Editing History of Ukraine

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{{History of Ukraine}}

The '''history of Ukraine''' spans thousands of years, tracing its roots to the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic steppe]]—one of the key centers of the [[Chalcolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]]s, [[Indo-European migrations]], and early [[domestication of the horse|horse domestication]]. In antiquity, the region was home to the [[Scythians]], followed by the gradual expansion of [[List of early Slavic peoples#East Slavs|Slavic tribes]]. The northern [[Black Sea]] coast saw the influence of [[Greek Crimea|Greek]] and [[Roman Crimea|Roman]] colonies, leaving a lasting cultural legacy. Over time, these diverse influences contributed to the development of early political and cultural structures.<ref>Matossian ''Shaping World History'' p. 43</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://imh.org/history-of-the-horse/legacy-of-the-horse/the-domestication-of-the-horse/what-we-theorize-when-and-where-did-domestication-occur.html/ |title= What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur |access-date= 12 December 2010 |work= International Museum of the Horse }}{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="cbc.ca">{{cite news |title= Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction |url= http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/episode/2009/03/07/horsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti/|work= Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald |publisher= [[CBC Radio]] |date=7 March 2009|access-date=18 September 2010}}(Link does not exist anymore)</ref>

Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of [[Kievan Rus']]. In [[Dnieper Ukraine]], the tribe of [[Polans (eastern)|Polans]] played a key role in the formation of the state, adopting the name ''[[Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia|Rus'<nowiki/>]]'' by the 9th century. The term is believed to have connections to the [[Varangians]], who contributed to the state’s early political and military structure.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Logan |first1=F. Donald |title=The Vikings in History |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=9780415327565 |page=184}}</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of Ukraine, [https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CY%5CKyivanRushDA.htm Kyivan Rus]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Polianians |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CP%5CO%5CPolianians.htm |access-date=26 October 2024 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref> By the 10th–11th centuries, Kievan Rus' had grown into one of the most powerful and culturally advanced states in Europe, reaching its golden age under [[Volodymyr the Great]] and [[Yaroslav the Wise]], who [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|introduced Christianity]] and strengthened political institutions. However, internal conflicts among [[Grand Prince of Kiev|Kyivan rulers]], along with increasing pressure from [[Turkic peoples|Turkic nomads]] in [[Southern Ukraine]], gradually weakened the state.<ref>Orest Subtelny. [https://diasporiana.org.ua/istoriya/11408-subtelny-o-ukraine-a-history/ "Ukraine. A History" (Fourth edition)]. Page 38.</ref>

In the 13th century, Kievan Rus' suffered devastating destruction during the [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|Mongol invasion]], particularly in its Dnieper heartlands. While much of its former territory fell under Mongol control, the [[Kingdom of Ruthenia]] (Galicia-Volhynia) emerged as a major center that preserved political and cultural traditions of Rus', especially under [[Daniel of Galicia|King Daniel]].<ref name = "Pelenski"/> Despite continued [[Mongol Empire|Mongol dominance]] in the region, the kingdom retained a degree of autonomy and became a vital repository of Rus' heritage. However, over the subsequent centuries, shifting regional power dynamics gradually transformed the political landscape.<ref name=":Krypiakevich">Крип'якевич, І. П. ''[http://litopys.org.ua/krypgvol/krypgv02.htm Галицько-Волинське князівство] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930183005/http://litopys.org.ua/krypgvol/krypgv02.htm |date=30 September 2007}}''</ref> 

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the majority of Ukrainian territories became part of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia]], while [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Transcarpathia]] came under [[Kingdom of Poland (1320-1505)|Polish]] and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Hungarian]] rule. Lithuania kept the local [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] traditions, and was gradually influenced by [[Ruthenian language]], [[Kievan Rus' law|law]] and [[Ruthenian culture|culture]], until Lithuania itself came under [[Polonization|Polish influence]], following the [[Union of Krewo]] and [[Union of Lublin]], resulting in two countries merging into [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Polish crown]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Butterwick |first=Richard |date=2021 |title=The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2cOEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Yale University Press |page=14 |isbn=978-0-300-25220-0}}</ref> Meanwhile [[Southern Ukraine]] was dominated by [[Golden Horde]] and then [[Crimean Khanate]], which came under protection of the [[Ottoman Empire]], major regional power in and around [[Black Sea]], which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW Moscow – Historical background] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011214606/http://economist.com/cities/printStory.cfm?obj_id=9141603&city_id=MCW |date=11 October 2007 }}</ref>

In the 17th century, the [[Cossack]] rebellion led by [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] marked a turning point in Ukraine's history. The [[Khmelnytsky Uprising|uprising]], which began in 1648, was fueled by grievances against the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]'s nobility, religious tensions, and social inequalities. This rebellion led to the creation of the [[Cossack Hetmanate]], a semi-autonomous polity in central and eastern Ukraine. In 1654, the Cossack Hetmanate allied with the [[Tsardom of Moscow]] through the [[Pereiaslav Agreement]]. The nature of this alliance has been widely debated by historians. Some argue that it established a protectorate relationship, with Russia offering military support in exchange for loyalty, while others believe it symbolized the subordination of the Hetmanate to the [[Tsar#Russia|Tsar]]. The ambiguity of the treaty's terms and differing interpretations contributed to tensions over the following decades.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kroll|first=Piotr|date=2008|title=Od ugody hadziackiej do Cudnowa. Kozaczyzna między Rzecząpospolitą a Moskwą w latach 1658-1660|doi=10.31338/uw.9788323518808|isbn=9788323518808}}</ref> Over time, the relationship between the Cossack Hetmanate and Russia evolved, with Russia increasingly asserting dominance. This process intensified in the late 17th and 18th centuries, especially after the [[Truce of Andrusovo]], which divided Ukraine between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia.<ref>Europe. A History. Norman Davies. London: Pimlico 1996, pp. 556, 558</ref>

The [[Cossack Hetmanate]]'s autonomy was progressively eroded, culminating in its abolition by [[Catherine the Great]] in the late 18th century. Simultaneously, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's internal decline and external pressures from neighboring powers facilitated the [[partitions of Poland]]. These partitions allowed the [[Russian Empire]] to incorporate vast Ukrainian territories, including those previously under Polish control. Western Ukraine, however, came under the rule of the [[Habsburg monarchy]]. This division set the stage for the different historical trajectories of Ukrainian lands under Russian and Austrian influence.{{r|nvr 1969|p=[https://archive.org/details/historyofrussiab0000unse/page/198/mode/2up 199]}}

The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during [[World War I]], the [[Ukrainian People’s Republic]] (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with [[Kyiv]] as its capital. Meanwhile, in the western territories, the [[West Ukrainian People’s Republic]] (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in [[Lviv]]. Both republics sought to unite, forming the [[Unification Act]] (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919.<ref name="subtelny-362"/> However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with [[Bolshevik]] forces, [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and [[White Army]] factions. By 1921, following the [[Soviet-Ukrainian War]], Ukrainian lands were divided: the eastern territories became the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (part of the [[USSR]]), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], and [[Czechoslovakia]].{{r|nvr 1969|p=[https://archive.org/details/historyofrussiab0000unse/page/536/mode/2up 537]}}

Under Soviet rule, initial policies of [[Ukrainianization]] gave way to oppressive [[Russification]]. The [[Holodomor]] famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians.{{r|eb Makuchand|at=§§ 8.1.3}} During [[World War II]], Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both [[Nazi Germany]] and the Soviet Union. The [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA) fought for independence, though parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with occupying forces. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and [[Crimea]] was [[Transfer of Crimea to Ukraine|transferred to Ukraine]] in 1954.

Ukraine became independent when the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union dissolved]] in 1991. This started a period of transition to a [[market economy]], in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year [[recession]].<ref name="Macroindicators NBU">{{cite web|url= http://www.bank.gov.ua/ENGL/Macro/index.htm|title= Macroeconomic Indicators|publisher= [[National Bank of Ukraine]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071021232506/http://bank.gov.ua/Engl/Macro/index.htm|archive-date= 21 October 2007|url-status= dead|df= dmy}}</ref> Subsequently however, the economy experienced a high increase in [[List of countries by GDP growth 1980–2010|GDP growth]] until it plunged during the [[2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis|Great Recession]].<ref>Inozmi, [http://unian.net/eng/news/news-325554.html "Ukraine – macroeconomic economic situation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222203413/http://www.unian.net/eng/news/news-325554.html |date=22 February 2012 }}. June 2009.</ref> This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of [[nationalism]], and growing tensions with [[Russian Federation]]. In 2013, the [[Euromaidan]] protests began in response to President [[Viktor Yanukovych]]’s rejection of an [[European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement|EU association agreement]]. The [[Revolution of Dignity]] followed, leading to Yanukovych’s ousting. Russia [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed Crimea]] in 2014 and [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine|supported separatist movements]] in [[Donbas]], initiating the ongoing [[Russo-Ukrainian War]]. This escalated on 24 February 2022, with [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia’s full-scale invasion]], marking a critical phase in Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity.

