be divided into:<ref>{{Cite book |author=許向陽 |title=心繫中國穆斯林 — 祈禱手冊 |publisher=香港前線差會 |year=2013 |pages=12}}</ref>

* '''[[Gedimu]]'''{{Efn|格底目派}} '''(Old Sect'''{{Efn|老教}}''')''': This is the oldest and most widely followed sect in China. Members typically do not actively proselytise. It is divided into four main [[Tariqa|Sufi orders]],{{Efn|门宦}} each with its own hereditary leader. Each order has ''[[Gongbei (Islamic architecture)|gongbei]]'',{{Efn|拱北}} which serve as the tombs of its leader.
** '''[[Jahriyya]]'''{{Efn|哲合忍耶派}} (also known as the Loud Chanting Sect{{Efn|高念派}})
** '''[[Khufiyya]]'''{{Efn|虎夫耶派}} (also known as the Quiet Chanting Sect{{Efn|低念派}})
** '''[[Qadiriyya]]'''{{Efn|格底忍耶派}} (meaning “The Great One”{{Efn|“大能者”}})
** '''[[Kubrawiya|Kubrawiyya]]'''{{Efn|库布忍耶派}} (meaning “The Magnificent One”{{Efn|“伟大者“}})
* '''[[Yihewani]]'''{{Efn|伊合瓦尼派}} '''(New Sect'''{{Efn|新教}}''')''': This sect focuses exclusively on the Quran, without establishing any Sufi order, ''gongbei'', or hereditary leadership.
* '''[[Sailaifengye|Salafi]]'''{{Efn|塞莱菲耶派}} '''(New New Sect'''{{Efn|新新教}}''')''': Influenced by Wahhabi thought, this sect aims to reform the New Sect and advocates for a return to the purity and spirituality of early Islam.
* '''[[Xidaotang]]'''{{Efn|西道堂}} '''(Chinese Learning Sect'''{{Efn|汉学派}}''')''': This sect, founded on the Chinese translations of Islamic texts by scholars like Liu Zhi, has a centralised religious authority. Its leader serves for life but does not pass down the position hereditarily.

Ma Tong recorded that the 6,781,500 Sunni Hui in China followed 58.2% [[Gedimu]], 21% [[Yihewani]], 10.9% [[Jahriyya]], 7.2% Khuffiya, 1.4% [[Qadiriyya|Qadariyya]], and 0.7% [[Kubrawiyya]] Sufi schools.{{sfn|Esposito|2000|p = 443–444, 462 }}

Among the northern Hui, Central Asian [[Sufi]] schools such as [[Kubrawiyya]], [[Qadiriyya]], and [[Naqshbandi]]yya ([[Khufiyya]] and [[Jahriyya]]) were strong influences, mostly of the [[Hanafi]] [[Madhhab]]. Hui Muslims have a long tradition of synthesizing [[Confucian]] teachings with [[Qur'an]]ic teachings and reportedly have contributed to Confucianism from the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] period on. Before the "[[Yihewani]]" movement, a Chinese Muslim sect inspired by the Middle Eastern reform movement, northern Hui Sufis blended [[Taoism|Taoist]] teachings and [[martial arts]] practices with Sufi philosophy.

==== Kaifeng Jews ====
{{Main|Kaifeng Jews}}
Many [[Jews in China]], for example the [[Kaifeng Jews]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=LESLIE |first1=DONALD DANIEL |editor1-last=Malek |editor1-first=Roman |title=From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China|date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351566292 |page=68 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj0rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |chapter=INTEGRATION, ASSIMILATION, AND SURVIVAL OF MINORITIES IN CHINA: THE CASE OF THE KAIFENG JEWS |quote=In any case, the Kaifeng Jews did not stand out as an exotic community, for there were a large number of Muslims there, ... and they did not intermarry.93 According to most authorities, many Jews finally assimilated to Islam.}}</ref> and in particular the Jewish Zhang family Zhang of Kaifeng at the start of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehrlich |first1=M. Avrum |last2=Liang |first2=Pingan |editor1-last=Ehrlich 
|editor1-first=M. Avrum |title=The Jewish-Chinese Nexus: A Meeting of Civilizations |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134105533 |page=194 |edition=illustrated |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfUl2vKpo2wC&pg=PA194 |series=Routledge Jewish Studies Series |chapter=Part V KAIFENG JEWISH DESCENDANTS 14 THE CONTEMPORARY CONDITION OF THE JEWISH DESCENDANTS OF KAIFENG|quote=Out of the seven original clans of Kaifeng Jews, the Zhang clan was said to have converted to Islam in the beginning of the twentieth century with the decline of the community and the problems in that period of China's history.}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book |last1=Dubov |first1=Kalman |title=Journey to the People's Republic of China; Review & Analysis |publisher=Kalman Dubov |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c5VREAAAQBAJ&pg=PT128|quote=Most of the Zhang converted to Islam. Jews who managed the synagogues were called mullahs. A high number of Kaifeng Jews passed the difficult Chinese Civil Service examination during the Ming Dynasty. Four inscriptions from 1489, 1512, ...}}
</ref> converted to Islam and became Hui people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shapiro |first1=Sidney |title=Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars |date=2001 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=0781808332 |page=233 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dd8-AQAAIAAJ |quote=Muslim religious strictures required anyone , whether man or woman, who married a Muslim to convert to Islam . ... An San, a Kaifeng Jew, was awarded a rank of Third Grade, because of services he had rendered to the court ... -followers were not assimilated into the Han population. Jews who married Muslims had to embrace Islam. This is one of the reasons the Jews were assimilated.}}
</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Goldstein |editor1-first=Jonathan |title=The Jews of China: Historical and comparative perspectives |date=1999 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=0765601036 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MbhtAAAAMAAJ |volume=1 of The Jews of China |series=East Gate book |chapter=Contributors Benjamin Isadore Schwartz, Frank Joseph Shulman |quote=A 1757 regulation in the Paradesi record book stated : “ If an Israelite or a ger (apparently , a convert from outside Cochin) marries a woman from the daughters ... of the mshuchrarim , the sons who are born to them go after the ...}}</ref>

==== Converted Han ====
[[File:Ma Hetian.jpg|thumb|left|Ma Hetian]]

According to legend, a Muhuyindeni person converted an entire village of Han with the surname [[Zhang (surname)|Zhang]] to Islam.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=127}} Hui also adopted Han children and raised them as Hui.<ref name="Joseph%20Mitsuo%20Kitagawa%202002%20283">{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5LSvkQvvmAMC|page=283}} |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |first=Joseph Mitsuo |last=Kitagawa |year=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=283|isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Hui in Gansu with the surnames [[Táng (surname)|Tang]] (唐) and [[Wang (surname)|Wang]] (汪) descended from Han Chinese who converted to Islam and married Muslim Hui or [[Dongxiangs]], joining the Hui and Dongxiang ethnic groups, both Muslim. [[Tangwangchuan]] and Hanjiaji were notable as towns with a multi-ethnic community, with both non-Muslims and Muslims.{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p=[{{google books |id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC |page=145 145]}}}}

[[Kuomintang]] official Ma Hetian visited [[Tangwang town|Tangwangchuan]] and met an "elderly local literatus from the Tang clan" while he was on his inspection tour of Gansu and Qinghai.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |id=m1RuAAAAMAAJ |plainurl=y |page=119}}
	
| title=Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1–2
	
| year=2002
	
| author=University of Cambridge. Mongolia Inner Asia Studies Unit
	
| publisher=The White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge
	
| page=119
	
| access-date=17 July 2011}}(Original from the University of Michigan)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/inas/2002/00000004/00000001/art00007 |title=How Many Minzu in a Nation? Modern Travellers Meet China's Frontier Peoples Brill Online |website=Ingentaconnect.com |date=1 January 2002 |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025130140/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/inas/2002/00000004/00000001/art00007 |url-status=live }}</ref>
	
In [[Gansu]] province in the 1800s, a Muslim Hui woman married into the [[Han Chinese]] [[Kong (surname)|Kong]] lineage of [[Dachuan District]], which was descended from Confucius. The Han Chinese groom and his family converted to Islam after the marriage.<ref name="Jun Jing 1998 26">
	
{{cite book
	
| first=Jun
	
| last=Jing
	
| title=The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village
	
| url={{google books |id=3leAld7M7p0C  |plainurl=y |page=26}}
	
| access-date=29 June 2010
	
| date=1 October 1998
	
| publisher=Stanford University Press
	
| isbn=0-8047-2757-0| page=26
	
}}
	
</ref> In 1715 in [[Yunnan]] province, a few Han Chinese descendants of Confucius also surnamed Kong married Hui women and converted to Islam.<ref name="Zhou">{{cite web
	
|last=Zhou
	
|first=Jing
	
|title=New Confucius Genealogy out next year 
	
|url=http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029_3.htm 
	
|publisher=china.org.cn
	
|access-date=28 June 2010 
	
|url-status=live
	
|archive-date=10 October 2016
	
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161010100750/http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029_3.htm
	
