Editing History of Vanuatu

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:New Hebrides.JPG|thumb|Early map of the New Hebrides, 1887]]
The '''history of Vanuatu''' spans over 3,200 years.

==Premodern history==
{{Main|Vanuatu#Prehistory}}
The pre-European history of Vanuatu can be reconstructed by combining insights from [[linguistics]] (particularly [[historical linguistics]]), [[anthropology]], [[archaeology]] and [[human genetics]]. 

Archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] [[language]]s first came to the islands some 3,300 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bedford |first1=Stuart  |last2=Spriggs |first2=Matthew |title=Northern Vanuatu as a Pacific Crossroads: The Archaeology of Discovery, Interaction, and the Emergence of the "ethnographic Present" |journal=Asian Perspectives |year=2008 |volume=47 |issue=1|pages=95–120 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |doi=10.1353/asi.2008.0003 |jstor=42928734 |hdl=10125/17282 |s2cid=53485887 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Pottery]] fragments have been found dating back to 1300 BC.<ref>Ron Adams, [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-53977 "History (from Vanuatu)"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2006.</ref> 

The first inhabitants of Vanuatu were carriers of the [[Lapita culture]], speakers of the [[Proto Oceanic language]].<ref>{{Citation
| last1    = François
| first1   = Alexandre
| author-link  =Alexandre François
| last2   =Franjieh
| first2  =Michael
| last3   =Lacrampe
| first3  =Sébastien
| last4   =Schnell
| first4  =Stefan
| editor-last   =François
| editor-first  =Alexandre
| editor2-last  =Lacrampe
| editor2-first =Sébastien
| editor3-last  =Franjieh
| editor3-first =Michael
| editor4-last  =Schnell
| editor4-first =Stefan
| date     =2015
| title    =The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity
| chapter  =The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu
| contribution-url = http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/Francois-et-al_2015_Languages-of-Vanuatu_Intro-chapter.pdf
| series  =Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia
| publisher =Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access
| location =Canberra
| pages = 1–21
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.730.9327
| isbn =9781922185235
| ref = density
}}.</ref> That first wave of migration was likely followed, about 500 BC, by a second wave of [[Melanesians|Melanesian populations]].<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1038/s41559-018-0498-2| issn = 2397-334X| volume = 2| issue = 4| pages = 731–740| last1 = Posth| first1 = Cosimo| last2 = Nägele| first2 = Kathrin| last3 = Colleran| first3 = Heidi| last4 = Valentin| first4 = Frédérique| last5 = Bedford| first5 = Stuart| last6 = Kami| first6 = Kaitip W.| last7 = Shing| first7 = Richard| last8 = Buckley| first8 = Hallie| last9 = Kinaston| first9 = Rebecca| last10 = Walworth| first10 = Mary| last11 = Clark| first11 = Geoffrey R.| last12 = Reepmeyer| first12 = Christian| last13 = Flexner| first13 = James| last14 = Maric| first14 = Tamara| last15 = Moser| first15 = Johannes| last16 = Gresky| first16 = Julia| last17 = Kiko| first17 = Lawrence| last18 = Robson| first18 = Kathryn J.| last19 = Auckland| first19 = Kathryn| last20 = Oppenheimer| first20 = Stephen J.| last21 = Hill| first21 = Adrian V. S.| last22 = Mentzer| first22 = Alexander J.| last23 = Zech| first23 = Jana| last24 = Petchey| first24 = Fiona| last25 = Roberts| first25 = Patrick| last26 = Jeong| first26 = Choongwon| last27 = Gray| first27 = Russell D.| last28 = Krause| first28 = Johannes| last29 = Powell| first29 = Adam| title = Language continuity despite population replacement in Remote Oceania| journal = Nature Ecology & Evolution| date = 2018| pmid = 29487365| pmc = 5868730}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=12 July 2017|title=Vanuatu profile – Timeline|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16426561|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref>

Around the 16th or 17th century AD, the last chief with the title [[Roi Mata]], died in central Vanuatu. He was buried in a large mound with several retainers &ndash; a place which is now one of the [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Sites]]. The memory of Roi Mata is still told today in oral histories and legends.<ref>{{cite book |language=en|author1=Chris Ballard|author2=Meredith Wilson|title=Chief Roi Mata's Domain|type=Nomination by the Republic of Vanuatu for Inscription on the World Heritage List|date=2008|url=http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1280.pdf |ref=unescopdf}}</ref>

==European contact==
[[File:The Landing at Tana one of the New Hebrides, by William Hodges.jpg|thumb|[[James Cook]] landing at [[Tanna (island)|Tanna island]], c. 1774]]