== Prehistory ==
=== Paleolithic and Mesolithic Age ===
{{See also|Ukrainian stone stelae}}

[[File:Fig. 9 mapa.jpg|thumb|left|Megalithic stelae in Europe]]
The discovery of 1.4-million-year-old stone tools in [[Korolevo]], located in western Ukraine, marks one of the earliest securely dated presences of hominins in [[Europe]]. These tools offer crucial insights into the behaviors and adaptive strategies of early members of the genus ''[[Homo]]'', likely ''[[Homo erectus]]'', as they expanded into the continent during the Lower [[Paleolithic]] period.<ref name=Garba2024>{{cite journal |last1=Garba |first1=R. |last2=Usyk |first2=V. |last3=Ylä-Mella |first3=L. |last4=Kameník |first4=J. |last5=Stübner |first5=K. |last6=Lachner |first6=J. |last7=Rugel |first7=G. |last8=Veselovský |first8=F. |last9=Gerasimenko |first9=N. |last10=Herries |first10=A. I. R. |last11=Kučera |first11=J. |last12=Knudsen |first12=M. F. |last13=Jansen |first13=J. D. |title=East-to-west human dispersal into Europe 1.4 million years ago |journal=Nature |date=28 March 2024 |volume=627 |issue=8005 |pages=805–810 |pmid=38448591 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3 |bibcode=2024Natur.627..805G }}</ref> The [[Neanderthal]] presence in Ukraine is well-documented through archaeological findings, particularly at the Molodova sites, which are located in the modern-day [[Chernivtsi]] region in southwestern Ukraine. These sites, dating to the Middle [[Paleolithic]] period ({{circa|45000|43000&nbsp;BC}}), provide significant evidence of Neanderthal activity. Molodova is known for its rich cultural layers attributed to the Mousterian tradition, showcasing the use of fire, mammoth bone processing, and possible construction of primitive shelters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/molodova.htm |title=Molodova I and V (Ukraine) |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203005437/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/molodova.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> These sites, located along the [[Dniester River]], are particularly notable for their evidence of advanced behavior. One remarkable feature is the discovery of a dwelling constructed from [[Pit-house#Mammoth bone dwellings|mammoth bones]], a testament to Neanderthal ingenuity and adaptation to harsh Ice Age environments. These structures highlight their ability to organize resources and create durable shelters.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8963177/Neanderthals-built-homes-with-mammoth-bones.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111221004746/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8963177/Neanderthals-built-homes-with-mammoth-bones.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 21 December 2011 | title = Neanderthals built homes with mammoth bones | work = Telegraph.co.uk | first = Richard | last = Gray | date = 18 December 2011 }}</ref><ref name=orig>{{cite journal | title = The Oldest Anatomically Modern Humans from Far Southeast Europe: Direct Dating, Culture and Behavior | first1 = Sandrine | last1= Prat | first2= Stéphane C. | last2= Péan | first3= Laurent | last3= Crépin | first4 =Dorothée G. |last4= Drucker | first5 =Simon J. | last5= Puaud | first6 =Hélène | last6=Valladas | first7= Martina |last7 =Lázničková-Galetová | first8 =Johannes | last8 =van der Plicht | first9= Alexander | last9= Yanevich | journal = PLOS ONE | display-authors = 8|date = 17 June 2011 | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = e20834 | publisher = plosone | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0020834 | pmid = 21698105 | pmc = 3117838 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...620834P | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The [[Crimean Mountains]] hold significant evidence of early modern humans (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') during the Upper Paleolithic period. The Buran-Kaya cave sites have yielded artifacts, such as tools and ornaments, along with skeletal remains, dating to approximately 32,000 BC. These [[Gravettian]] settlements reflect a sophisticated hunter-gatherer culture, known for their blade-based lithic technologies and artistic expression. The region likely served as a vital hub for human activity, offering both shelter and access to diverse ecological resources.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13846262 | title = Early human fossils unearthed in Ukraine | first = Jennifer | last = Carpenter |date = 20 June 2011 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 21 June 2011}}</ref> The archaeological record in [[Ukraine]] highlights the area's importance as a crossroads for early human populations migrating through Europe. From the earliest stone tools to evidence of complex social structures and artistic traditions, Ukraine offers a valuable lens into the evolution and adaptation of early humans over hundreds of thousands of years.

=== Neolithic and Bronze Age ===
{{Main|Cucuteni–Trypillia culture|Sredny Stog culture|Yamna culture|Catacomb culture}}

[[File:Maidanetske 3D model.jpg|thumb|[[Maidanetske]], Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, 3800 BC]]
The [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture]] ({{circa|5050|2950&nbsp;BC}}), centered in modern-day [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], and [[Ukraine]], represents one of the most advanced [[Neolithic]] civilizations in Europe. These people were known for their impressive settlements, some of which were among the largest in the world at the time, with populations reaching up to 10,000 inhabitants. They built concentric layouts of houses, often using [[clay]] and [[wood]], demonstrating advanced planning. They are renowned for their intricate painted [[ceramics]], featuring [[geometric]] and symbolic designs in red, black, and white. Their economy was primarily agrarian, complemented by [[animal husbandry]] and small-scale trade. Archaeological findings suggest a focus on fertility cults, as evidenced by numerous figurines and symbolic artifacts. The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture began to decline around 3000 BC, possibly due to environmental changes, resource depletion, or pressures from neighboring steppe cultures.<ref name=neolithic>{{cite web|url=http://www.trypillia.com/info/index.shtml|title=Trypillian Civilization 5,508 – 2,750 BC|access-date=16 December 2007|work=The Trypillia-USA-Project|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212222638/http://www.trypillia.com/info/index.shtml|archive-date=12 December 2007}}</ref>

The [[Sredny Stog culture]] ({{circa|4500|3500&nbsp;BC}}) emerged to the east of the Cucuteni–Trypillian zone, on the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]]. It marked a transitional phase between the Neolithic and the emergence of the early [[Bronze Age]] steppe cultures. This culture is among the earliest to show evidence of [[horse domestication]], which became a defining feature of steppe societies. Early indications of [[Tumulus|mound burial]] (kurgans) began to appear, reflecting evolving social hierarchies and ritual practices. The Sredny Stog culture played a significant role in the genesis of the later [[Yamna culture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Telegin |first=Dmytro Yakovych |title=Serednʹo-stogivsʹka kulʹtura epokhy midi |publisher=Naukova Dumka |year=1973 |location=Kyiv, Ukraine |language=Ukrainian}}</ref>

[[File:Yamna-en.svg|thumb|left|Extent of the [[Chalcolithic]] [[Yamna culture|Yamna or "pit grave" culture]], 3rd millennium BC]]
The [[Yamna culture]] ({{circa|3300|2600&nbsp;BC}}), also known as the Pit Grave culture, was a dominant force in the early Bronze Age across the Pontic–Caspian steppe. This culture is often linked with the spread of [[Indo-European languages]] and reflects a shift toward a more mobile, pastoralist lifestyle. The Yamna culture is characterized by its kurgans, often accompanied by [[grave goods]] such as [[weapons]], [[Bronze and brass ornamental work|ornaments]], and [[animal sacrifices]]. The economy relied heavily on livestock, including [[sheep]], [[cattle]], and [[horses]], which supported a [[Nomad|semi-nomadic]] lifestyle. They utilized copper and bronze tools and [[weapons]], demonstrating early metallurgical skills. Many scholars associate the Yamna culture with [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European speakers]], as their migrations and cultural diffusion likely influenced vast areas of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].<ref>Reich, David, (24 April 2024). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLNRGGWpOmA&t "The Genetic Origin of the Indo-Europeans"], in: The Transfomation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC, International Conference, HUN-REN RCH Institute of Archaeology, Budapest.</ref>

Following the Yamna culture, the [[Catacomb culture]] ({{circa|2500|1950&nbsp;BC}}) emerged, encompassing much of the same geographic area. It is distinguished by its unique burial practices, where bodies were interred in specially carved niches within grave pits. They further advanced bronze metallurgy, producing a variety of tools, weapons, and ornaments. The Catacomb culture maintained many traditions of the Yamna culture while also interacting with neighboring groups to the west and south.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kroonen |first1=Guus |last2=Jakob |first2=Anthony |last3=Palmér |first3=Axel I. |last4=Sluis |first4=Paulus van |last5=Wigman |first5=Andrew |date=12 October 2022 |title=Indo-European cereal terminology suggests a Northwest Pontic homeland for the core Indo-European languages |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=e0275744 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0275744 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9555676 |pmid=36223379|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1775744K }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Archaeological finds in National Museum of the History of Ukraine 02.jpg|Cucuteni-Typillia ceramic vessel (National Museum of the History of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine)
File:Керносовский идол.png|Yamna stone stele, {{circa|2600}} BC
File:Carts Catacomb GIM.jpg|Catacomb culture wagon models
</gallery>

== Antiquity ==
=== Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination ===
{{Main|Bosporan Kingdom|Greek Crimea|Roman Crimea}}

[[File:Coin of Sauromates II of the Bosporan Kingdom, including depiction of Septimius Severus and Caracalla.jpg|thumb|A gold [[stater]] of [[Bosporan Kingdom|Bosporan]] [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|king]] [[Tiberius Julius Sauromates II]], his bust depicted on the [[obverse]] with the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] legend "[[Basileus|BACΙΛΕΩC CΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ]]", and on the reverse the heads of [[Roman emperor]]s [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Caracalla]], dated 198 or 199 AD]]
During the [[Iron Age]], the region witnessed the rise and interaction of diverse peoples and cultures. Following earlier Bronze Age societies, the [[Dacians]], alongside [[Nomad|nomadic groups]] such as the [[Cimmerians]] (associated with the [[Novocherkassk culture|Novocherkassk archaeological culture]]), [[Scythians]], and [[Sarmatians]], dominated the landscape. Among these, the Scythians established a [[Scythia|powerful kingdom]] that flourished between 750 and 250 BC, characterized by their mastery of mounted warfare and trade networks spanning vast territories.<ref name="EB-Scyth">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066426|title=Scythian|access-date=12 September 2007|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>