}} Archives on this are stored in [[Xuanwei]] city
	
</ref> 
	
Around 1376 the 30-year-old Chinese merchant [[Lin Nu]] visited [[Ormuz]] in [[Persia]], converted to [[Islam]], and married a Semu girl ("{{lang|zh-hans|娶色目女}}") (either Persian or Arab) and brought her back to [[Quanzhou]] in [[Fujian]].<ref name="Chen">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-vii|title=CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties|last=Chen|first=Da-Sheng|publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=29 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429174424/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-vii|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6TVhvYLaEwC&q=li+nu+persian+girl&pg=PA495 |title=Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4 |first=Joseph|last=Needham|year=1971|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=495|isbn=0-521-07060-0 |access-date=29 June 2010|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803041954/https://books.google.com/books?id=l6TVhvYLaEwC&pg=PA495|url-status=live}}</ref> The Confucian philosopher [[Li Zhi (philosopher)|Li Zhi]] was their descendant.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=735iAAAAMAAJ&q=Zhi+descended+Muslim+branch|title=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft: ZDMG, Volume 151|author=Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft|year=2001 |publisher=Kommissionsverlag F. Steiner|language=de|pages=420, 422|access-date=25 August 2014|archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803070553/https://books.google.com/books?id=735iAAAAMAAJ&dq=Li+semu+girl+hormuz&q=Zhi+descended+Muslim+branch|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===
During [[Land Reform Movement (China)|China's land reform movement]] (which began after the defeat of the Japanese in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and continued in the early years of the People's Republic of China), the Communist Party encouraged rural women in achieving a "double fanshen"—a revolutionary transformation as both a peasant and a feminist awakening as a woman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeMare |first=Brian James |url= |title=Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution |date=2019 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-0849-8 |location=Stanford, California |pages=140–141 |oclc=1048940018}}</ref> The progress of Hui women was promoted as by the party as an example of such a success.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=DeMare |first=Brian James |url= |title=Land wars : the story of China's agrarian revolution |date=2019 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-0849-8 |location=Stanford, California |pages=141 |oclc=1048940018}}</ref> Through the rural movement, Hui women were said to have not just received land, but also "freedom over their own bodies."<ref name=":0" /> Hui women embraced political participation and the rural revolution.<ref name=":0" /> The land reform movement succeeded among Hui people because activists first won over elder generations.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Cultural Revolution]] wreaked much havoc on all cultures and ethnicities in China. The quelling of Hui militant rebels at the hands of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in Yunnan, known as the [[Shadian incident]], reportedly claimed over 1,600 lives in 1975.<ref>Yongming Zhou, ''Anti-drug crusades in twentieth-century China : nationalism, history, and state building'',  Lanham [u.a.] Rowman & Littlefield 1999, p. 162</ref>

=== Current situation ===
[[File:XianNight2.jpg|thumb|Muslim restaurant in [[Xi'an]]]]
Different Muslim ethnic groups in different regions are treated differently by the Chinese government in regards to religious freedom. A greater freedom is permitted for Hui Muslims, who can practice their religion, build mosques, and have their children attend mosques, while more controls are placed specifically on Uyghurs in Xinjiang.<ref name="Annual Report 2004">{{cite book|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004|editor=State Dept (U.S.)|year=2005|publisher=Government Printing Office|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159|pages=159–160|isbn=0160725526|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=8 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108235844/https://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159}}</ref> Since the 1980s, Islamic private schools have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government in Muslim areas, except for Xinjiang due to the separatist sentiment there.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Kees|last1=Versteegh|first2=Mushira|last2=Eid|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383|year=2005|publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14473-6|pages=383–|quote=The People's Republic, founded in 1949, banned private confessional teaching from the early 1950s to the 1980s, until a more liberal stance allowed religious mosque education to resume and private Muslim schools to open. Moreover, except in Xinjiang for fear of secessionist feelings, the government allowed and sometimes encouraged the founding of private Muslim schools in order to provide education for people who could not attend increasingly expensive state schools or who left them early, for lack of money or lack of satisfactory achievements|access-date=15 November 2015 |url-status=live|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109043648/https://books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383}}</ref> Although religious education for children is officially forbidden by law in China, the CCP allows Hui Muslims to have their children educated in the religion and attend mosques, while the law is enforced on Uyghurs. After secondary education is completed, China then allows Hui students who would like to, embark on religious studies under an imam.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf |title=Chinese Islam: Unity and Fragmentation |journal=Religion, State & Society |volume=31 |date=2003 |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-date=21 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521073805/http://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf}}</ref> China does not enforce the law against children attending mosques on non-Uyghurs in areas outside of Xinjiang.<ref name="Annual Report 2004" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Szadziewski|first1=Henryk|title=Religious Repression of Uyghurs in East Turkestan|url=http://www.venninstitute.org/uncategorized/religious-repression-of-uyghurs-in-east-turkestan|website=Venn Institute|access-date=26 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327231707/http://www.venninstitute.org/uncategorized/religious-repression-of-uyghurs-in-east-turkestan|archive-date=27 March 2014}}</ref>

Hui religious schools are also allowed to establish a large autonomous network of mosques and schools run by a Hui Sufi leader, which was formed with the approval of the Chinese government even though he admitted to attending an event where Osama Bin Laden spoke.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land|first=Gardner|last=Bovingdon|year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231519410 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC&pg=PA68|page=68|access-date=24 April 2014|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803070256/https://books.google.com/books?id=NrtIa77Sj2IC&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Savadove |first=Bill |url=http://www.scmp.com/article/512501/faith-flourishes-arid-wasteland |title=Faith Flourishes in an Arid Wasteland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626115251/http://www.scmp.com/article/512501/faith-flourishes-arid-wasteland |archive-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=live |work=South China Morning Post |date=17 August 2005}}</ref>

Hui Muslims who are employed by the state are allowed to fast during [[Ramadan]], unlike Uyghurs in the same positions. The number of Hui going on [[Hajj]] is expanding, while Uyghurs find it difficult to get passports to go on Hajj. Hui women are allowed to wear [[hijab|veils]], while Uyghur women are discouraged from wearing them.<ref name="Beech">{{cite magazine|last1=Beech|first1=Hannah|title=If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival?|url=https://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/|access-date=25 June 2015 |magazine=TIME |date=12 August 2014|archive-date=13 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613040500/http://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many Hui women wear veils and headscarves.<ref>{{cite news |last=Devonshire-Ellis |first=Chris |date=19 August 2010 |title=Ningxia: Small but Beautiful and Productive |url=http://www.china-briefing.com/news/2010/08/19/ningxia-small-but-beautiful-and-productive.html |newspaper=CHINA BRIEFING |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202808/http://www.china-briefing.com/news/2010/08/19/ningxia-small-but-beautiful-and-productive.html |url-status=live }}</ref> There is a major halal industry and Islamic clothing industry to manufacture Muslim attire such as skull caps, veils, and headscarves in the Hui region of Ningxia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarkar |first1=Sudeshna |last2=Zhao |first2=Wei |date=30 July 2015 |title=Building on Faith |url=http://www.bjreview.com/culture/txt/2015-07/27/content_697579.htm |number=31 |newspaper=BEIJING REVIEW |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923191354/http://www.bjreview.com/culture/txt/2015-07/27/content_697579.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

China banned a book entitled ''Xing Fengsu'' ("Sexual Customs") which insulted Islam and placed its authors under arrest in 1989 after protests in [[Lanzhou]] and [[Beijing]] by Chinese Hui Muslims. During the protests, the Chinese police provided protection to the Hui Muslim protestors, and the Chinese government organized public burnings of the book.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GomyOthrHjUC&pg=PA154 |title=Minority Rules: The Miao and the Feminine in China's Cultural Politics |first=Louisa |last=Schein |date=2000 |page=154 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=9780822324447 |access-date=26 June 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109092737/https://books.google.com/books?id=GomyOthrHjUC&pg=PA154 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&pg=PA104|title=Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier|first=Uradyn E.|last=Bulag|date=2010|page=104|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=9781442204331|access-date=26 June 2015|archive-date=10 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110081845/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&pg=PA104|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |title=Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts |first=Dru C. |last=Gladney |date=2013 |page=144 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136818578 |access-date=26 June 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109085929/https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HH94dPJrkA4C&pg=PA79|title=Handbook of Global Legal Policy|editor-first=Stuart|editor-last=Nagel|first=Barry|last=Sautman|date=2000|page=79|publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780824778927|access-date=26 June 2015|archive-date=9 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109080141/https://books.google.com/books?id=HH94dPJrkA4C&pg=PA79|url-status=live}}</ref> The Chinese government assisted them and gave into their demands because Hui do not have a separatist movement, unlike the Uyghurs.<ref name="Tanner 2009">{{cite book
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA581
 | title = China: a history
 | author = Harold Miles Tanner
 | year = 2009
 | publisher = Hackett Publishing
 | page = 581, fn 50
 | isbn = 978-0872209152
 | access-date = 28 June 2010
 | archive-date = 20 March 2015
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150320192355/http://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA581
 | url-status = live
 }}</ref>

In 2007, anticipating the coming "Year of the Pig" in the [[Chinese calendar]], depictions of pigs were banned from [[China Central Television|CCTV]] "to show respect to Islam, and upon guidance from higher levels of the government".<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7213210|title= Ban Thwarts 'Year of the Pig' Ads in China|last= Lim|first= Louisa|date= 6 February 2007|publisher= National Public Radio|access-date= 5 April 2018|archive-date= 4 May 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190504175540/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7213210|url-status= live}}</ref>