The Vanuatu group of islands first had contact with Europeans in 1606, when the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] explorer [[Pedro Fernandes de Queirós]], sailing for the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish Crown]], arrived on [[Espiritu Santo|the largest island]] and called the group of islands ''La [[Luís Vaz de Torres#The Queirós voyage|Austrialia]] del Espiritu Santo'' or "The Southern Land of the Holy Spirit", believing he had arrived in [[Terra Australis]] or [[Australia]]. The Spanish established a short-lived settlement at Big Bay on the north side of the island. The name [[Espiritu Santo]] remains to this day.<ref>{{cite book|title=Vanuatu and New Caledonia|url=https://archive.org/details/vanuatunewcaledo00joce|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74104-792-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/vanuatunewcaledo00joce/page/29 29]}}</ref>

Europeans did not return until 1768, when [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]] visited the islands, naming them the Great [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Anne">{{cite book|last1=Salmond|first1=Anne|title=Aphrodite's Island|date=2010|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520261143|pages=[https://archive.org/details/aphroditesisland00salm/page/113 113]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/aphroditesisland00salm/page/113}}</ref> In 1774, [[Captain Cook]] named the islands the '''[[New Hebrides]]''', a name that lasted until independence.

In 1825, trader [[Peter Dillon]]'s discovery of [[sandalwood]] on the [[island]] of [[Erromango]] began a rush that ended in 1830 after a clash between immigrant [[Polynesia]]n workers and indigenous [[Melanesians]]. During the 1860s, planters in [[Australia]], [[Fiji]], [[New Caledonia]], and the [[Samoa|Samoan Islands]], in need of labourers, orchestrated a long-term indentured labour trade known as "[[blackbirding]]".<ref>{{cite book|title=Vanuatu and New Caledonia|url=https://archive.org/details/vanuatunewcaledo00joce|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74104-792-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/vanuatunewcaledo00joce/page/30 30]}}</ref> At the height of the blackbirding, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad. Fragmentary evidence indicates that the current population of Vanuatu is greatly reduced compared to pre-contact times.<ref name="cp">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2815.htm|title=Background Note: Vanuatu|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]}}<br />''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.''</ref>

It was at this time that [[missionary|missionaries]], both [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Protestant]], arrived on the islands. For example, [[John Geddie (missionary)|John Geddie]], a [[Scots-Canadian]] [[presbyterian]] missionary, arrived at the island of [[Anatom|Aneityum]] in 1848; he spent the rest of his life there, working to convert the inhabitants to Christianity and western ways. [[John Gibson Paton]] was a Scottish missionary who devoted his life to the region.

Settlers also came, looking for land on which to establish [[cotton plantation]]s. When international cotton prices collapsed, they switched to [[coffee]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[banana]]s, and, most successfully, [[coconut]]s. Initially, British subjects from [[Australia]] made up the majority, but the establishment of the [[Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides|Compagnie Caledonienne des Nouvelles Hebrides]] (Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides) by [[John Higginson (entrepreneur)|John Higginson]] in 1882 soon tipped the balance in favour of French subjects.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Ian C. |title=A History of the Pacific Islands |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_LaSMK8aCD3gC/page/n122/mode/1up |date=1989 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=0-520-06900-5}}</ref>{{Rp|123}}<ref name="UsaUSA2009">{{cite book|title=Vanuatu Country Study Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjuxcXTEJ_sC&pg=PA26|date=30 March 2009|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-1-4387-5649-3|page=26}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Priday |first1=H. E. L. |title=France's Grip on New Hebrides: Picturesque but Forgotten Story of John Higginson |journal=[[Pacific Islands Monthly]] |date=August 1953 |volume=XXIV |issue=1 |pages=41–48 |url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-325565806/view?sectionId=nla.obj-334100497&partId=nla.obj-325574382#page/n46/mode/1up |access-date=23 June 2021 |publisher=[[Pacific Publications]] |location=Sydney, New South Wales |issn=0030-8722}}</ref> By around the start of the 20th century, the [[France|French]] outnumbered the [[United Kingdom|British]] two to one.<ref name=cp/>