One of the notable events in Scythian history was the [[Scythian campaign of Darius I|campaign]] of [[Darius the Great]] in 513 BC. The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian]] king led an expedition aimed at subjugating the Scythians. While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several [[Thracians|Thracian peoples]] and regions along the [[Black Sea]]’s northern coast. These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], and southern [[Russia]], were incorporated into the vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous.<ref>Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7 pp. 135–138, 343–345</ref><ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, ISBN 0-19-860641-9,"page 1515,"The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"</ref>

[[File:Склеп Деметры.JPG|thumb|left|The goddess [[Demeter]] in a [[Ancient Greek art|Greek]] [[fresco]] from [[Panticapaeum]] in the [[Bosporan Kingdom]], 1st century AD, Crimea]]
Meanwhile, [[Greeks|Greek]] colonization left a lasting imprint on the region. Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], Greek settlers [[Greek colonisation|established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast]], including [[Crimea]] and parts of modern Ukraine. These colonies, such as [[Chersonesus]] and [[Pontic Olbia|Olbia]], served as hubs of trade, cultural exchange, and Hellenic influence. The [[Bosporan Kingdom]], a Greco-Scythian polity formed in this context, became a regional power, blending Greek traditions with local elements. It thrived until the 4th century AD, when invasions by the [[Goths]] and later the [[Huns]] disrupted its stability.<ref name="Hammond1959">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond|title=A history of Greece to 322 B.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0FoAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=8 August 2013|year=1959|publisher=Clarendon Press|page=109|isbn=978-0-19-814260-7 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuQLAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ancient & Classical World, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650 |date=1978 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-16-1 |page=69 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Roman Empire]], expanding its reach into the region, briefly annexed the Bosporan Kingdom from 62 to 68 AD under Emperor [[Nero]]. During this period, the reigning [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|Bosporan king]], [[Tiberius Julius Cotys I]], was deposed, and the kingdom was directly administered by [[Rome]]. Following Nero’s rule, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored as a [[Roman Crimea|Roman]] [[Amicitia|client state]], retaining local governance but under [[Roman military]] oversight. This arrangement ensured the region remained within Rome’s economic and strategic sphere during the middle of the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=A dictionary of the Roman Empire|year=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0195102339|page=116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chersonesos.org/?p=history_ant&l=eng#7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040812152424/http://www.chersonesos.org/?p%3Dhistory_ant%26l%3Deng|archive-date=12 August 2004|title=Ancient period - History - About Chersonesos, Sevastopol|website=www.chersonesos.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Migliorati| first = Guido| title = Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Anotonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi documenti| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jbS5KHJ4uqcC&pg=PA6| year = 2003| publisher = Vita e Pensiero| isbn = 88-343-1065-9| page = 6 | language = it }}</ref>

=== Arrival of the Goths and Huns ===
{{main|Goths|Oium|Huns|Kyiv culture|Bosporan Kingdom}}
{{further information|Migration Period}}

In the 3rd century AD, the [[Goths]], a [[Germanic people]] originally from [[Scandinavia]], began migrating toward [[Eastern Europe]]. By approximately 250 to 375 AD, they had settled in the area of modern [[Ukraine]], which they referred to as [[Oium]]. This region is linked to the archaeological [[Chernyakhov culture]], known for its unique mix of local and Gothic influences.<ref name="history of ukraine27">{{cite book|first=Paul Robert|last=Magocsi|year=1996|title=A History of Ukraine|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|location=[[Toronto]]|isbn=0-8020-0830-5|page=27}}</ref>

The Goths in this region soon divided into two main groups: the [[Visigoths]] (Western Goths) and the [[Ostrogoths]] (Eastern Goths). The Ostrogoths established a stronghold in Ukraine but faced significant changes in the 370s with the arrival of the [[Huns]], a nomadic group from [[Central Asia]]. The Huns were powerful warriors and ultimately brought the Ostrogoths under their control, leading to major shifts in Gothic society and governance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frolova |first=N. |date=1999 |title=The Question of Continuity in the Late Classical Bosporus On the Basis of Numismatic Data |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/acss/5/3/article-p179_12.xml |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=179–205 |doi=10.1163/157005799X00188 |issn=0929-077X}}</ref>

[[File:Huns450.png|thumb|Territory under Hunnic control, c. 450 AD]]
To the north of the Ostrogothic territory was the [[Kyiv culture]], a [[Slavs|Slavic]] archaeological culture that thrived from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD. As the Huns expanded their influence across Eastern Europe, this culture also came under threat. Many Slavic and other local groups were affected by the Hunnic invasions, resulting in changes in settlement patterns and local governance.<ref name="Kazanski">Michel Kazanski (2020). "[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02902087 Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations]", in: Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online, Editor-in-Chief Marc L. Greenberg, BRILL</ref>

In 454 AD, a decisive battle known as the [[Battle of Nedao]] marked a turning point. The Ostrogoths, along with other Germanic tribes, rebelled against the Huns and contributed to their defeat. Following this victory, the Ostrogoths were permitted by the Romans to settle in [[Pannonia]] (modern-day [[Hungary]]), marking their departure from the Ukrainian lands.<ref name=unesco>''History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D.'', [[UNESCO]], 1996, {{ISBN|92-3-102812-X}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[Black Sea]]’s northeastern shores were dotted with ancient [[Greek colonisation|Greek colonies]], such as [[Tyras]], [[Pontic Olbia]], and [[Hermonassa]]. Established as early as the 6th century BC, these colonies developed into important cultural and trading centers under [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule. These cities continued to thrive until the 6th century AD, when Byzantine influence began to wane.<ref name=Boardman251>{{cite book|last=Boardman|first=John|title=The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade|url=https://archive.org/details/greeksoverseas00boar|url-access=registration|year=1980|publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/greeksoverseas00boar/page/251 251]|isbn=9780500250693 }}</ref>

In the early 6th century AD, the [[Bosporan Kingdom]] on the [[Crimean Peninsula]] came under the rule of a [[List of kings of the Huns|Hunnic king]] named [[Gordas]]. Gordas maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]], but this ended when Gordas was killed in a local revolt around 527 AD. Justinian seized the opportunity to intervene, occupying the Bosporan Kingdom and further extending Byzantine influence over the region. However, even into the 12th century, Byzantine emperors continued to claim dominion over the Crimean region, known as the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawler |first=Jennifer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire |date=2015 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4 |page=137 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Gautier, Paul (1965). "Le dossier d'un haut fonctionnaire byzantin d'Alexis Ier Comnène, Manuel Stra-boromanos". ''Revue des études byzantines'', Paris, vol.23, pp. 178, 190</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
=== Early Slavs ===
{{main|Early Slavs}}
{{see also|Antes people|Rus' Khaganate}}
{{further|Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe}}

Following the power vacuum left by the fall of [[Huns|Hunnic]] and [[Goths|Gothic]] dominance, the [[Early Slavs]] began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, continuing their migration into the [[Balkans]] in the 6th century. The exact origins of the Early Slavs remain uncertain, though several theories suggest they may have originated near the [[Polesia]] region, a marshy area between modern-day [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]. This period marks a transition from the [[Kyiv culture]] to the establishment of Slavic tribes across Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barford |first=P. M. |title=The early Slavs: Culture and society in early medieval Eastern Europe |date=2001 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=0-8014-3977-9 |page=32|location=Ithaca, NY |oclc=47054689}}</ref>

[[File:Slavarchaeology.png|thumb|left|Archaeological cultures associated with [[proto-Slavs]] and [[early Slavs]]: [[Chernoles culture]] (before 500 BC), [[Zarubintsy culture]] (300 BC to AD 100), [[Przeworsk culture]] (300 BC to AD 400), [[Korchak culture|Prague-Korchak horizon]] (6th to 7th century, Slavic expansion)]]
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the [[Antes people|Antes Union]] (a tribal confederation) is generally believed to have been situated in present-day Ukraine. The Antes are considered ancestors of several Slavic tribes that would later form the [[Ukrainians]], including the [[Polans (eastern)|Polans]], [[Severians]], [[Drevlians]], [[White Croats]], [[Dulebes]], [[Ulichs]], and [[Tivertsi]]. The migration of these tribes from Ukraine throughout the Balkans contributed to the foundation of several [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] nations, while northern migrations, reaching as far as [[Lake Ilmen]], gave rise to the [[Ilmen Slavs]], [[Krivichs]], and [[Radimichs]].<ref name="so">М. Грушевський – "Історія України". Том І, розділ IV, Велике слов'янське розселення: Історія Антів, їх походи, війна з Словянами, боротьба з Аварами, останні звістки, про Антів</ref>

The collapse of the Antes Union in 602, following a devastating raid by the [[Pannonian Avars]], led to a fragmentation of the early Slavic federation. Despite this, many of these tribes maintained their distinct identities until the formation of larger political entities in the early second millennium, such as [[Kievan Rus']], which began to consolidate Slavic lands.<ref name="so"/>

The Early Slavs were primarily agrarian, relying on subsistence farming, and lived in semi-nomadic communities. Over time, they developed a complex social structure, with local chieftains leading tribal groups. They also practiced [[paganism]], with a pantheon of gods tied to nature, such as [[Perun]] (god of thunder) and [[Dazhbog]] (sun god). By the time of the Antes Union's decline, the cultural and religious practices of the Slavs had already begun to influence neighboring peoples, laying the groundwork for the Slavic cultural sphere that would emerge later in Eastern and Southeastern [[Europe]].<ref>[https://bigenc.ru/ethnology/text/3625013 Slavs] / Ilya Gavritukhin, [[Vladimir Petrukhin]]. // Saint-Germain World 1679-Social security [Electronic resource]. - 2015. - pp. 388-389 — - ([[Great Russian Encyclopedia]] : [in 35 volumes] / ch. ed. Yuri Osipov; 2004-2017, vol. 30) — - ISBN 978-5-85270-367-5.</ref>