====Allegation of repression====
Hui Muslims have been alleged to have experienced greater repression of religious activities in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Albert |first1=Eleanor |title=The State of Religion In China |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |website=CFR |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=27 May 2020 |date=11 October 2018 |quote=Hui Muslims have experienced an uptick in repression. |archive-date=14 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014222036/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2018, [[paramount leader]] [[Xi Jinping]] issued a directive aimed at the sinicization of Chinese Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Myers |first1=Steven Lee |title=A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/21/world/asia/china-islam-crackdown.html |access-date=27 May 2020 |agency=The New York Times |work=The New York Times |date=21 September 2019 |archive-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924010442/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/21/world/asia/china-islam-crackdown.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since then, the government has been accused of repressing aspects of Hui culture deemed "Arab". Most of these repressions have been limited to the removal of aesthetically Islamic buildings and symbols, with the government renovating architecture to appear more Chinese and banning Arabic signs in Hui regions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/chinas-repressive-reach-is-growing/2019/09/27/dccb5f48-dfc1-11e9-b199-f638bf2c340f_story.html|title=China's Repressive Reach is Growing|date=27 September 2019|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|access-date=27 May 2020|archive-date=22 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622001444/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/chinas-repressive-reach-is-growing/2019/09/27/dccb5f48-dfc1-11e9-b199-f638bf2c340f_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> More drastic repressions have been taken, such as closing mosques or removing licenses from imams who have traveled outside of China.<ref name="Feng">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown|title='Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown|last=Feng|first=Emily|date=26 September 2019|work=[[NPR]]|access-date=8 October 2019|archive-date=8 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008040239/https://www.npr.org/2019/09/26/763356996/afraid-we-will-become-the-next-xinjiang-chinas-hui-muslims-face-crackdown|url-status=live}}</ref> In order to sinicize the Hui, schools and mosques in Ningxia have been changed to include traits from traditional Han architecture.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jennion |first1=James |title=China's Repression of the Hui: A Slow Boil |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/06/chinas-repression-of-the-hui-a-slow-boil/ |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref>

At least two Hui Muslims have allegedly been included in [[Xinjiang re-education camps|reeducation camps]], termed "Vocational Education and Training Centers" which the Chinese government claims are aimed at reforming the political thought of detainees, including [[Islamic fundamentalism|extremist religious beliefs]] and separatist or terrorist sympathies.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/16/internment-camps-make-uighurs-life-more-colourful-says-xinjiang-governor|title=Internment camps make Uighurs' life more colourful, says Xinjiang governor|date=16 October 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226135322/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/16/internment-camps-make-uighurs-life-more-colourful-says-xinjiang-governor|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2018/1115/Chinese-officials-defensive-over-Muslim-re-education-camps|title=Chinese officials defensive over Muslim re-education camps|date=15 November 2018|work=[[Christian Science Monitor]]|agency=Associated Press|archive-date=5 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705143241/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2018/1115/Chinese-officials-defensive-over-Muslim-re-education-camps|url-status=live}}</ref> One or more of the Hui within these camps may have faced torture, and are allegedly grouped in different cells from Kazakhs and Uighurs, and on rare occasion die from stress.<ref name="Feng"/><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bunin|first=Gene|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/10/internment-detention-xinjiang-hui-muslims-swept-into-camps-alongside-uighur/|title=Xinjiang's Hui Muslims Were Swept Into Camps Alongside Uighurs|date=10 February 2020|work=[[Foreign Policy]]|access-date=7 March 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=8 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308034326/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/10/internment-detention-xinjiang-hui-muslims-swept-into-camps-alongside-uighur/}}</ref>

====Tensions between Hui and Uyghurs====

Tensions between Hui Muslims and Uyghurs have arisen because Hui troops and officials often dominated the Uyghurs and crushed Uyghur revolts.{{sfn|Starr|2004|p=311}} Xinjiang's Hui population increased by more than 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Many Hui Muslim civilians were killed by Uyghur rebel troops in the [[Kizil massacre]] of 1933.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNlwAAAAMAAJ&q=kizil+massacre|title=Great Britain and Chinese, Russian and Japanese interests in Sinkiang, 1918–1934|author=Lars-Erik Nyman|year=1977|publisher=Esselte studium|location=Stockholm|isbn=91-24-27287-6|page=111|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=24 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724151918/https://books.google.com/books?id=JNlwAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Some Uyghurs in [[Kashgar]] remember that the Hui army at the [[Battle of Kashgar (1934)]] massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.{{sfn|Starr|2004|p=113}} Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries.<ref name="Van Wie Davis">{{cite web|last=Van Wie Davis|first=Elizabath |date=January 2008 |title=Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China|publisher=Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies |url=http://www.apcss.org/Publications/APCSS--%2520Uyghur%2520Muslim%2520Separatism%2520in%2520Xinjiang.doc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617011421/http://www.apcss.org/Publications/APCSS--%20Uyghur%20Muslim%20Separatism%20in%20Xinjiang.doc |archive-date=2009-06-17 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.<ref name="Safran 1998 35">{{cite book| first=William |last=Safran| title=Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=MT0VFdKklYoC |page=35}}| access-date=11 January 2011| year=1998| publisher=Psychology Press| isbn=0-7146-4921-X| page=35}}</ref> During the 2009 rioting in Xinjiang that killed around 200 people, "[[wiktionary:殺漢滅回|Kill the Han, destroy the Hui]]" is a common cry spread across social media among Uyghur extremists.<ref name="Beech"/>

The Uyghur militant organization [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement]]'s magazine ''Islamic Turkistan'' has accused the Chinese "Muslim Brotherhood" (the [[Yihewani]]) of being responsible for the moderation of Hui Muslims and the lack of Hui joining militant jihadist groups in addition to blaming other things for the lack of Hui Jihadists, such as the fact that for more than 300 years Hui and Uyghurs have been enemies of each other, no separatist Islamist organizations among the Hui, the fact that the Hui view China as their home, and the fact that the "infidel Chinese" language is the language of the Hui.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zenn |first=Jacob |date=17 March 2011 |title=Jihad in China? Marketing the Turkistan Islamic Party |url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=37662&no_cache=1#.Vf3TiJdGQrc |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=The Jamestown Foundation |volume=9 |issue=11 |access-date=18 September 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930150251/http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=37662&no_cache=1#.Vf3TiJdGQrc |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Jamestown_articles_-_Terrorism_in_Central_Asia_February_2013.pdf |title=Terrorism and Islamic Radicalization in Central Asia A Compendium of Recent Jamestown Analysis |last=Zenn |first=Jacob |date=February 2013 |website=The Jamestown Foundation |page=57 |access-date=18 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050950/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Jamestown_articles_-_Terrorism_in_Central_Asia_February_2013.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

Even among Hui Salafis ([[Sailaifengye]]) and Uyghur Salafis, there is little coordination or cooperation and the two have totally different political agendas, with the Hui Salafists content to carry out their own teachings and remain politically neutral.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mouqawamahmusic.net/chinese-salafism-and-the-saudi-connection/ |title=Chinese Salafism and the Saudi Connection |last1=al-Sudairi |first1=Mohammed |date=28 October 2014 |website=Mouqawamah Music |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022162112/http://mouqawamahmusic.net/chinese-salafism-and-the-saudi-connection/ |archive-date=22 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/10/chinese-salafism-and-the-saudi-connection/ |title=Chinese Salafism and the Saudi Connection |last1=al-Sudairi |first1=Mohammed |date=23 October 2014 |newspaper=The Diplomat |archive-date=8 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908200228/https://thediplomat.com/2014/10/chinese-salafism-and-the-saudi-connection/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Hui Muslim [[drug dealer]]s are accused by [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] Muslims of pushing heroin onto Uyghurs.<ref name="William2013">{{cite book|first=Safran|last=William|title=Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNXoAZP5oFYC&pg=PA36|date=13 May 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-32423-9|pages=36–|access-date=16 September 2016|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803114808/https://books.google.com/books?id=yNXoAZP5oFYC&pg=PA36|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gao2011">{{cite book|first=Huan|last=Gao|title=Women and Heroin Addiction in China's Changing Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2upAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT190|date=15 July 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-66156-3|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324234830/https://books.google.com/books?id=J2upAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT190|url-status=live}}</ref> There is a typecast image in the public eye of Hui being heroin dealers.<ref name="Zhou1999">{{cite book|first=Yongming|last=Zhou|title=Anti-drug Crusades in Twentieth-century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Rv-MsA4UGIC&pg=PA128|year=1999|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-9598-0|pages=128–|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324234809/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Rv-MsA4UGIC&pg=PA128|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Tibetan-Muslim sectarian violence====
[[File:A new Muslim Mosque in Lhasa.jpg|thumb|The [[Lhasa Great Mosque]] in Tibet]]
In Tibet, the majority of Muslims are Hui people. Antagonism between Tibetans and Muslims stems from events during the Muslim warlord [[Ma Bufang]]'s rule such as the [[Ngolok rebellions (1917–49)]] and the [[Sino-Tibetan War]], but such hostility was suppressed after the [[annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]].<ref name="Demick"/> However, renewed Tibetan-Muslim violence broke out in the wake of the gradual liberalization of China, that resulted in increased movement of people, such as Han and Hui Chinese, into Tibetan areas.<ref name="Demick"/> Muslim restaurants were attacked, and apartments and shops of Muslims were set on fire in the riot in mid-March 2008, resulting in death and injury. Tibetans also boycotted Muslim owned businesses.{{sfn|Fischer|2005|p=17}} In August 2008, the main mosque in [[Lhasa]] was burned down by Tibetans during the [[2008 Tibetan unrest]].<ref>{{cite news|date=28 March 2008 |title=Police shut Muslim quarter in Lhasa |url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/03/28/tibet.china.ap/ |work=CNN |location=Lhasa, Tibet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404073742/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/03/28/tibet.china.ap/ |archive-date=4 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Some Muslims avoided overt display of religious identity in the wake of the violence. Many Hui Muslims also supported the repression of Tibetan separatism by the Chinese government, complicating their relationship.<ref name="Demick">{{cite news|last=Demick |first=Barbara |date=23 June 2008 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-23-fg-muslims23-story.html |title=Tibetan-Muslim tensions roil China |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=28 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622013126/http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jun/23/world/fg-muslims23 |archive-date=22 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Problems also exist between Chinese-speaking Hui and Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan-speaking [[Kache]] minority of Muslims).<ref>{{cite book| first=Shail |last=Mayaram| title=The other global city| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tOZ1pBTJvp4C}}| access-date=30 July 2010| year=2009| publisher=Taylor Francis| isbn=978-0-415-99194-0| page=75}}</ref>

==== Sectarian conflict ====
There have been many occurrences of [[Muslim groups in China#Infighting between sects|violent sectarian fighting between different Hui sects]], mostly dating from the [[Qing dynasty]]. Sectarian fighting between Hui sects led to the Jahriyya rebellion in the 1780s and the 1895 revolt. After a hiatus after the People's Republic of China came to power, sectarian infighting resumed in the 1990s in Ningxia between different sects. In recent years, the [[Salafi movement]] in China has increased rapidly among Hui population with more mosques occupied under Salafis in China. Several sects refuse to intermarry with each other. One Sufi sect circulated an anti-Salafi pamphlet in Arabic.