==Franceville==
[[File:1897_Australasian_New_Hebrides_Company_2d_stamp.jpg|thumb|1897 stamp of the Australasian New Hebrides Company, providing shipping and other services - including mail delivery - on steamers running between Australia and the New Hebrides, at intervals of about three weeks.]]
{{main article|Franceville, New Hebrides}}
The municipality of Franceville (present-day [[Port Vila]]) on [[Efate]] was established during this period. In 1878 [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]] declared all of the New Hebrides to be [[neutral territory]],<ref name="Cuhaj2012">{{cite book|last=Cuhaj|first=George S.|title=2013 Standard Catalog of World Paper Money - Modern Issues: 1961-Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMxQwXQghgkC&pg=PA721|date=17 February 2012|publisher=Krause Publications|isbn=978-1-4402-2956-5|page=721}}</ref> but the lack of a functional government led to rising discontent among British and French colonists. The French were especially inconvenienced because French law recognized marriages only when contracted under a civil authority (the nearest being in [[New Caledonia]]), whereas British law recognized marriages conducted by local clergy (the nearest being in [[Colony of Fiji|Fiji]]). In 1887 both nations created an [[Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission]] to defend their citizens. On 9 August 1889, Franceville declared itself independent under the leadership of [[mayor]]/[[President (government title)|president]] [[Ferdinand Chevillard]] and with its own red, white and blue flag with five stars.<ref>Bourdiol, Julien (1908), Condition internationale des Nouvelles-Hebrides, p 107</ref><ref>Simpson, Colin (1955). ''Islands of Men: A Six-part Book about Life in Melanesia'', p 133.</ref> This community became the first [[self-governing]] nation to practice [[universal suffrage]] without distinction of sex or race. Although the district's population at the time consisted of about 500 natives and fewer than 50 whites, only the latter were permitted to hold office. One of its elected presidents was a [[United States|U.S.]] citizen by birth, [[R. D. Polk]].<ref>"Wee, Small Republics: A Few Examples of Popular Government," ''Hawaiian Gazette'', 1 November 1895, p1</ref>

==Condominium==
[[Image:Flag of New Hebrides.svg|thumb|1966 flag of the colonial Anglo-French [[New Hebrides]]]]
{{main article|New Hebrides|Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission|British Western Pacific Territories}}

The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory. The Convention of 16 October 1887 established a [[Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission|joint naval commission]] for the sole purpose of protecting French and British citizens, but claimed no jurisdiction over internal native affairs.<ref name="BresnihanWoodward2002">{{cite book|last1=Bresnihan|first1=Brian J.|last2=Woodward|first2=Keith|title=Tufala Gavman: Reminiscences from the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhNmCiYYxucC&pg=PA423|year=2002|publisher=editorips@usp.ac.fj|isbn=978-982-02-0342-6|page=423}}</ref>

In 1906, however, [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] agreed to administer the islands jointly. Called the British-French [[Condominium (international law)|Condominium]], it was a unique form of government, with separate governmental systems that came together only in a joint court. The condominium's authority was extended in the Anglo-French Protocol of 1914, although this was not formally ratified until 1922. Melanesians were barred from acquiring the [[citizenship]] of either power and were officially stateless; to travel abroad they needed an [[identity document]] signed by ''both'' the British and French resident commissioners.<ref name=cp/>

Many called the condominium the "Pandemonium" because of the duplication of laws, police forces, prisons, currencies, education and health systems.
Overseas visitors could choose between British law, which was considered stricter but with more humane prisons, or French law, which was considered less strict, but with much worse prison conditions.
In their book, ''Vanuatu'' by Jocelyn Harewood and Michelle Bennett, is this memorable passage referring to the 1920s: ''"Drunken plantation owners used to gamble... using the 'years of labour' of their Melanesian workers as currency. Islanders used to be lined up against the wall, at the mercy of their employers' dice. Long after America's [[Wild West]] was tamed, Vila was the scene of the occasional gunfight and public guillotining."''

Starting in 1921, French plantation owners let [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]]ese workers from the [[Gulf of Tonkin]] come to the New Hebrides under 5 years contracts. They were 437 in 1923, 5413 in 1930, then after the crisis 1630 in 1937. There was some social and political unrest among them in 1947. In 1949 the plantation owners wished to replace Annamese by "more docile" Javanese. However, a French scholar suggested in 1950 a renewal of Annamese migration, but this time as settlers in villages of their own. A proposal because "It is difficult, indeed, to count on the natives. They live (...) a still wild life".<ref>Charles Robequain, "[http://www.persee.fr/doc/geo_0003-4010_1950_num_59_317_13156Les Nouvelles-Hébrides et l'immigration annamite]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", ''[[Annales de Géographie]]'', t. 59, n°317, 1950. pp. 391-392</ref>