=== Arrival of the Bulgars and Khazars ===
{{Main|Old Great Bulgaria|Khazar Khaganate}}

In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was at the core of the state of the [[Bulgars]], often referred to as [[Old Great Bulgaria]]. This state, with its capital at [[Phanagoria]] (located in what is now the Taman Peninsula), controlled a significant part of the northern [[Black Sea]] region. The Bulgars, a semi-nomadic people from [[Central Asia]], were known for their sophisticated society, military organization, and far-reaching influence.<ref name="history of ukraine27"/>

[[File:Old_Great_Bulgaria.svg|thumbnail|Approximate territory of Old Great Bulgaria]]
By the end of the 7th century, the Bulgars faced increasing pressure from neighboring tribes and empires. Most of the Bulgar tribes migrated in various directions—some settled in the [[Balkans]], where they eventually established the [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. Other groups moved towards the Volga region, forming [[Volga Bulgaria]], which became a prominent center of trade and culture. The remaining parts of Old Great Bulgaria were eventually absorbed by the [[Khazars]], another semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.<ref name="history of ukraine27"/>

The Khazars founded the [[Khazar Khaganate]], a powerful and influential state near the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. The Khaganate's territory expanded to include parts of modern-day western [[Kazakhstan]], eastern [[Ukraine]], southern [[Russia]], and northern [[Azerbaijan]]. The Khazars were noted for their religious tolerance and political pragmatism, famously adopting [[Judaism]] as their state religion in the 8th century, although [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and other faiths were also practiced within their borders.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia| title = Khazar| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica| url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/Khazar | url-status = live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220302083101/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Khazar| date = 29 March 2020 | archive-date = 2 March 2022 | access-date = 30 July 2024}}</ref>

The Khazars played a key role in the politics and economy of [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]]. Their control over trade routes contributed to the establishment of the ''[[Pax Khazarica]]'', a period of relative peace and stability that fostered safe long-distance trade. This stability allowed traders, including the [[Radhanite]] Jews, to operate along vast routes that stretched from [[China]] to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across [[Eurasia]].<ref name="Akıncı 2019 pp. 1123–1135">{{cite journal | last=Akıncı | first=Meltem | title=Pax Khazarica | journal=History Studies: International Journal of History | volume=11 | issue=4 | date=31 August 2019 | issn=1309-4688 | doi=10.9737/hist.2019.756 | pages=1123–1135| doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Kievan Rus' (9th century–1240) ===
{{Main|Kievan Rus'}}

==== Origin and foundation of state ====
[[File:Laurentian Codex 01 Rus land.jpg|left|thumb|"Rus' land" from the ''[[Primary Chronicle]]'', a copy of the [[Laurentian Codex]]]]
The origins of the Kievan state and the etymology of its name, Rus', continue to be subjects of scholarly debate. One theory, often called the '[[Norman theory]]', posits that the term Rus' originated from the [[Scandinavia]]n [[Varangians]], who were active in trade and military ventures across [[Eastern Europe]] in the early medieval period. Proponents of this theory argue that the Varangians, also known as the Rus', initially brought a political and military influence that shaped the emerging state structure, with the term Rus' eventually becoming synonymous with the region and its people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hosking |first=Geoffrey |title=Russia and the Russians: A History |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2001 |pages=30}}</ref>

In contrast, the '[[Anti-Normanism|anti-Norman theory]]' suggests that the term Rus' has indigenous [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] roots, developing independently of Scandinavian influence. Advocates of this theory assert that [[East Slavs|Eastern Slavic tribes]] already had established political and social frameworks before any contact with the Varangians, and that these tribes were naturally progressing toward political consolidation. According to this perspective, the name Rus' could be linked to the [[Ros (river)|Ros River]], a historically significant waterway flowing through present-day [[Ukraine]], which was home to various Slavic communities. In this view, Rus' may have referred to a collective identity tied to a specific geographic region or a union of native tribes, rather than to foreign invaders or rulers.<ref>''Encyclopedia.com'', [https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/normanist-controversy "Normanist Controversy"]</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CR%5CU%5CRushDA.htm|title=The name of Rus'|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukraine|access-date=16 December 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Царьград.jpg|thumb|The Rus' under the walls of Constantinople]]
The first reliable mention of the Rus' dates back to the year 839 in the [[Franks|Frankish]] chronicle ''[[Annals of St. Bertin]]'', where members of an embassy from the north, arriving in the [[Byzantine Empire]], referred to themselves as Rus'.<ref>{{harvtxt|Garipzanov|2006|loc=p. 7}}</ref> The second notable mention of the Rus' occurred in 860, when they launched a bold and unexpected [[Siege of Constantinople (860)|naval raid]] on [[Constantinople]]. Commanding a fleet across the [[Black Sea]], the Rus' forces struck at the very heart of the [[Byzantine Empire]], quickly reaching the city’s outskirts. According to accounts from [[Greeks|Greek]] eyewitnesses, the Rus' not only managed to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople but also instilled widespread fear among its residents. The Byzantine defenses were unprepared, allowing the Rus' to withdraw without significant resistance.<ref>''History Explained'', [https://historyexplained.org/the-viking-siege-of-constantinople-860-the-rus-first-strike-on-byzantium/ "Siege of Constantinople (860): The Rus' First Strike on Byzantium"]</ref>

The earliest source about the history of the [[Dnieper Ukraine]] region is the ''[[Tale of Bygone Years]]'' (or ''Primary Chronicle''), written no earlier than the 11th century. In its 'legendary' part, it narrates the Rus' raid on Constantinople and the formation of a state centered in [[Kiev]] during the second half of the 9th century. The Chronicle, in particular, mentions the names of the leaders of the raid on Constantinople — [[Askold and Dir]] — and calls them retainers of the Scandinavian [[Rurik dynasty]]. According to the Chronicle, a representative of this dynasty, [[Oleg the Wise]], allegedly came to Kiev from [[Novgorod]] in 882, killed Askold and Dir, and took control of the Kiev state. This narrative contains chronological errors—for example, it incorrectly dates the Constantinople raid to 867—and lacks corroboration from archaeological evidence, which suggests that Novgorod itself was only established in the 10th century. Therefore, modern historians view the Chronicle's account of the 9th century as largely speculative and likely a later construction by the Chronicle's author.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|p=61}}{{sfn|Ostrowski|2018|p=44}}

[[File:Historic core of Rus'.png|thumb|left|''Rus' land'' in the narrow sense<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Motsia |first=Oleksandr |date=2009 |title=|script-title=uk:«Руська» термінологія в Київському та Галицько-Волинському літописних зводах |trans-title="Ruthenian" question in Kyiv and Halych-Volyn annalistic codes |url=http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/5284/02-Motsya.pdf |journal=Arkheolohiia |issue=1 |pages= |doi=10.6084/M9.FIGSHARE.1492467.V1 |issn=0235-3490 |access-date=25 January 2023 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101523/http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/5284/02-Motsya.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{legend|LightSalmon|1. After [[Petro Tolochko]]}}
{{legend|Yellow|2. After A.&nbsp;M. Nasonov}}
{{legend|LimeGreen|3. After [[Boris Rybakov]]}}]]
Scholars associate the state-building processes in the Middle Dnieper region with the emergence of the well-known trade route from Scandinavia to Constantinople, known as the '[[Route from the Varangians to the Greeks]]'. A significant section of this route ran along the [[Dnieper River]], and Kiev was an important transshipment point, allowing control over trade along the Dnieper, [[Pripyat]], and [[Desna (river)|Desna]] rivers.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dnieper-River|title=Dnieper River|access-date=7 September 2012|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> The Middle Dnieper region began to serve as a political, cultural, and economic center for the East Slavic world. It eventually came to be known as the ''Rus' land'' in the narrow sense of this term.<ref name=":3" /> According to ''The Tale of Bygone Years'', the East Slavic tribe of the [[Polans (eastern)|Polans]], inhabitants of the Middle Dnieper region, adopted the name ''Rus''' for their land and were regarded as the most advanced among the East Slavs. Thus, they played a central role in forming a new tribal union centered around Kiev.{{sfn|Duczko|2004|page=207}}

From the first half of the 10th century, the first confirmed ruler of the Kievan state, as documented in foreign sources, was [[Igor the Old]], whom the ''Primary Chronicle'' identifies as a prince. Information in the Chronicle regarding governance during this period is considered relatively reliable. The princely retinue played a significant role in governance, accompanying rulers on campaigns and collecting tribute from subjugated local [[Slavic tribes]]. The collected tribute (such as [[furs]], [[honey]], [[Hide (skin)|hides]], [[wax]], and [[Slavery|slaves]]) was mainly [[slavery in the Byzantine Empire|exported to Byzantium]], with the proceeds used to purchase [[weapon]]s, [[luxury goods]], and [[wine]]—constituting the core of imports. When trade conditions no longer met the prince's expectations, he led an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, which eventually resulted in a new [[Rus'–Byzantine Treaty (945)|Rus-Byzantine trade treaty]] in 944. The ''Tale of Bygone Years'' recounts Igor's attempt to levy additional tribute from the subdued Slavs, which led to a rebellion by the [[Drevlians]], who killed him in 945.<ref name="korosten">
{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/korostencity/iskorosten.htm |title=Korosten (Iskorosten): A small town with a great history |publisher=geocities.com |date=27 February 2008 |access-date=16 February 2014 |last=Tarasenko |first=Leonid |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026051916/http://geocities.com/korostencity/iskorosten.htm |archive-date=26 October 2009 }}</ref>