A small but growing number of Huis who supported or even joined the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]. Chinese officials were believed to have ignored growing Hui Sufis' resentment against growing Salafi movement until recently.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-china-saudi-arabia-20160201-story.html |title=In China, rise of Salafism fosters suspicion and division among Muslims |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=February 2016 |access-date=27 June 2020 |archive-date=27 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627173216/https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-china-saudi-arabia-20160201-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ISIL had released a music video called "I am a mujahid" (我們是Mujahid) in Mandarin to reportedly attract Hui Muslims into joining the organization.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-12-08/isis-uses-soothing-music-recruiting-tool |title=ISIS uses soothing music as a recruiting tool — in China |date=8 December 2015 |access-date=20 October 2019 |archive-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020055128/https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-12-08/isis-uses-soothing-music-recruiting-tool |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sitemultimedia.org/audio/SITE_IS_HMC_Chinese_Mujahid.mp3 |title=Audio |website=SITE Intelligence Group |access-date=20 October 2019 |archive-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020132828/http://sitemultimedia.org/audio/SITE_IS_HMC_Chinese_Mujahid.mp3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Relations with other religions ==
Some Hui believed that Islam was the true religion through which [[Confucianism]] could be practiced, superior to "barbarian" religions, and accused Buddhists and Daoists of "[[heresy]]", like most other Confucian scholars.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lipman |first=Jonathan N. |date=July 1984|title=Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu |journal=Modern China |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc. |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=297|jstor=189017 |doi=10.1177/009770048401000302 |s2cid=143843569 }}</ref> Among the many Muslims in pre-Chinese [[Lhasa]], the [[Qinghai Lake|Kokonor]] Hui community was permitted to maintain the abattoirs outside the confines of the [[Lingkhor|girdling pilgrims' circuit]] of the city.<ref>[[Heinrich Harrer]], '' [[Seven Years in Tibet]],'' [[Rupert Hart-Davis|Rupert Hart-Davis Publisher]] London 1953 p.157.</ref>

Muslim general [[Ma Bufang]] allowed [[polytheist]]s to openly worship and [[Christian missionary|Christian missionaries]] to station themselves in Qinghai. Ma and other high-ranking Muslim generals attended the [[Kokonuur Lake]] ceremony where the God of the Lake was worshipped, and during the ritual, the Chinese national anthem was sung, participants bowed to a portrait of [[Kuomintang]] party founder [[Sun Yat-sen]], and to the God of the Lake. Offerings were given to Sun by the participants, including Muslims.{{sfn|Bulag|2002|p=51}} Ma Bufang invited Kazakh Muslims to attend the ceremony.{{sfn|Bulag|2002|p=52}} Ma Bufang received audiences of Christian missionaries, who sometimes preached the [[Gospel]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=NrtBAAAAYAAJ}}|title=Journal of the American Water Works Association, Volume 39, Issues 1–6|author=American Water Works Association |year=1947|publisher=The Association|page=24|access-date=28 June 2010}} Alternate URL: {{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=eUAhAQAAIAAJ}}|title=Journal of the American Water Works Association, Volume 39, Issues 1–6 |author=American Water Works Association|year=1947|publisher=The Association|page=24|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> His son [[Ma Jiyuan]] received a silver cup from the missionaries.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Divine Word Missionaries in Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang, 1922–1953: A Bibliographic Note| journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume=19| pages=59–82| year=2008| last1=Horlemann| first1=B.| s2cid=162397522| doi=10.1017/S135618630800905X}}</ref>

The Muslim [[Ma Zhu]] wrote "Chinese religions are different from Islam, but the ideas are the same."<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books|id=1UJwAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=y|page=8}}|title=Discrimination, corruption and moral decline: the historical background of the Muslim Hui uprising in Yunnan, China, 1856–1873 |first=Jianping|last=Wang|year=1995|publisher=The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, The Hebrew University|page=8|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

During the [[Panthay Rebellion]], the Muslim leader [[Du Wenxiu]] said to a Catholic priest: "I have read your religious works and I have found nothing inappropriate. Muslims and Christians are brothers."<ref>{{cite book| first=David G. |last=Atwill| title=The Chinese sultanate: Islam, ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in southwest China, 1856–1873| url={{google books|id=Da2M_viEclEC|plainurl=y |page=167}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=2005| publisher=Stanford University Press| isbn=0-8047-5159-5| page=167}}</ref>

== Culture ==

===Sects===
{{main|Muslim groups in China}}

===Mosques===
[[File:The Mosque in Guangzhou 27.JPG|thumb|The [[Xianxian Mosque]] in [[Guangzhou]]]]

The style of architecture of [[List of mosques in China|Hui mosques]] varies [[Muslim groups in China|according to their sect]]. The traditionalist [[Gedimu]] Hanafi Sunnis, influenced by Chinese culture, build mosques which look like Chinese temples. The reformist modernist [[Yihewani]], originally inspired by [[Salafism]], build their mosques in a middle-eastern style.

=== Foot binding ===

Hui women once practiced [[foot binding]], at the time a common practice across China. It was particularly prevalent in [[Gansu]].{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p=893}} The [[Dungan people]], descendants of Hui from northwestern China who fled to Central Asia, also practised foot binding until 1948.<ref>{{cite book| first1=Touraj  |last1=Atabaki |first2=Sanjyot |last2=Mehendale| title=Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora| url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=zwKBZmpBo5YC|page=31}}| access-date=1 January 2011| year=2005| publisher=Psychology Press| isbn=0-415-33260-5| page=31}}</ref> However, in southern China, in [[Canton (Guangzhou)|Canton]], [[James Legge]] encountered a mosque that had a placard denouncing footbinding, saying Islam did not allow it, since it violated God's creation.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fpcuAAAAYAAJ|page=111}}|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|first=James|last=Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |page=111|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

===Cultural practices===
[[File:Hui family eid.jpg|thumb|right|An ethnic Hui family celebrating Eid ul-Fitr in [[Ningxia]].]]
French army Commandant Viscount D'Ollone reported in 1910 that Sichuanese Hui did not strictly enforce the Islamic practices of [[teetotal]]ing, ritual washing and Friday prayers. Chinese practices like [[Jingxiang|incense burning]] at [[ancestral tablets]] and honoring [[Confucius]] were adopted. One practice that was stringently observed was the ban on pork consumption.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=80}}
[[File:HuiChineseMuslim2.jpg|thumb|Hui men praying in a mosque]]
The Sunni [[Gedimu]] and the [[Yihewani]] burned incense during worship. This was viewed as [[Taoism|Daoist]] or [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhist]] influence.{{sfn|Rubin|2000|p=80}} The Hui were also known as the "white capped". Hui used incense during worship, while the [[Salar people|Salar]], also known as "black capped" Hui considered this to be a [[Bidʻah|heathen ritual]] and denounced it.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ynMqAAAAMAAJ |page=680}}|title=The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic Church, Volume 3|author=Knights of Columbus Catholic Truth Committee |year=1913|publisher=Encyclopedia Press|page=680|access-date=23 January 2011}}</ref>

In [[Yunnan]] province, during the Qing dynasty, tablets that wished the Emperor a long life were placed at mosque entrances. No [[minaret]]s were available and no chanting accompanied the call to prayer. The mosques were similar to Buddhist temples, and incense was burned inside.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=77}}

Hui enlisted in the military and were praised for their martial skills.

[[Circumcision]] in Islam is known as ''[[khitan (circumcision)|khitan]]''. Islamic scholars agree that it is required (mandatory), or recommended.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml | title=BBC – Religions – Islam: Circumcision of boys }}</ref> However, circumcision is not universally practiced among the Hui.<ref name=":1" /> In the regions where it is undertaken, Hui tradition is that the maternal uncle (''Jiujiu'') play an important role by the circumcision and wedding of his nephew.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | url=https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/649 | doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.649 | title=Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan | year=2003 | last1=Allès | first1=Élisabeth | journal=China Perspectives | volume=2003 | issue=5 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Names ===

The long history of Hui residence and mixing in China has led the Hui to adopt names typical of their Han neighbors; however, some common Hui names are actually Chinese renderings of common Muslim (i.e. [[Arabic]]) and [[Persia]]n names. For instance, surname "Ma" for "[[Muhammad (name)|Muhammad]]".