[[File:F6F-3 Hellcats of VF-40 at Espiritu Santo 1944.jpg|thumb|US Navy [[Grumman F6F Hellcat|Hellcats]] on [[Espiritu Santo]] island in February 1944]]
Challenges to this form of government began in the early 1940s.<ref name=cp/> During the [[Second World War]], approximately 10,000 Ni-Vanuatu men served in the [[Vanuatu Labor Corps]], a [[labor battalion]] of the [[United States Armed Forces]] at [[Espiritu Santo Naval Base]]. They provided logistical support to the Allied war effort during the [[Guadalcanal Campaign]]. The mass participation of Ni-Vanuatu men in the Labor Corps had a significant effect on the [[John Frum]] movement, giving it the characteristics of a [[cargo cult]].{{sfn|Lindstrom|1991|pp=49–53}} Today, John Frum is both a religion and a political party with a member in Parliament.<ref name=cp/>

==Decolonisation==
Perhaps the final political impetus towards independence was the central issue of land ownership which arose during the 1960s. The ancient customs of the ''Ni-Vanuatu'' meant that land was held in trust for future generations by the current custodians; [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] viewed it more as a commodity and owned about 30% of the land area. This European-held land had been mostly cleared for [[coconut]] production, but when they began clearing more land for coconut production, protests began in both [[Espiritu Santo|Santo]] and [[Malekula]] led by [[Jimmy Stevens (politician)|Jimmy Stevens]] and his ''[[kastom]]'' movement called "[[Nagriamel]]".

In the 1960s France opposed Britain's desire to de-colonize the [[New Hebrides]], fearing that the independence sentiment would be contagious in their [[Nickel|mineral]]-rich colonial possessions in [[New Caledonia|French New Caledonia]].<ref name="Palgrave">{{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Roger Fischer |title=A History of the Pacific Islands |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific00fisc |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS |isbn=0-333-94975-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific00fisc/page/249 249–250] |chapter=Reinventing Pacific Islands }}</ref>

The first political party was established in the early 1970s and originally was called the [[New Hebrides National Party]]. One of the founders was [[Walter Lini]], an [[Anglican#Priesthood(Presbyterate)|Anglican Priest]], who later became [[prime minister]]. Renamed the [[Vanua'aku Party]] in 1974, the party pushed for independence. [[New Hebrides Representative Assembly]] was created in 1975 but dissolved in 1977 after demands for the elimination of government-appointees and immediate independence. In 1979 foreign owners were dispossessed and received compensation from their own governments and a date was set for full independence.
France was unhappy. Significant rebellions occurred on [[Tanna (island)|Tanna]] and Espiritu Santo and paperwork revealed the direct culpability of France in its desire to see Espiritu Santo become a separate French colony. Philippe Allonneau, the French representative, even succeeded in being recognized as King of Espiritu Santo by the island's tribal chiefs.

== "Coconut War" ==
{{main|Coconut War}}
[[File:Flag of Vemerana.svg|thumb|[[Nagriamel]] flag]]

Beginning in June 1980, [[Jimmy Stevens (politician)|Jimmy Stevens]], head of the [[Nagriamel|Nagriamel movement]], led an uprising against the colonial officials and the plans for independence.<ref name=twsSEPxvzq01/><ref name="twsSEPxvzq02">{{cite news
| title = South Pacific Rebel Seized
| publisher = The New York Times via Reuters
| date = 14 September 1982
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1982/09/14/world/south-pacific-rebel-seized.html
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref><ref name="twsSEPxvzq04">{{cite news
| title = Pacific Islands in Election Battle
| work = The New York Times
| date = 1 November 1983
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/01/world/pacific-island-in-election-battle.html
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref><ref name="twsSEPxvzq05">{{cite news
| author = William Borders
| title = British Answering New Hebrides Call; Company of Marines Being Sent 'to Provide Stability' French Antiriot Police Arrive Threat to Independence One Killed on 2d Island 55 French Riot Police Land 
| work = The New York Times
| date = 12 June 1980
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70A14F83B5C12728DDDAB0994DE405B8084F1D3
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref> The uprising lasted about 12 weeks. The rebels blockaded [[Santo-Pekoa International Airport]], destroyed two bridges, and declared the independence of [[Espiritu Santo]] island as the "[[State of Vemerana]]". Stevens was supported by [[French language|French-speaking]] landowners and by the [[Phoenix Foundation]], an American business foundation that supported the establishment of a [[libertarianism|libertarian]] [[tax haven]] in the New Hebrides.<ref name="twsSEPxvzq09">{{cite news
| title = U.S. Land Developer Aids New Hebrides Dissidents
| work = The New York Times
| date = 7 June 1980
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00B10F8395F12728DDDAE0894DE405B8084F1D3
| access-date = 18 September 2009
| first=Joseph B.
| last=Treaster
}}</ref>