[[File:Radzivill Olga in Konstantinopol.jpg|thumb|The baptism of [[Olga of Kiev|Olga]] in [[Constantinople]]]]
Following Igor's death in 945, his widow, [[Princess Olga]], assumed the role of regent for their young son, [[Sviatoslav I|Sviatoslav]], who was still too young to rule. Olga is best known for her calculated and fierce retaliation against the Drevlians, a campaign that culminated in the annexation of their lands into the expanding Kievan Rus'. Olga also implemented significant reforms, particularly by restructuring the tribute collection system known as ''[[poliudie]]''. This new system made revenue collection more systematic and centralized, reducing the likelihood of rebellion by ensuring a more balanced distribution of power. In a landmark decision, Olga became the first ruler of Kievan Rus' to embrace [[Christianity]] around 957 during a diplomatic visit to Constantinople. However, despite her conversion, the state under her rule remained predominantly pagan, with Christianity gaining influence only later under her descendants.{{sfn|Cross|Sherbowitz-Wetzor|1953|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Gasparov|Raevsky-Hughes|2018|pp=77–81}}

When Sviatoslav assumed rule over Kievan Rus', he launched an ambitious military expansion. His most notable achievement was the decisive defeat of the [[Khazar Khaganate]], a once-dominant regional power that had controlled key trade routes for centuries. The fall of the Khazars opened opportunities for Kievan Rus' to extend its influence into the Caucasus and beyond. In addition to his campaigns in the east, Sviatoslav waged numerous battles against the [[Byzantine Empire]], seeking to establish Kievan Rus' as a formidable power in the [[Balkans]]. His primary goal was to create a lasting base in [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], strengthening his strategic position in southeastern Europe. However, his ambitions in the Balkans were thwarted after a Byzantine counterattack. In 972, while returning from his Balkan campaign, Sviatoslav was ambushed and killed by the [[Pechenegs]] near the Dnieper River.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=56}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|p=296}}

[[File:Оплакивание и погребение Олега Святославича у города Овруча.jpg|left|thumb|Death of Oleg in [[Ovruch]]]]
After Sviatoslav's death, a power struggle ensued among his sons. [[Yaropolk I of Kiev|Yaropolk]], Sviatoslav's eldest son, assumed the title of [[Grand Prince of Kiev]] and worked to consolidate power across the vast territory, leading to conflicts with his brothers. [[Oleg of Drelinia|Oleg]], Sviatoslav's second son, governed the Drevlian lands, and rivalry between him and Yaropolk escalated into open warfare. During one of their clashes around 977, Oleg was killed, further intensifying the conflict. Initially, [[Vladimir the Great|Vladimir]], Sviatoslav's youngest son, fled to avoid being entangled in the conflict. However, after Oleg's death, he returned with a Varangian army. By 980, Vladimir had defeated Yaropolk and consolidated power, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'.<ref name="Hanak">{{cite book |last1=Hanak |first1=Walter K. |title=The Nature and the Image of Princely Power in Kievan Rus', 980-1054: A Study of Sources |date=10 October 2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-26022-1 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfV0AQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

==== Golden Age and Christianisation ====
{{Main|Christianization of Kievan Rus'}}
{{Further|History of Christianity in Ukraine}}

During the reign of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus' expanded significantly, notably through the conquest and annexation of [[Red Ruthenia]], [[Transcarpathia]], and [[Chersonesus|Korsun]]. These territorial gains made Kievan Rus' the largest state in [[Europe]] at the time, covering over 800,000 square kilometers and boasting a population of more than 5 million. The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture, and animal husbandry.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kyivan-Rus|title=Kievan Rus. Medieval State, Europe, Culture & Religion|access-date=25 October 2024|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>

[[File:58-manasses-chronicle.jpg|thumb|Christianization of Kievan Rus']]
Vladimir reformed local governance by abolishing the traditional tribal autonomies and installing his own appointed governors, further centralizing his authority. Under his rule, Kiev emerged as one of the wealthiest commercial centers in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, benefiting from its strategic location on trade routes and its growing political influence. Initially, Vladimir supported the [[Slavic paganism|worship of Slavic deities]] such as [[Perun]]. However, in 988, he made a historic decision to [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|convert Kievan Rus']] to [[Christianity]], adopting [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]]. He personally led the mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the [[Pochaina (river)|Pochaina River]] and built the first stone church in Kievan Rus' — [[Church of the Tithes]]. He also introduced the ''Charter on Church Courts and Tithes'', thereby securing a strong relationship between the church and state. Unlike the earlier attempts of his grandmother, Princess Olga, Vladimir's reforms had a lasting impact, deeply influencing the religious and cultural development of the region.<ref name="Enc Kiëv">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kiëv; Rusland §2. Het Rijk van Kiëv |encyclopedia=Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins |date=2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref>

Vladimir's rule also saw administrative, monetary, and military reforms. He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, also minted his own [[Money of Kievan Rus'#Zolotnik|gold]] (Zlatnik) and [[Money of Kievan Rus'#Srebrenik|silver]] (Srebrenik) coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense. To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as the [[Serpent's Wall]]s, which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats.<ref name="ehukuchera">Kuchera, M. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Zmievi_valy Serpent Walls (ЗМІЄВІ ВАЛИ)]''. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine.</ref>

[[File:Daughters of Yaroslav the Wise.jpg|left|thumb|11th-century fresco of [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv]], representing the daughters of Yaroslav I]]
Despite these accomplishments, Kievan Rus' entered a turbulent period of internal strife following Vladimir's death in 1015, as his sons fought for control. This era of internecine conflict lasted until 1019, when [[Yaroslav the Wise]] emerged victorious and assumed the throne. Ruling jointly with his brother [[Mstislav of Chernigov|Mstislav]] until 1036, Yaroslav presided over what is often regarded as the golden age of Kievan Rus'. One of Yaroslav's key achievements was his decisive defeat of the [[Pechenegs]], who had long been a threat to the state. To commemorate this victory, Yaroslav ordered the construction of the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|Saint Sophia Cathedral]] in Kiev, a structure that still stands as a symbol of this prosperous era. He also founded the [[Kyiv Pechersk Lavra]] and supported the election of  [[Hilarion of Kiev]] as the [[List of metropolitans and patriarchs of Kyiv|Kyiv Metropolitan]], marking a significant step in the independence of the Kievan church. Yaroslav's reign was also notable for the introduction of the first written legal code — ''[[Russkaya Pravda|Rus' Truth]]'', which established a foundation for legal governance in the state. Additionally, Yaroslav engaged in extensive marriage diplomacy, forming alliances by arranging marriages between his daughters and European royalty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652106/Yaroslav-I |title=Yaroslav I (prince of Kiev) – Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Britannica.com |date=22 May 2014 |access-date=7 August 2014 |archive-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017153710/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652106/Yaroslav-I |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=13}} However, after Yaroslav's death, Kievan Rus' began to fragment, as his sons divided the territory among themselves, leading to further internecine conflicts and the eventual decline of centralized power.{{sfn|Katchanovski|Kohut|Nesebio|Yurkevich|2013|p=1}}

==== Feudal fragmentation ====
{{See also|Council of Liubech}}

The feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' began in the late 11th century, driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors. One significant factor was the rotational succession system, allowing power to pass among male relatives instead of directly from father to son. This system often sparked conflicts, as competing claims to power emerged. With princes often granted specific territories, autonomous principalities began to emerge clearly. Regional cities such as [[Chernihiv]], [[Polotsk]], and [[Novgorod]] gained power and asserted their independence, with local elites increasing their influence. By this time, the authority of the [[Grand Prince of Kiev]] was notably weakening. Regional princes, bolstered by local resources and armies, began to resist central control. Additionally, the vast geography and economic diversity of Rus' impeded unity, as various regions developed their own trade routes and systems. External threats from nomadic groups, such as the [[Pechenegs]] and [[Polovtsy]] ([[Cumans]]), further exacerbated regionalism, compelling local rulers to focus on defending their territories.<ref>''Кучкин В. А.'' [http://www.runivers.ru/vestnik/issues/8004/457285/ О времени существования Древнерусского государства (историография вопроса)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124070810/http://www.runivers.ru/vestnik/issues/8004/457285/ |date=24 січня 2018 }}</ref><ref>''Котляр Н.Ф''. [http://www.al24.ru/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/кот_11.pdf Удельная раздробленность Руси.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712204506/http://www.al24.ru/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/кот_11.pdf |date=12 липня 2018 }}&nbsp;— К.: Институт истории Украины НАН Украины, 2013.&nbsp;— 270 с.</ref>

[[File:I zjazady książąt Rusi Kijowskiej. Brąz, granit. 1997 Lubecz, Ukraina.jpg|thumb|Monument in Liubech by [[Giennadij Jerszow]]]]
After Yaroslav the Wise's death, his sons divided the lands, which significantly accelerated political fragmentation. Although his succession plan aimed to prevent conflict, it ultimately sowed the seeds of feudal division. The [[Council of Liubech]], convened by several princes, including [[Vladimir II Monomakh|Vladimir Monomakh]], sought to settle disputes and clarify the inheritance of principalities. This agreement formalized Kievan Rus's division into regional hereditary principalities, thereby legalizing fragmentation. The adage "Let everyone hold his own" emerged, signifying that each prince would govern his own territory without interference from others.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Любечский съезд 1097 |url=https://bigenc.ru/c/liubechskii-s-ezd-1097-60ed5e |access-date=6 January 2024 |website=Большая российская энциклопедия |language=ru}}</ref>