Hui people usually have a Chinese name and a Muslim name in [[Arabic]], although the Chinese name is used primarily. Some Hui do not remember their Muslim names.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=78}}

Hui people who adopt foreign names may not use their Muslim names.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=nnlCAAAAYAAJ|page=178}}|title=Pakistan horizon, Volumes 1–3|year=1948|publisher=Pakistan Institute of International Affairs|page=178|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> An example of this is [[Pai Hsien-yung]], a Hui author in America, who adopted the name Kenneth. His father was Muslim general [[Bai Chongxi]], who had his children adopt western names.

==== Surnames ====

Hui people commonly believe that their surnames originated as "Sinified" forms of their foreign Muslim ancestors some time during the Yuan or Ming eras.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=250}} Common Hui surnames:<ref name="Susan Debra Blum, Lionel M. Jensen 2002 121">{{cite book| first1=Susan Debra |last1=Blum |first2=Lionel M. |last2=Jensen |title=China off center: mapping the margins of the middle kingdom| url = {{google books |plainurl=y |id=pA_MP4Q11qgC |page=121}}| access-date=9 April 2011| year=2002| publisher=University of Hawaii Press| isbn=0-8248-2577-2| page=121}}</ref>{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=375}}{{sfn|Rubin|2000|p=79}}<ref>{{cite book| first=Leif O. |last=Manger| title=Muslim diversity: local Islam in global contexts| url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=uHjR3yeIWzUC|p=132}}| access-date=9 April 2011 | year=1999| publisher=Routledge| isbn=0-7007-1104-X| page=132}}</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
*[[Ma (surname)|Ma]] for [[Muhammad (name)|Muhammad]]
*[[Mu (surname)|Mu]] for Muhammad{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=33}}
*[[Han (Chinese surname)|Han]]
*Ha for [[Hassan (surname)|Hasan]]
*[[Hu (surname)|Hu]] for [[Hussein]]
*Sai for [[Sa‘id]]
*[[Sha (surname)|Sha]] for [[Shah (surname)|Shah]]
*[[Zheng (surname)|Zheng]] for [[Shams (disambiguation)|Shams]]
*[[Guo]] (Koay) for [[Qamar ud-Din (disambiguation)|Kamaruddin]]
*[[Cai (surname)|Cai]] (Chuah) for [[Osman (name)|Osman]]
*[[Hai (surname)|Hai]] for [[Haydar]]
}}
A [[Ningxia]] legend states that four common Hui surnames—Na, [[Su (surname)|Su]], La, and [[Ding (surname)|Ding]]—originate with the descendants of [[Nasr al-Din (Yunnan)|Nasruddin]], a son of [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]], who "divided" the ancestor's name (''Nasulading'', in Chinese) among themselves.{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=22}}

=== Literature ===

The [[Han Kitab]] is a collection of Islamic and Confucian texts written by various Hui authors in the 18th century, including [[Liu Zhi (scholar)|Liu Zhi]]. New works were written by Hui intellectuals following education reform by [[Ma Clique]] warlords and [[Bai Chongxi]]. Some texts were translated from Arabic.<ref>{{cite web|title=The completion of the idea of dual loyalty towards China and Islam|last=Masumi|first=Matsumoto|url=http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676|access-date=28 June 2010|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504052115/http://science-islam.net/article.php3?id_article=676}}</ref>

A new edition of a book by [[Ma Te-hsin]], called ''Ho-yin Ma Fu-ch'u hsien-sheng i-shu Ta hua tsung kuei Ssu tien yaohui'', first printed in 1865, was reprinted in 1927 by Ma Fuxiang.<ref>{{cite book| first=Mary Clabaugh |last=Wright| author-link=Mary C. Wright| title=Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism the T'Ung-Chih| url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VaOaAAAAIAAJ|page=406}}| access-date=28 June 2010| year=1957| publisher=Stanford University Press| isbn=0-8047-0475-9| page=406}}</ref> General Ma Fuxiang invested in new editions of Confucian and Islamic texts.{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p=176}} He edited ''Shuofang Daozhi'',<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PCktSQAACAAJ}} |year=1926 |title=Shuo fang dao zhi}}{{dead link|date=September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5ybyHgAACAAJ}} |script-title=zh:朔方道志: 31卷 |last1=Ma |first1=Fuxiang |author-link1=Ma Fuxiang |year=1987|publisher=Tianjin Ancient Books Publishing House ({{lang|zh|天津古籍出版社}})}}</ref> a gazette and books such as Meng Cang ZhuangKuang: Hui Bu Xinjiang fu.<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y|id=tVq1GwAACAAJ}}|script-title=zh:蒙藏狀况: 回部新疆坿 |trans-title=Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Status: Mikurube Xinjiang Agricultural Experiment Station |last1=Ma |first1=Fuxiang |author-link1=Ma Fuxiang |year=1931|publisher=Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission}}</ref>

=== Language ===

The Hui of Yunnan, whom the Burmese called Panthays, were reportedly fluent in Arabic.{{sfn|Fytche|1878|p=301}} During the [[Panthay Rebellion]], Arabic replaced Chinese as the official language of the rebel kingdom.<ref>
{{cite journal 
|last=Evans 
|first=Brian L. 
|date=March 1985 
|title=The Panthay Mission of 1872 and its Legacies 
|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 
|volume=16 
|issue=1 
|pages=117–128 
|doi=10.1017/s0022463400012790 
|jstor=20070843
|s2cid=162316292 
}}</ref>

Published in 1844, ''The Chinese repository, Volume 13'' includes an account of an Englishman who stayed in the Chinese city of [[Ningbo]], where he visited the local mosque. The Hui running the mosque was from Shandong and descended from residents of the Arabian city of [[Medina]]. He was able to read and speak Arabic with ease, but was illiterate in Chinese, although he was born in China and spoke Chinese.<ref>
{{cite book
|url=
{{google books  |plainurl=y  |id=6wEMAAAAYAAJ |p=31}}
|title=The Chinese repository, Volume 13
|year=1844
|page=31
|access-date=8 May 2011
}}
</ref>

=== Marriage ===

Hui marriages resemble typical Chinese marriages except that traditional Chinese rituals are not used.<ref>{{cite book| first=Andreas |last=Graeser| title=Zenon von Kition| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=dBuqWVXGTzAC |page=368}}| access-date=28 November 2010| year=1975| publisher=Walter de Gruyter| isbn=3-11-004673-3| page=368}}</ref> Endogamy is practiced by Hui, who mainly marry amongst themselves rather than with Muslims from other sects.<ref>{{cite book| first=Zhongyi |last=Jia| title=The marriage customs among China's ethnic minority groups| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3BHkUYCkOnYC|page=25}}| access-date=12 May 2011| year=2006| publisher={{lang|zh|中信出版社}}| isbn=7-5085-1003-8| page=25}}</ref> However, the Hui Na family in Ningxia is known to practice both parallel and cross [[cousin marriage]].<ref name="Susan Debra Blum, Lionel M. Jensen 2002 121"/> The Najiahu village in Ningxia is named after this family, descended from [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]].{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=22}}

==== Outside marriage ====

Intermarriage generally involves a Han Chinese converting to Islam when marrying a Hui, and marriage without conversion only takes place rarely. In Hui discourse, marriage between a Hui woman and a Han man is not allowed unless the Han converts to Islam, although it occurred repeatedly in Eastern China. Generally Han of both sexes have to convert to Islam before marrying. This practice helped increase the population of Hui.<ref>{{cite web|title=Plurality and Unity in the Configuration of the Chinese People|last=FEI|first=XIAOTONG|date=15–17 November 1988|work=THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES |url=http://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/fei90.pdf|publisher=The Chinese University of Hong Kong|page=30|access-date=31 October 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100610071632/http://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/fei90.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2010}}</ref> A case of switching nationality occurred in 1972 when a Han man married a Hui and was considered a Hui after converting.<ref name="Susan Debra Blum, Lionel M. Jensen 2002 121"/>

''Zhao nuxu'' is a practice where the son-in-law moves in with the wife's family. Some marriages between Han and Hui are conducted this way. The husband does not need to convert, but the wife's family follows Islamic customs. No census data documents this type of marriage, reporting only cases in which the wife moves in with the groom's family.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=211}} In [[Henan]] province, a marriage was recorded between a Han boy and Hui girl without the Han converting, during the [[Ming dynasty]]. Steles in Han and Hui villages record this story and Hui and Han members of the Lineage celebrate at the ancestral temple together.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Allès|first=Elizabeth |url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/document649.html|title=Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan|journal=China Perspectives|year=2003|volume=2003|issue=5 |doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.649 |access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=30 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630215652/http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/document649.html|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In Beijing, Oxen street Gladney found 37 Han–Hui couples; two of which were had Hui wives and the other 35 had Hui husbands.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=209}} Data was collected in different Beijing districts. In Ma Dian 20% of intermarriages were Hui women marrying into Han families, in Tang Fang 11% of intermarriage were Hui women marrying into Han families. 67.3% of intermarriage in Tang Fang were Han women marrying into a Hui family and in Ma Dian 80% of intermarriage were Han women marrying into Hui families.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=210}}

[[Li Nu]], the son of Li Lu, from a Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou visited [[Ormus|Hormuz]] in [[Persia]] in 1376. He married a [[Persian people|Persian]] or an [[Arab]] girl, and brought her back to [[Quanzhou]]. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of Ming dynasty reformer [[Li Zhi (philosopher)|Li Chih]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=067On0JgItAC |page=817}}|title=Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644|series=A-L, Volumes 1–2 |author=Association for Asian studies |year=1976|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=817|isbn=978-0231038010|access-date=29 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| first=Joseph |last=Needham| title=Science and civilisation in China |volume=4| url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l6TVhvYLaEwC}}| access-date=29 June 2010| date=1 April 1971| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=0-521-07060-0| page=495}}.</ref>

In [[Gansu]] province in the 1800s, a Muslim Hui woman married into the [[Han Chinese]] Kong lineage of Dachuan, which was descended from Confucius. The Han Chinese groom and his family were only converted to Islam after the marriage by their Muslim relatives. In 1715 in [[Yunnan]] province, few Han Chinese married Hui women and converted to Islam.