On 8 June 1980, the New Hebrides government asked Britain and France to send troops to put down a rebellion on the island of Espiritu Santo.<ref name="twsSEPxvzq08">{{cite news
| title = New Hebrides Asks for Aid in Revolt; Plea Might Go to U.N. 
| work = The New York Times
| date = 8 June 1980
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0D10F73A5A12728DDDA10894DE405B8084F1D3
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref> France refused to allow the United Kingdom to deploy troops to defuse the crisis, and French soldiers stationed on Espiritu Santo took no action. As independence day neared, the [[Prime Minister of Vanuatu|Prime Minister-elect]], [[Walter Lini]],<ref name="twsSEPxvzq03">{{cite news
| author = Bernard D. Nossiter
| title = Vanuatu, New Pacific Nation, Moving Toward Seat at U.N.
| work = The New York Times
| date = 9 July 1981
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/09/world/vanuatu-new-pacific-nation-moving-toward-seat-at-un.html
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref> asked [[Papua New Guinea]] if it would send troops to intervene.<ref name="twsSEPxvzq01">{{cite news
| author =  Michael T. Kaufman
| title = Walter Lini, 57, Clergyman Who Led Nation of Vanuatu
| work = The New York Times
| date = 23 February 1999
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/23/world/walter-lini-57-clergyman-who-led-nation-of-vanuatu.html
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref> As Papua New Guinean soldiers began arriving in Espiritu Santo,<ref name="twsSEPzzx03">{{cite news
| author = Graeme Dobell
| title = Alexander Downer announces moves toward a new foreign policy – Transcript
| publisher = PM
| date =  26 June 2003
| url = http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2003/s889152.htm
| access-date = 17 September 2009
}}</ref> the foreign press began referring to the ongoing events as the "Coconut War".

However, the "war" was brief and unconventional. The residents of Espiritu Santo generally welcomed the Papua New Guineans as fellow [[Melanesian people|Melanesians]]. Stevens' followers were armed with only [[bow and arrow|bows and arrows]], rocks, and slings. There were few casualties, and the war came to a sudden end: when a vehicle carrying Stevens' son burst through a Papua New Guinean roadblock in late August 1980, the soldiers opened fire on the vehicle, killing Stevens' son. Shortly thereafter, Jimmy Stevens surrendered, stating that he had never intended that anyone be harmed.<ref name="twsSEPxvzq07">{{cite news
| title = New Hebrides Rebel Urges Peace; Willing to Fight British and French One British Officer Injured 
| work = The New York Times
| date = 9 June 1980
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30F14FA3B5C12728DDDA00894DE405B8084F1D3
| access-date = 18 September 2009
}}</ref>

At Stevens' trial, the support of the Phoenix Foundation to the Nagriamel movement was revealed. It was also revealed that the French government had secretly supported Stevens in his efforts. Stevens was sentenced<ref name=twsSEPxvzq02/> to 14 years' imprisonment; he remained in prison until 1991.

== Independent Vanuatu ==

[[File:Happy_Independence,_Vanuatu!_(2)_(Imagicity_378).jpg|thumb|Vanuatu independence day, 2010]]
On 30 July 1980, amidst the brief [[Coconut War]], the [[Republic of Vanuatu]] was created.

Since independence, only ''kastom'' owners and the government can own land; foreigners and other islanders who are not ''kastom'' owners can lease land only for the productive life of a coconut palm - 75 years.

During the 1990s, Vanuatu experienced a period of political instability which resulted in a more decentralised government. The Vanuatu Mobile Force, a paramilitary group, attempted a coup in 1996 because of a pay dispute. There were allegations of corruption in the government of [[Maxime Carlot Korman]]. New elections have been held several times since 1997, most recently [[2022 Vanuatuan general election|in 2022]].

==See also==
* [[Condominium (international law)]]
* [[Franceville, New Hebrides]]
* [[New Hebrides]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal|last=Lindstrom|first=Lamont|title=Remembering the Pacific War|journal=Occasional Papers of the Center for Pacific Islands Studies|date=1991|publisher=Center for Pacific Studies|pages=47–59|issn=0897-8905}}

==External links==
* [http://www.vanuatutourism.com/vanuatu.htm Vanuatu] "''[http://www.vanuatutourism.com/history6.htm Colonial History]''"
* [http://pacificpolicy.org/2016/02/vanuatu-election-timeline-1979-2016/ Vanuatu election timeline 1979-2016]

{{Vanuatu topics}}
{{Former French colonies}}
{{History of Oceania}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Vanuatu}}
[[Category:History of Vanuatu| ]]