Vladimir Monomakh, who served as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1113 to 1125, is remembered as one of Kievan Rus' most capable leaders. He ascended the throne amid internal strife and external threats, yet worked diligently to stabilize the fragmented territories of Rus'. Monomakh's reign achieved relative unity through efforts to reduce feuds among princes and reinforce central authority. His military successes, particularly against the Polovtsy (Cumans), secured the region's borders. Diplomatically, he forged strong ties with Europe, notably through his marriage to [[Gytha of Wessex]], the daughter of English [[King Harold II]]. As an educated ruler, Monomakh authored ''The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh'', offering insights on governance, morality, and leadership. His reign is often regarded as one of the last periods of unity before Rus' descended further into division.<ref name=RBA>Рыбаков Б. А. [http://lib.ru/HISTORY/RYBAKOW_B_A/russ.txt Рождение Руси] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907015132/http://lib.ru/HISTORY/RYBAKOW_B_A/russ.txt |date=7 Вересня 2017 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mason|2004|p=200}}

Monomakh's son, [[Mstislav I of Kiev|Mstislav the Great]], preserved some unity during his reign from 1125 to 1132. However, following his death, the principality fractured. The division of lands among Monomakh's sons and other relatives resulted in multiple competing power centers.<ref>Извлеченіе изъ древнихъ Русскихъ л?тописей / Отделъ І. Изв?стія л?тописные // Сборникъ матеріаловъ для исторической топографіи Кіева и его окрестностей.&nbsp;— К. : типографія Е.&nbsp;Я.&nbsp;Федорова, 1874.&nbsp;— С. 16.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dimnik |first1=Martin |title=The dynasty of Chernigov. 1054-1146 |date=1994 |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |location=Toronto |isbn=0888441169 |page=389}}</ref> The process of feudal fragmentation marked a turning point in the history of Rus', culminating in its eventual decline and the rise of smaller, more independent states. These would later evolve into the medieval powers of the [[Kingdom of Ruthenia]], the [[Principality of Polotsk]], the [[Novgorod Republic]], and others.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kollmann |first=Nancy |title=Collateral Succession in Kievan Rus |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |year=1990 |volume=14 |pages=377–387}}</ref><ref>Самсонова М. Н. Рогволод и Рогнеда: скандинавские корни полоцкой княжеской династии // Alba Ruscia: белорусские земли на перекрестке культур и цивилизаций (X—XVI вв.) (Серия «Исторические исследования».) — М.: Квадрига, 2015. /Отв. ред. А. В. Мартынюк. — 256 с. — С. 25—26.</ref><ref>Michael C. Paul, "Was the Prince of Novgorod a 'Third-rate bureaucrat' after 1136?" ''Jahrbucher fur Geschichte Osteuropas'' 56, No. 1 (Spring 2008): 72–113.</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mMoFBAAAQBAJ&q=The+Sack+of+Kiev+of+1169%3A+Its+Significance+for+the+Succession+to+Kievan+Rus%27&pg=PA323 |title=The Emergence of Russia 750–1200 |first1=Simon |last1=Franklin |first2=Jonathan |last2=Shepard |pages=323–324 |publisher=Routledge |date=1996 |isbn=978-1-317-87224-5 |access-date=14 November 2020 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152840/https://books.google.com/books?id=mMoFBAAAQBAJ&q=The+Sack+of+Kiev+of+1169%3A+Its+Significance+for+the+Succession+to+Kievan+Rus%27&pg=PA323 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' ====
{{Main|Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'}}

[[File:Siege_of_Kiev_(1240).png|left|thumb|Imaginative portrayal of the 1240 Siege of Kiev in the 16th-century ''[[Facial Chronicle]]'']]
In 1222, a new wave of nomads—the warlike [[Mongols]]—arrived in the [[Black Sea]] steppes and defeated the [[Cumans|Polovtsians]] as part of the [[Mongol Empire]]'s westward expansion. The Polovtsians, who had family ties with the Rus' princes, turned to Rus' for help. A joint Rus'-Polovtsian force marched into the steppes, where the [[Battle of the Kalka River]] took place in 1223. Following the battle, the Mongols retreated eastward for approximately 15 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Kalka_bytva_1223|title=КАЛКА, БИТВА НА РІЧЦІ 1223|website=resource.history.org.ua|access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref>

In the late 1230s, the Mongols returned with significantly larger forces under the leadership of [[Batu Khan]] and his general [[Subutai]]. The Mongols first attacked the eastern regions of the state, using superior siege tactics to overwhelm local defenses. Between 1239 and 1240, the Mongols shifted their focus to the southern territories. In 1240, they laid [[Siege of Kiev (1240)|siege to Kiev]], which ultimately fell after a brutal assault, marking the final collapse of Kievan Rus' as a unified political entity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The gates of Europe: A history of Ukraine. |publisher=Basic Books |year=2015 |isbn=9780465050918 |location=New York |pages=48–52}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rusland §2. Het Rijk van Kiëv |encyclopedia=Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins |date=2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref>

As a result of this invasion, Kievan Rus' was extensively destroyed, depopulated, and fragmented. Following their conquest, the Mongols established dominion over the region through the [[Golden Horde]], transforming most of the Rus' principalities into tributary states. Under Mongol rule, the Rus' were required to pay heavy taxes and submit to Mongol authority. The invasion severely stunted the region's political, cultural, and economic development, and the effects of Mongol domination reverberated for centuries. Despite its devastation, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] played an important role in preserving cultural identity during Mongol rule.<ref name="Mongol Conquests">McEvedy, Colin (1978). [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Mongol "Mongol Conquests"] ''Atlas of World Population History''</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2011 |title=Археологические исследования показали, что Свислочь в 100 км юго-восточнее Минска была подвергнута монгольскому нашествию 1237—1240 годов. |trans-title=Archaeological studies have shown that Svisloch, 100 km southeast of Minsk, was subjected to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240. |url=http://news.tut.by/society/244031.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826032555/http://news.tut.by/society/244031.html |archive-date=26 August 2011 |access-date=7 April 2023 |website=}}</ref>

==== Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia ====
{{Main|Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia}}

The Principality—later the [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia]] ([[Ruthenia]])—emerged from the disintegration of [[Kievan Rus']]. Its rulers continued the political and cultural legacy of Kiev, preserving the traditions and governance of the Rus' state even as Kiev fell to [[Mongol]] control.<ref name = "Pelenski">[https://books.google.com/books?id=iuFB8V2X4yEC&pg=PA9 Jarosław Pelenski.] In P. Potichnyj (ed.) (1992). ''Ukraine and Russia in their historical encounter.'' Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, University of Alberta. pp.8–15</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Korolivstvo_Rus|title=КОРОЛІВСТВО РУСЬ|website=resource.history.org.ua|access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref> Previously, [[Vladimir the Great]] had established the cities of [[Halych]] and [[Volodymyr-Volynskyi|Volodymyr]] as regional capitals, setting the foundation for future political entities in the region. The area was originally inhabited by the [[Dulebes]], [[Tivertsi]], and [[White Croats]] tribes.<ref name="Sedov">{{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |script-title=ru: Славяне в раннем Средневековье |title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku |trans-title=Slavs in Early Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |language=ru |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1 |pages=41–44, 164, 388, 428–430, 435–437, 481, 497, 499, 515}}</ref> Initially, [[Volhynia]] and [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] existed as separate principalities, each ruled by descendants of [[Yaroslav the Wise]]. Galicia was governed by the [[Rostislav of Tmutarakan|Rostislavich]] dynasty, while Volhynia was initially ruled by the [[Igor Yaroslavich|Igorevichs]] and eventually by the [[Iziaslav II of Kiev|Iziaslavich]] dynasty.{{Sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=123}} During the reign of [[Yaroslav Osmomysl]] (1153–1187), Galicia expanded its influence, extending as far as the Black Sea.{{Sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=123}}

Rivalry between the rulers of these principalities often revolved around efforts to assert dominance over one another. This conflict was finally resolved by [[Roman the Great]] (1197–1205), who not only succeeded in uniting Galicia and Volhynia under his rule but also briefly extended his authority over [[Kiev]]. Roman's consolidation of power laid the groundwork for the rise of the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia, which became a significant political force in the region.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\R\O\Romanovychdynasty.htm|title=Romanovych dynasty [Romanovyc]|publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukraine|date=2001|access-date=26 December 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Галицько-Волинський літопис (2002).djvu|thumb|page=5|Fragment of a copy of the ''[[Galician–Volhynian Chronicle]]'', a literary work and historical source of the period]]
Following Roman's death, a period of unrest ensued, lasting until his son [[Daniel of Galicia|Daniel Romanovich]] reclaimed the throne in 1238. Daniel successfully restored his father's state, including Kiev. In 1240, the Mongol Empire, led by Batu Khan, unleashed devastating invasions across Kievan Rus'. Cities like Kiev were sacked, leaving much of the region in ruins. Daniel's decisive victory at the [[Battle of Yaroslavl (1245)|Battle of Yaroslavl]] in 1245 ended internal conflicts and firmly secured his control over the state. By 1246, Daniel was compelled to recognize Mongol supremacy to safeguard his state. Though this submission was humiliating, it allowed Daniel to retain some degree of autonomy, provided he paid tribute to the Mongol khan.{{sfn|Vernadsky|1970|p=144–149}}