Jiang Xingzhou, a Han [[Eight Banners|bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner]], married a Muslim woman in [[Mukden]] during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he was not executed.<ref>GZSL,juan1272, QL 52.1.8 (25 February 1787).</ref>

In the [[Dungan Revolt (1895–96)]] 400 Muslims in Topa [[w:zh:多巴镇|多巴]] did not join the revolt and proclaimed their loyalty to China. An argument between a Han Chinese and his Muslim wife led to these Muslims getting massacred, when she threatened that the Muslims from Topa would attack Tankar and give a signal to their co-religionists to rise up and open the gates by burning the temples atop the hills. The husband reported this to an official and the next day the Muslims were massacred with the exception of a few Muslim girls who were married off to Han Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|title=With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple|author=Susie Carson Rijnhart |location=Chicago, New York & Toronto|edition=3rd|year=1901 |publisher=Fleming H. Revell Company|chapter=CHAPTER VIII OUR REMOVAL TO TANKAR|chapter-url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/rijnhart/tibetans/tibetans.html|access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304010301/http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/rijnhart/tibetans/tibetans.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Susie Carson Rijnhart|title=With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Borders and of a Journey Into the Far Interior|year=1999 |publisher=Asian Educational Services|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aWh-NGQSZdkC&q=During+the+recent+rebellion,+as+already+stated,+a+large+proportion+of+the+Mohammedan+population+left+their+homes+and+joined+the+rebel+forces,+while+th&pg=PA135|isbn=978-81-206-1302-7|access-date=6 May 2020|url-status=live|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803081559/https://books.google.com/books?id=aWh-NGQSZdkC&pg=PA135&dq=During+the+recent+rebellion,+as+already+stated,+a+large+proportion+of+the+Mohammedan+population+left+their+homes+and+joined+the+rebel+forces,+while+th}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Susie Carson Rijnhart |year=1901 |title=With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple: Narrative of Four Years' Residence on the Tibetan Border, and of a Journey Into the Far Interior |publisher=Oliphant, Anderson, & Ferrier |url=https://archive.org/details/withtibetansint00rijngoog |quote=During the recent rebellion, as already stated, a large proportion of the Mohammedan population left their homes and joined the rebel forces,{{nbsp}}...|pages=[https://archive.org/details/withtibetansint00rijngoog/page/n146 135]}}</ref>

In the 21st century, Hui men marrying Han women and Han men who marry Hui women have above average education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://paa2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=50502|title=The Cross-Cultural Patterns of Interracial Marriage|last1=Heaton|first1=Tim B.|last2=Jacobson|first2=Cardell K.|date=September 2004|page=10|publisher=Department of Sociology Brigham Young University|access-date=31 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133855/http://paa2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=50502|archive-date=17 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Education ===
Hui have supported modern education and reform. Hui such as [[Hu Songshan]] and the [[Ma Clique]] warlords promoted western, modern secular education. Elite Hui received both Muslim and [[Confucian]] education. They studied the [[Quran]] and Confucian texts like the [[Spring and Autumn Annals]].{{sfn|Lipman|1997|p=168}} Hui people refused to follow the [[May Fourth Movement]]. Instead, they taught both western subjects such as science along with traditional Confucian literature and classical Chinese, along with Islamic education and Arabic.{{sfn|Dudoignon|Komatsu|Kosugi|2006|p=251}} Hui warlord [[Ma Bufang]] built a girls' school in [[Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture|Linxia]] that taught modern secular subjects.{{sfn|Jaschok|Shui|2000|p=96}} Hui have had female imams, called Nu Ahong for centuries. They are the world's only female Imams. They guide women in prayer but are not allowed to lead prayers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Muslim women do it their way in Ningxia |agency=AP |location=WUZHONG, CHINA|newspaper=Taipei Times|page=9|date=20 December 2006 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/12/20/2003341218|access-date=29 May 2011 |archive-date=30 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130061459/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/12/20/2003341218|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Military service ===
[[File:Chiang Kaishek with Muslim General Ma Fushou.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[Chiang Kai-shek]], head of the [[Kuomintang]] with Muslim General [[Ma Fushou]].]]
[[File:F985680007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Ma Jiyuan]], a Muslim General, at his wedding with [[Kuomintang]] flag.]]

Muslims have served extensively in the Chinese military for a long time in Chinese history, as both officials and soldiers, often filling the more distinguished military positions.{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p=893}} During the Tang dynasty, 3,000 Chinese soldiers and Arab 3,000 Muslim soldiers were traded to each other in an agreement.{{sfn|Keim|1951|p=121}} In 756, 3,000 Arab mercenaries joined the Chinese against the [[An Lushan rebellion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |last2=Ho |first2=Ping-Yu |last3=Lu |first3=Gwei-Djen |last4=Sivin |first4=Nathan |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts |date=1980 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=052108573X |page=416 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrNDwP0pS8sC&pg=PA416}}</ref> A mythical Hui legendary folklore account claims 3000 Chinese soldiers were swapped by [[Guo Ziyi]] with the Muslims for 300 "Hui" soldiers, and said that only 3 Hui survived the war against An Lushan and populated Ningxia.{{sfn|Israeli |2017 |p = 26}} A massacre of thousands of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants and other foreigners by former Yan rebel general [[Tian Shengong]] happened during the An Lushan rebellion in the [[Yangzhou massacre (760)]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wan |first1=Lei |year=2017 |title=The earliest Muslim communities in China |series=Qiraat No. 8 (February – March 2017) |publisher=King Faisal Center For Research and Islamic Studies |isbn=978-603-8206-39-3 |page=11 |url=https://www.kfcris.com/pdf/6b438689cf0f36eb4ce727e76d747c3d5af140055feaf.pdf}}</ref>{{sfn|Qi|2010|p=221-227}} The rebel [[Huang Chao]]'s army in southern China committed the [[Guangzhou massacre]] against over 120,000 to 200,000 foreign Arab and Persian Muslim, Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian merchants in 878–879 at the seaport and trading entrepot of [[Guangzhou]].{{sfn|Gernet|1996|p=292}}

During the [[Ming dynasty]], Hui generals and troops loyal to Ming fought against Mongols and Hui loyal to the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ming conquest of Yunnan]].{{sfn|Dillon|1999|p=34}}<ref>
{{cite book 
|last1=Tan 
|first1=Ta Sen 
|first2=Dasheng 
|last2=Chen 
|title=Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia 
|url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=RSRBMSvQHmQC|page=170}} 
|access-date=28 June 2010 
|date=19 October 2009 
|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 
|isbn=978-981-230-837-5 
|page=170}}
</ref> Hui also fought for the emperor against aboriginal tribes in southern China during the [[Miao Rebellions (Ming dynasty)|Miao Rebellions]]. Many Hui soldiers of the Ming dynasty then settled in [[Yunnan]] and [[Hunan]] provinces.

During the [[Qing dynasty]], Hui troops in the Imperial army helped crush Hui rebels during the [[Dungan revolt (1895–1896)|Dungan revolt]] and Panthay Rebellion. The Qing administration in Xinjiang also preferred to use Hui as police.<ref>
{{cite book 
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=9skBUtc0YTwC|page=68}} 
|title=The Cambridge history of China, Volume 10 
|author1=Denis Crispin Twitchett 
|author2=John King Fairbank 
|year=1977
|publisher=Cambridge University Press 
|page=68 
|isbn = 0-521-21447-5 
|access-date=28 June 2010 
}}
</ref> [[Yang Zengxin]], the Han Chinese governor of Xinjiang, extensively relied on Hui generals like [[Ma Shaowu]] and [[Ma Fuxing]]. Qing Muslim general [[Zuo Baogui]] (1837–1894), from [[Shandong]] province, was killed in [[Pyongyang|Pingyang]] in Korea by Japanese cannon fire in 1894 while defending the city, where a memorial to him stands.<ref>
{{cite book 
|first=Aliya Ma 
|last=Lynn
| title=Muslims in China 
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=s4Lp8tgr3esC|page=44}} 
|access-date=28 June 2010 
|date=1 August 2007 
|publisher=University Press 
|isbn=978-0-88093-861-7 
|page=44
}}
</ref> Hui troops also fought western armies for the first time in the [[Boxer Rebellion]], winning battles including the [[Battle of Langfang]] and [[Battle of Beicang]]. These troops were the [[Kansu Braves]] led by General [[Dong Fuxiang]].

Military service continued into the Republic of China period. After the [[Kuomintang]] party took power, Hui participation in the military reached new levels. [[Qinghai]] and [[Ningxia]] were created out of [[Gansu]] province, and the Kuomintang appointed Hui generals as military governors of all three provinces. They became known as the [[Ma Clique]]. Many Muslim [[Salar people|Salar]] joined the army in the Republic era; they and [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]] who have joined the army are described as being given "eating rations" meaning military service.<ref>
{{cite book
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=u5soAAAAYAAJ|page=379}} 
|title=The Moslem World, Volume 10 
|author=Christian Literature Society for India
|editor=Samuel Marinus Zwemer
|year=1920
|publisher=Hartford Seminary Foundation 
|page=379
|access-date=6 June 2011
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book 
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 
|title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia 
|first=James B. 
|last=Minahan 
|page=240 
|isbn=9781610690188 
|date=10 February 2014 
|publisher=Abc-Clio 
|access-date=16 September 2016 
|archive-date=3 August 2020

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803103644/https://books.google.com/books?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 
|url-status=live 
}}
</ref>

The Chinese government appointed Ma Fuxiang as military governor of [[Suiyuan]]. Ma Fuxiang commented on the willingness for Hui people to become martyrs in battle (see [[Martyrdom in Islam]]), saying:

<blockquote>They have not enjoyed the educational and political privileges of the Han Chinese, and they are in many respects primitive. But they know the meaning of fidelity, and if I say "do this, although it means death," they cheerfully obey.<ref>
{{cite book 
|first=Upton 
|last=Close 
|title=In the Land of the Laughing Buddha – The Adventures of an American Barbarian in China 
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DpQa22PJutwC |page=271}} 
|access-date=2010-06-28 
|date=2007-03-30 
|publisher=READ BOOKS 
|isbn=978-1-4067-1675-7 
|page=271}}
</ref>
</blockquote>

Hui generals and soldiers fought for the Republic against Tibet in the [[Sino-Tibetan War]], against Uyghur rebels in the [[Kumul Rebellion]], the Soviet Union in the [[Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang]] and against Japan in the [[Second Sino Japanese War]]. The Japanese planned to invade Ningxia from [[Suiyuan]] in 1939 and create a Hui puppet state. The next year in 1940, the Japanese were defeated militarily by Kuomintang Muslim general [[Ma Hongbin]]. Ma Hongbin's Hui Muslim troops launched further attacks against Japan in the [[Battle of West Suiyuan]].<ref>{{cite book 
|first=Xiaoyuan 
|last=Liu 
|title=Frontier passages: ethnopolitics and the rise of Chinese communism, 1921–1945 
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=impqApZWrJyIC |page=131}} 
|access-date=28 June 2010 
|year=2004 
|publisher=Stanford University Press 
|isbn=0-8047-4960-4 
|page=131 
}}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Chinese Islamic Association issued "A message to all Muslims in China from the Chinese Islamic Association for National Salvation" in [[Ramadan]] of 1940 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

<blockquote>We have to implement the teaching "the love of the fatherland is an article of faith" by the Prophet Muhammad and to inherit the Hui's glorious history in China. In addition, let us reinforce our unity and participate in the twice more difficult task of supporting a defensive war and promoting religion{{nbsp}}... We hope that ahongs and the elite will initiate a movement of prayer during Ramadan and implement group prayer to support our intimate feeling toward Islam. A sincere unity of Muslims should be developed to contribute power towards the expulsion of Japan.</blockquote>

[[File:1955 Ma Bufang with KMT ambassador to Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|[[Ma Bufang]] and Hui children in Egypt.]]

"Ahong" is the Mandarin Chinese word for "imam". During the war against Japan, the imams supported Muslim resistance, calling for Muslims to participate in the fight against Japan, claiming that casualties would become [[shahid|shaheed]]s (martyrs).{{sfn|Dudoignon|Komatsu|Kosugi|2006|p=136}} [[Ma Zhanshan]] was a Hui guerilla fighter against the Japanese.

Hui forces were known for their anti-communist sentiment, and fought for the Kuomintang against the CCP in the [[Chinese Civil War]], and against rebels during the [[Ili Rebellion]]. [[Bai Chongxi]], a Hui general, was appointed to the post of Minister of National Defence, the highest military position in the Republic of China. After the Communist victory and evacuation of the Kuomintang to Taiwan, Hui people continued to serve in the military of the Republic as opposed to the Communist-led People's Republic. Ma Bufang became the ambassador of the Republic of China (Taiwan) to Saudi Arabia. His brother, [[Ma Buqing]], remained a military general on Taiwan. [[Bai Chongxi]] and [[Ma Ching-chiang]] were other Hui who served in Taiwan as military generals.

The PLA recruited Hui soldiers who formally had served under Ma Bufang, as well as Salafi soldiers, to crush the Tibetan revolt in [[Amdo]] during the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]].<ref>
{{cite book 
|first=Warren W. 
|last=Smith 
|title=The Tibetan nation: a history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations 
|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SbHtAAAAMAAJ|page=443}} 
|access-date=28 June 2010 
|date=24 October 1996 
|publisher=Westview Press 
|isbn=0-8133-3155-2 
|page=443}}
</ref>

=== Politics ===
[[File:NRA Generals Northern Expedition.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Chinese Generals pay tribute to the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum at the [[Temple of the Azure Clouds]] in Beijing after the success of the Northern Expedition. From right to left, are Generals Cheng Jin, Zhang Zuobao, Chen Diaoyuan, [[Chiang Kai-shek]], [[Woo Tsin-hang]], Wen Xishan, [[Ma Fuxiang]], Ma Sida and [[Bai Chongxi]]. (6 July 1928)]]The majority of the Hui Muslim [[Ma Clique]] Generals were Kuomintang party members and encouraged Chinese nationalism in their provinces. Kuomintang members [[Ma Qi]], [[Ma Lin (warlord)]], and Ma Bufang served as military governors of [[Qinghai]], [[Ma Hongbin]] served as military governor of [[Gansu]], and [[Ma Hongkui]] served as military governor of Ningxia. General Ma Fuxiang was promoted to governor of Anhui and became chairman of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs. Ma Bufang, Ma Fuxiang, and Bai Chongxi were all members of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, which ruled China in a [[one-party state]]. Member [[Bai Chongxi]] helped build the [[Taipei Grand Mosque]] on Taiwan. Many members of the Hui [[Ma Clique]] were Kuomintang.

Hui put Kuomintang [[Blue Sky with a White Sun]] party symbols on their [[Halal]] restaurants and shops. A Christian missionary in 1935 took a picture of a Muslim meat restaurant in [[Hankou]] that had Arabic and Chinese lettering indicating that it was Halal (fit for Muslim consumption). It had two Kuomintang party symbols on it.{{sfn|Gladney|1996|p=9}}

=== Increasing religiosity in China ===
[[File:General Ma Fuxiang.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Ma Fuxiang]]]]According to [[Dru C. Gladney|Dru Gladney]], professor at [[Pomona College]] in California and a leading scholar on the Hui people, Hui Muslims are enjoying a resurgence in religiosity in China, and that the number of practising Muslims among the Hui people, are rising as well as a "dramatic increase" in the number of Hui women wearing the [[Hijab]], and the numbers of Hui going on the [[Hajj|Haj]]. There are also estimated twice as many mosques in China today than there were in 1950, in which majority were built by Hui Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=The Hui – China's preferred Muslims? {{!}} DW {{!}} 09.12.2016|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-hui-chinas-preferred-muslims/a-36699666|access-date=2021-12-06|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref>

One of the reasons for the trend in China, is that Hui Muslims play a vital role as being middlemen in trade between the Middle East and China, and the China-Middle East trade has become increasingly important to the country. Consequently, the government has started constructing a $3.7 billion Islamic theme park called "World Muslim City", in [[Yinchuan]], one of Hui Muslims hubs. Additionally unlike Uyghurs, who faces far more restrictions in religious freedoms, Hui Muslims generally do not seek independence from China and have a cultural affinity to the Han, and are far more [[Sinicization|assimilated into mainstream Chinese life]]. "It's not an issue of freedom of religion," says Gladney, "Clearly, there are many avenues of religious expression that are unfettered in China, but when you cross these very often nebulous and shifting boundaries of what the state regards as political, then you're in dangerous territory. Obviously this is what we see in Xinjiang and in Tibet".<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival?|url=https://time.com/3099950/china-muslim-hui-xinjiang-uighur-islam/|access-date=2021-12-06|magazine=Time|language=en}}</ref>

== Outside mainland China ==
{{further|Islam in Taiwan|Dungans|Chin Haw|Panthay|China–Egypt relations|China–Saudi Arabia relations|Sino-Arab relations|Ma Bufang|Ma Jiyuan}}
In Southeast Asia, presence of Hui Muslims may date back 700 years to the time of [[Zheng He]], who was a Hui.<ref name="malaysia">
{{cite web 
|url=http://www.islam.org.hk/eng/malaysia/ChineseMuslim_in_Malaysia.asp 
|title=Chinese Muslims in Malaysia History and Development 
|author=Rosey Wang Ma |archive-date=3 March 2016 
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215543/http://www.islam.org.hk/eng/malaysia/ChineseMuslim_in_Malaysia.asp 
|url-status=live
 }}
</ref> Hui people also joined the wave of Chinese migrants that peaked between 1875 and 1912. They inhabited [[Penang]], [[Sabah]], [[Singapore]] and [[Pangkor]] prior to World War II. Most were [[Min Nan|Hokkien]]-speaking coolies and merchants from [[Fujian]]. The colonial British welfare system was commissioned according to language groups, so the Hui were classed as [[Hokkien]]. A small number of Hui may have become assimilated into mainstream Chinese society and local Muslim populations.<ref name="malaysia"/> In 1975, five Hui leaders started a campaign to get every clansman to put up a notice listing their ancestors for 40 generations, as a way of reminding them of their origins. The exact Hui population is unclear today as many families left Islam before independence. In 2000 official census figures gave the number of Muslim Chinese in Malaysia as 57,000 but most were Han converts. According to the Malaysian Chinese Muslim Association, the surnames Koay, Ma, Ha, Ta, Sha, Woon, and An (or Ang) may indicate Hui ancestry.<ref>{{cite news|title=Baiqi to Koay Jetty|first=Himanshu |last=Bhatt|newspaper=New Straits Times|pages=1–3|date=6 March 2005}}</ref>