Despite this subjugation, Daniel remained determined to free Ruthenia from Mongol dominance. He sought support from Western Europe, forging diplomatic ties with the [[Papacy]], [[Kingdom of Poland|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In 1253, Daniel was crowned [[King of Ruthenia]] ({{Langx|la|Rex Rusiae}}) by a papal legate in [[Drohiczyn]], receiving formal recognition from [[Pope Innocent IV]]. This coronation symbolized Ruthenia's alignment with [[Western Europe]] and its Christian identity, while still adhering to the Orthodox faith. The crowning also carried the hope of an anti-Mongol alliance, though such a coalition never materialized due to political divisions in Western Europe.{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=126}} King Daniel also founded numerous cities that became hubs of trade, culture, and military strength. Among his most notable achievements were the establishments of [[Lviv]], named after his son Lev, and [[Chelm|Kholm]]. These urban centers not only revitalized the kingdom's economy but also helped Daniel consolidate his political authority over the region.<ref>[[Orest Subtelny]]. (1988) ''Ukraine: A History''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p62</ref><ref>Gloger, Zygmunt. ''[http://literat.ug.edu.pl/glogre/0037.htm Voivodeship of Ruthenia. Historic geography of old Polish lands (Województwo Ruskie. Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515232827/http://literat.ug.edu.pl/glogre/0037.htm |date=15 May 2018}}''. Library of Polish Literature POWRÓT.</ref>

After King Daniel Romanovych's death in 1264, the kingdom was inherited by his son, [[Leo I of Galicia|Lev Danylovych]]. Lev I ruled from 1269 to 1301 and relocated the capital from Kholm to Lviv. He continued his father's policies of defending the kingdom against external threats, particularly from the [[Mongols]], while also striving to maintain alliances with Poland and Lithuania to counterbalance Mongol influence. Although Lev managed to preserve the state's territorial integrity, the kingdom's power gradually eroded under the relentless pressure from the Mongol [[Golden Horde]] and ongoing internal political challenges.<ref>Котляр, М. Ф. ''[http://www.history.org.ua/?encyclop&termin=Lev_Danilovich Лев Данилович] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821235918/http://www.history.org.ua/?encyclop&termin=Lev_Danilovich |date=21 April 2016}}''</ref><ref>''Крип'якевич І. П''. Галицько-Волинське князівство.&nbsp;— Київ: Наукова думка, 1984.&nbsp;— С. 105.</ref> Following Lev's death in 1301, his son, [[Yuri I of Galicia|Yuri Lvovych]], ascended the throne and ruled until 1308. During his reign, Yuri I succeeded in maintaining relative stability, yet the kingdom's political position had significantly weakened compared to the time of Daniel. Despite his efforts, Yuri's reign was short-lived, and after his death, the kingdom entered a period of fragmentation.<ref>[http://chtyvo.org.ua/authors/Voitovych_Leontii/Yurii_Lvovych_i_ioho_polityka/ Войтович Л. (2001) Юрій Львович та його політика]. Галичина та Волинь у добу середньовіччя, до 800-річчя із дня народження Данила Галицького, Львів: Інститут українознавства ім. І. Крип'яквича НАН України.</ref>

[[File:Alex K Yuri Boleslav seal.png|left|thumb|upright=1.0|King's seal of Yuri Lvovych]]
Yuri's sons, [[Andrew of Galicia|Andrew]] and [[Leo II of Galicia|Lev II]], attempted to co-rule, but their efforts to sustain the kingdom's unity and strength ultimately failed. The Mongol Golden Horde continued to exert substantial influence over the weakened [[Kingdom of Ruthenia]] throughout the 14th century.<ref>Котляр М. Ф. ''[http://www.history.org.ua/index.php?termin=Andrij_Y Андрій Юрійович] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425163510/http://www.history.org.ua/index.php?termin=Andrij_Y |date=25 April 2016}}''</ref><ref>Котляр М. Ф. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Lev_Yuriyovych Лев Юрійович] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425163510/http://www.history.org.ua/index.php?termin=Lev_Y |date=25 April 2016}}''</ref> After the deaths of the co-rulers around 1323, the kingdom found itself without strong leadership. [[Yuri II Boleslav]], the last ruler of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, took power following the demise of the Romanovych line. Reigning from 1323 to 1340, he was a member of the Polish [[Piast dynasty]], chosen as king due to his maternal connection to the Ruthenian royal family—his mother, [[Maria of Galicia|Maria]], was the daughter of Lev I.<ref name=Jasinski60>{{cite book |last=Jasiński |first=Kazimierz|title=Rodowód Piastów mazowieckich |year=1998 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Historyczne |location=Poznań - Wrocław |isbn=83-913563-0-2 |page=60 }}</ref> Upon ascending the throne, Boleslav converted to [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] and adopted the name Yuriy to garner support from the local Orthodox nobility. However, his reign was fraught with tension due to his [[Catholic]] background, which clashed with the predominantly Orthodox Ruthenian elite. During his rule, Yuriy II struggled to balance the competing interests of Poland, Lithuania, and the Mongol Golden Horde, while also introducing pro-Catholic policies that alienated the local nobility. His rule culminated in his assassination in 1340 by [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] nobles discontented with his leadership. His death triggered a fierce power struggle between Poland and Lithuania for control over the region. Soon after, [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] was annexed by Poland, and [[Volhynia]] fell under Lithuanian rule, marking the end of the independent Kingdom of Ruthenia.<ref name=":Krypiakevich"/>

=== Foreign domination ===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Genoese Gazaria|Principality of Theodoro|Crimean Khanate}}
{{See also|Galicia–Volhynia Wars|Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)}}

From the 13th century onwards, parts of Ukraine’s [[Black Sea]] called [[Genoese Gazaria]] came under the influence of the [[Republic of Genoa]], which established fortified trading [[Genoese colonies|colonies]]. These included key settlements such as Caffa (modern [[Feodosia]]), Soldaia (modern [[Sudak]]), and others in today’s [[Odesa Oblast]]. These fortresses, heavily guarded by Genoese garrisons, functioned as hubs for maritime trade and ensured Genoa's control over Black Sea commerce. The Genoese dominance, however, faced challenges from neighboring powers and ended with the Ottoman conquest in 1475.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2018 |title=Генуэзские колонии в Одесской области - Бизнес-портал Измаила |url=http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001115/http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |archive-date=5 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=О СОПЕРНИЧЕСТВЕ ВЕНЕЦИИ С ГЕНУЕЮ В XIV-м ВЕКЕ |url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Italy/venice/Veneto-genua/pred.phtml |access-date=19 September 2023 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2019 |title=Эпиграфические памятники Каффы {{!}} Старый музей |work=Старый музей &#124; Российский исторический музей |url=https://old-museum.org/halls/history_hall_20.htm |access-date=19 September 2023 |language=ru-RU}}</ref>

In 1322, [[Pope John XXII]] established a Catholic [[diocese]] in Caffa (modern-day [[Feodosia]]), marking the only Catholic stronghold within Mongol-controlled territories. It served as a central religious authority from the [[Balkans]] to the capital of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]]. The Genoese settlements were not only economic centers but also a point of cultural and religious interaction between [[Europe]], the [[Mongol Empire]], and the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny |title=The colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea region: Evolution and transformation |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-62306-3 |page=69|location=New York |publisher= Routledge |oclc=994262849}}</ref>

[[File:Lithuanian state in 13-15th centuries.png|thumb|Map of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], at its greatest extent from the 13th to 15th centuries.]]
By the mid-14th century, the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] expanded into the territories of modern [[Ukraine]]. After the decisive [[Battle of the Blue Waters]] against the Golden Horde (1362/63), Lithuania annexed [[Polotsk]], [[Volhynia]], [[Chernihiv]], and [[Kyiv]]. Lithuanian rulers adhered to the principle “We do not disturb the old, nor do we introduce the new”, which allowed local [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] (Ukrainian) traditions, religion, and administration to remain largely intact. The Lithuanian rulers styled themselves as “rulers of Rus’”, integrating Ruthenian traditions and governance into their system. This integration included Ruthenian aristocrats, like the [[Olelkovich|Olelkovich family]], who became influential in the Lithuanian administration. [[Old Church Slavonic]] and [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] served as primary administrative languages alongside [[Latin]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGKJDAAAQBAJ |title=Authority and Identity: A Sociolinguistic History of Europe before the Modern Age |date=21 July 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-28203-2 |page=184 |language=en}}</ref>

Simultaneously, Poland began asserting influence over western Ukraine. [[Red Ruthenia]], parts of Volhynia, and [[Podolia]] were incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Poland]], and the Polish monarch adopted the title "lord and heir of Ruthenia" ({{Langx|la|Russiae dominus et Heres}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voloshchuk |first=Myroslav |title=The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: History, Memory, Legacy |series=The Principles of Ancient Rzeczpospolita Formation: The Medieval Ruthenian Dimension |editor-last=Chwalba |editor-first=Andrzej |editor-last2=Zamorski |editor-first2=Krzysztof}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Kingdom of Hungary]] also maintained influence, particularly over [[Transcarpathia|Zakarpattia]] (Transcarpathia) and parts of [[Bessarabia]]. The [[Hungarian Crown]] controlled these regions, fostering [[Magyarization]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] influence while integrating them into the Hungary’s political and economic system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukrainer.net/hungarians-of-ukraine/|title=Hungarians of Ukraine|date=21 August 2020 }}</ref>