[[Saudi Arabia]] was settled by hundreds of Hui Muslim soldiers under [[Ma Chengxiang]] after 1949.<ref name="EmberEmber2004">{{cite book|first1=Melvin|last1=Ember|first2=Carol R.|last2=Ember|first3=Ian|last3=Skoggard|title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC&pg=PA115|date=30 November 2004|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-306-48321-9|access-date=16 September 2016|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803103736/https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC&pg=PA115|url-status=live}}</ref> The Hui General [[Ma Bufang]] settled permanently in [[Mecca]] in 1961.<ref>{{cite book|title=Intelligence Digest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EvhXAAAAIAAJ&q=Ma-Hung-kwei|year=1948|publisher=Intelligence International Limited|page=lxxvi|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803151225/https://books.google.com/books?id=EvhXAAAAIAAJ&q=Ma-Hung-kwei&dq=Ma-Hung-kwei|url-status=live}}</ref> For a while Cairo was the dwelling place of [[Ma Bukang]] and Ma Bufang in between the time they were in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Harris1993">{{cite book|author=Lillian Craig Harris|title=China Considers the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmptAAAAMAAJ|date=15 December 1993|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-598-3|page=66|access-date=16 September 2016|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324234924/https://books.google.com/books?id=fmptAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Mi Kungmubu Han'guk Kungnae Sanghwang Kwallyŏn Munsŏ|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgFYAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+pu-fang+egypt|publisher={{lang|ko|國防部軍事編纂硏究所}}|page=168|access-date=3 October 2016|archive-date=30 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630065236/http://books.google.com/books?id=mgFYAAAAMAAJ&q=ma+pu-fang+egypt&dq=ma+pu-fang+egypt|url-status=live}}</ref> The death of [[Ma Jiyuan]] in [[Jeddah]] on 27 February 2012 was greeted with sorrow by the Chinese consulate.

The [[Panthays]] in [[Myanmar]] and some of the [[Chin Haw]] in [[Thailand]] are Hui Muslims, while Hui in Central Asia and Russia are called [[Dungans]].<ref name="EmberEmber2004"/>

== Ethnic tensions ==
{{further|Ethnic issues in the People's Republic of China|Xinjiang re-education camps|Islamophobia in China}}

The Dungan and Panthay revolts were set off by racial antagonism and class warfare, rather than religion.{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p=893}} During the first Dungan revolt from 1862 to 1877, fighting broke out between Uyghur and Hui groups.{{sfn|Bellér-Hann|2007|p=74}} In the military, imbalances in promotion and wealth were other motives for holding foreigners in poor regard.{{sfn|Hastings|Selbie|Gray|1916|p=893}}

In 1936, after [[Sheng Shicai]] expelled 20,000 [[Kazakhs]] from Xinjiang to Qinghai, the Hui led by Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslims, the Kazakhs, until only 135 remained.<ref>
{{cite book
|url={{google books |plainurl=y  |id=m98sAAAAIAAJ}}
|title=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277
|year=1951
|publisher=American Academy of Political and Social Science
|page=152
|access-date=28 June 2010
}}
</ref>

The Hui people have had a long presence in Qinghai and Gansu, or what Tibetans call [[Amdo]], although Tibetans have historically dominated local politics. The situation was reversed in 1931 when the Hui general Ma Bufang inherited the governorship of Qinghai, stacking his government with Hui and Salar and excluding Tibetans. In his power base in Qinghai's northeastern [[Haidong Prefecture]], Ma compelled many Tibetans to convert to Islam and acculturate. Tensions also mounted when Hui started migrating into [[Lhasa]] in the 1990s. In February 2003, Tibetans rioted against Hui, destroying Hui-owned shops and restaurants.<ref>
{{Cite news
|title=Tibetans, Muslim Huis clash in China|date=23 February 2003 
|publisher=CNN 
|url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/02/23/china.clash.reut/index.html
|access-date=15 January 2010
|archive-date=13 September 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913153123/http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/02/23/china.clash.reut/index.html
|url-status=live
}}
</ref> Local [[Tibetan Buddhist]] religious leaders led a regional boycott movement that encouraged Tibetans to boycott Hui-owned shops.{{sfn|Fischer|2005|pp=2, 5, 10, 17–20}}

{{See also|Islam in China#Hui-Uyghur tension}}
Tensions with [[Uyghurs]] arose because Qing and Republican Chinese authorities used Hui troops and officials to dominate the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.{{sfn|Starr|2004|p=311}} Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4.4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1.7 percent. This dramatic increase in Hui population led inevitably to significant tensions between the Hui and Uyghur populations. Many Hui Muslim civilians were killed by Uyghur rebel troops in the [[Kizil massacre]] (1933).<ref name="auto"/> Some Uyghurs in [[Kashgar]] remember that the Hui army at the [[Battle of Kashgar (1934)|1934 Battle of Kashgar]] massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which caused tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.{{sfn|Starr|2004|p=113}} Some Hui criticize Uyghur separatism and generally do not want to get involved in conflict in other countries.<ref name="Van Wie Davis"/> Hui and Uyghur live separately, attending different mosques.<ref name="Safran 1998 35"/> During the [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots|2009 rioting in Xinjiang]] that killed around 200 people, "Kill the Han, kill the Hui" was the recurring cry spread across social media among extremist Uyghurs.<ref name="Beech"/>

== See also ==
*[[Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War]]
*[[Dungan people]]
*[[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)|Hui Minorities' War]]
*[[Hui pan-nationalism]]
*[[Hui people in Beijing]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{citation
	
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  | given = Dongfang
	
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  | pages = 221–227
	
  | chapter-url = https://asia.si.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/17Qi.pdf
	
  | title = Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds
	
  | editor1-given = Regina
	
  | editor1-surname = Krahl
	
  | editor2-given = John
	
  | editor2-surname = Guy
	
  | editor3-given = J. Keith
	
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  | editor4-given = Julian
	
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  | publisher = Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution
	
  | location = Washington, DC
	
  | year = 2010
	
  | isbn = 978-1-58834-305-5
	
  | url = https://asia.si.edu/research/exhibition-catalogues/shipwrecked-catalog/
	
  | access-date = 10 July 2022
	
  | archive-date = 4 May 2021
	
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  | url-status = dead
	
  }}
{{refend}}

; Attributions
{{refbegin}}
* {{PD-old-text |title = Chinese and Japanese repository of facts and events in science, history and art, relating to Eastern Asia, Volume 1 |year = 1863 }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The Moslem World, Volume 10 |year = 1920 |author = Christian Literature Society for India, Hartford Seminary Foundation }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8 |year = 1916 |author = James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray}}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253–55: as narrated by himself, with two accounts of the earlier journey of John of Pian de Carpine |year = 1900 |author = Willem van Ruysbroeck, Giovanni (da Pian del Carpine, Archbishop of Antivari) }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = China revolutionized |year = 1913 |author = John Stuart Thomson }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = Accounts and papers of the House of Commons |year = 1871 |author = Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The River of golden sand, condensed by E.C. Baber, ed. by H. Yule |year = 1883 |author = William John Gill }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = Burma past and present |year = 1878 |first = Albert |last = Fytche }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity |year = 1880 |first = James |last = Legge }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The history of China, Volume 2 |year = 1898 |author = Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The River of golden sand, condensed by E.C. Baber, ed. by H. Yule |year = 1883 |author = William John Gill }}
* {{PD-old-text |title = The Chinese repository, Volume 13 |year = 1844 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* "CHINA'S ISLAMIC HERITAGE" Newsletter (Australian National University), No. 5, March 2006.{{full citation needed|date=September 2021}}
*{{cite journal
 | last = Chuah
 | first = Osman
 |date= April 2004
 | title = Muslims in China: the social and economic situation of the Hui Chinese
 | journal = [[Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs]]
 | volume = 24
 | issue = 1
 | pages = 155–162
 | doi = 10.1080/1360200042000212133
 | s2cid = 144060218
 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |year=2011 |title=China's Ancient Tea Horse Road |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |asin=B005DQV7Q2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Forbes |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David |year=2011 |title=Traders of the Golden Triangle |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Cognoscenti Books |asin=B006GMID5K}}
*{{cite book| last = Gladney| first = Dru C.|author-link=Dru C. Gladney |title=Ethnic Identity in China: The Making of a Muslim Minority Nationality (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) |year=1997 | publisher = Harcourt Brace College Publishers|isbn=0-15-501970-8}}
*{{cite journal |last=Hillman |first=Ben |title= The Rise of the Community in Rural China: Village Politics, Cultural Identity and Religious Revival in a Hui Hamlet |journal=The China Journal |volume=51 |year=2004 |pages=53–73 |doi=10.2307/3182146 |issue=51 |jstor=3182146 |s2cid=143548506 }}
*{{cite book |url=http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3359949 |title=Islam in China, Hui and Uyghurs: between modernization and sinicization, the study of the Hui and Uyghurs of China |last=Berlie |first=Jean |author1-link=Jean Berlie |publisher=White Lotus Press |location =Bangkok, Thailand |year=2004 |isbn=974-480-062-3}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/275064/Hui Britannica Hui People]

{{-}}
{{Ethnic groups in China}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hui people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups officially recognized by China]]
[[Category:Ethnoreligious groups in Asia]]
[[Category:Muslim ethnoreligious groups]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of China]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of East Asia]]