Since the 14th century, Poland and Lithuania had developed a unique and evolving relationship, often defined by dynastic unions, military alliances, and shared geopolitical interests, particularly in countering external threats. These included the aggressive expansion of the [[Teutonic Knights]] in the [[Baltic region]] and the rise of the [[Principality of Moscow]] to the east. The need for mutual support in the face of these common enemies gradually led the two states toward closer cooperation. This relationship reached a decisive turning point with the [[Union of Krewo]] in 1385, which marked the beginning of a new political era. Through the marriage of [[Jadwiga of Poland]], the Queen of Poland, and [[Władysław II Jagiełło]], the Grand Duke of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Grand Duchy was brought under Polish influence. This union was not just a political arrangement but a dynastic consolidation, with Jagiełło converting to [[Christianity]] and agreeing to unite Lithuania with Poland under his rule. This union established the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]], which would go on to rule both Poland and Lithuania for several generations. The creation of this shared monarchy laid the foundation for an increasingly intertwined relationship between the two states, leading to greater cooperation in military, political, and cultural matters.<ref>{{citation |first=Norman |last=Davies |author-link=Norman Davies| title=[[God's Playground]]. A History of Poland. The Origins to 1795 |volume=I | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-925339-5 |edition=Revised}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Zenonas |last=Ivinskis |author-link=Zenonas Ivinskis |title=Lietuvos istorija iki Vytauto Didžiojo mirties |year=1978 |location=Rome |publisher=Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademija |oclc=5075215 |language=lt}}</ref>

In the early 15th century, tensions within the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia]] over the governance of the Rus' lands intensified. These tensions escalated into a power struggle following the death of Grand Duke [[Vytautas]] in 1430. Vytautas had been a powerful and unifying figure, and his passing left a power vacuum that deepened divisions within the Lithuanian elite. Two main contenders for the throne emerged: [[Švitrigaila]], who had the support of the Orthodox Rus' nobility, and [[Sigismund Kęstutaitis]], who represented the Catholic Lithuanian elite.<ref name="NCMH">{{cite book| first=Aleksander |last=Gieysztor |author-link=Aleksander Gieysztor |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History, c.1415–c.1500 |chapter=The kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania, 1370–1506 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-38296-3 |volume=7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=RA2-PA732 | pages=734–735}}</ref> In 1432, Sigismund Kęstutaitis declared himself the new [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]. To consolidate his rule and gain favor with the Rus' lands, he proclaimed the creation of a new political entity—the {{ill|Grand Principality of Rus' (1432—1435)|uk|Велике князівство Руське (1432—1435)|vertical-align=sup}}. This new formation was intended to include several important regions, such as [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]], [[Siveria]], [[Berestia]], and [[Dnieper Ukraine]], with [[Kyiv]] as its capital. Despite this declaration, Švitrigaila remained formally the head of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and sought to transform the Rus' lands into an independent state under his control. His ambition to sever the ties with the rest of the Grand Duchy sparked a [[Lithuanian Civil War (1432–1438)|civil war]] that raged from 1432 to 1435, plunging Lithuania into internal conflict.<ref name=kiaupa>{{cite book | last1=Kiaupa | first1=Zigmantas |first2=Jūratė |last2=Kiaupienė |first3=Albinas |last3=Kuncevičius | title=The History of Lithuania Before 1795 | orig-year=1995 | edition=English | year=2000 | publisher=Lithuanian Institute of History | location=Vilnius | isbn=9986-810-13-2 | pages=205–211}}</ref>

[[File:Vilkamir battle monument — Помнік бітвы пад Вількамірам.Jpg|thumb|left|Monument at the field of the Battle of Wiłkomierz]]
Švitrigaila's forces, which included early [[Cossack]], sought external support from the [[Teutonic Order]], which had its own interests in weakening both Poland and Lithuania. The Teutonic Order's involvement further complicated the political situation. However, Sigismund Kęstutaitis found strong backing from [[List of Polish monarchs|Polish King]] [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] (Jogaila), as well as from the majority of the Lithuanian nobility. This external support proved pivotal in the conflict, tipping the scales in Sigismund's favor. The turning point in the war came with the [[Battle of Wiłkomierz]] (modern-day [[Ukmergė]], [[Lithuania]]) on 1 September 1435. This battle was one of the largest and most decisive military engagements in [[Eastern Europe]] during the 15th century. Švitrigaila's forces were decisively defeated, suffering a crushing blow that effectively ended the Grand Principality of Rus'. The defeat led to the collapse of Švitrigaila's short-lived state and ensured the continuation of Lithuanian rule over the Rus' lands. With the victory, Sigismund Kęstutaitis solidified his power as Grand Duke, and the Rus' territories were once again integrated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, these lands would now be firmly under Lithuanian control, with no 
significant autonomy for the Rus' people. The failure of the Grand Principality of Rus' also marked a significant shift in the governance of the region, as the aspirations of the Rus' nobility for greater independence were suppressed.<ref name=kiaupa/>

Southwestern Crimea saw the emergence of the [[Principality of Theodoro]], also known as Gothia, a Byzantine successor state. Centered in Doros (modern [[Mangup]]), Theodoro was a multi-ethnic entity populated by [[Greeks]], [[Goths]], [[Alans]], and others. Its rulers maintained close ties with the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. The principality acted as a buffer between Genoese colonies and the expanding [[Crimean Khanate]]. Despite its strong fortifications, Theodoro was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1475, as the Ottomans sought full dominance over the Black Sea region.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/37968405/Dushenko_A._Byzantine_Weights_Excavated_at_Mangup_Византийские_разновесы_из_раскопок_Мангупа_ Dushenko A. Byzantine Weights Excavated at Mangup]</ref>

The increasing dominance of the Polish nobility over Ukrainian lands in the late 15th century sparked resistance, most notably [[Mukha Rebellion|Mukha’s Rebellion]] in 1490. Led by [[Petro Mukha]] and supported by Moldavian Prince [[Stephen the Great]], the uprising involved early [[Cossacks]], [[Hutsuls]], and [[Romanians|Romanians (Moldavians)]]. Mukha’s forces captured several towns in [[Pokuttya]] and advanced toward [[Lviv]], though they failed to take the city. The rebellion, while ultimately suppressed, revealed growing dissatisfaction among Ukrainians under foreign rule and foreshadowed future uprisings in the region.<ref name="Mukha's Rebellionn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm|title=Mukha rebellion|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

As the [[Golden Horde]] declined in the 15th century, the [[Crimean Khanate]] emerged as a dominant power in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|southern Ukrainian steppe]]. Centered around the city of [[Bakhchisarai]], the Khanate controlled much of the [[Black Sea]] coastline, including key ports and strategic territories in what is today southern Ukraine. This rise to power marked a significant shift in the region, as the Crimean Khanate not only played a key military and political role but also became a vital player in the economy of the Black Sea and beyond.<ref>Documents of the Crimean khanate from the collection of Huseyn Feyzkhanov / comp. and the transliteration. R. R. Abdujalilov; scientific. edited by I. Mingaleev. – Simferopol: LLC "Konstanta". 2017.  816 p. {{ISBN|978-5-906952-38-7}}</ref><ref>Sagit Faizov. Letters of khans Islam Giray III and Muhammad Giray IV to Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich and king Jan Kazimir, 1654–1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in polit. post-Pereyaslav context. time. Moscow: Humanitarii, 2003.  166 p. {{ISBN|5-89221-075-8}}</ref>

[[File:Ottoman empire 1481-1683.jpg|thumb|Map of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire]]
From the early 16th century to the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate was deeply involved in the region’s [[Crimean slave trade|slave trade]], which became one of its main economic drivers. The Khanate, often acting as an intermediary between the steppes and the [[Ottoman Empire]], exported an estimated 2 million slaves to [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire]] and [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|the Middle East]] between 1500 and 1700. These slaves, many of whom were captured in raids on neighboring lands, were primarily sold to the Ottoman Empire, where they were used in various sectors, including the military, households, and harems.<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref>

Despite its growing power, the Crimean Khanate remained a [[vassal state]] of the Ottoman Empire throughout much of its history. This relationship provided the Khanate with military support and protection, but also limited its autonomy. The Crimean Khanate’s role as a vassal did not diminish its influence, however, and it continued to exert significant control over the Black Sea region until the late 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |work=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |year=2013 |page=27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 |author-link=Brian Glyn Williams }}</ref>

==Early modern period==
===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===
{{Main|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Cossacks|Cossack uprisings}}
{{See also|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)}}

After the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569, which united the [[Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], Ukrainian lands transitioned under Polish administration, becoming part of the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]]. The union was driven by the need to counter external threats, primarily the growing aggression of [[Tsardom of Moscow]] and persistent raids by the [[Teutonic Order]], prompting both states to consolidate their resources and strengthen their defenses. This political shift marked a significant transformation of Ukraine's social, economic, and cultural landscape. Polish authorities initiated large-scale [[colonization]] efforts, resulting in the foundation of numerous new towns and villages, particularly in the steppe regions. Settlers brought new legal norms, governance practices, and economic models, integrating Ukrainian lands more closely into the Commonwealth's political system.<ref name="DF">[[Francis Dvornik|Dvornik, Francis]], ''The Slavs in European History and Civilization'', Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|0-8135-0799-5}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LACpYP-g1y8C&pg=PA254 Google Print, p.254]</ref><ref name="DavN">Norman Davies, ''God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-925339-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA50 Google Print, p.50]</ref>

[[File:Podział administracyjny I RP.png|thumb|left|Voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
At the same time, [[Renaissance]] ideas began to permeate Ukrainian society, driven by the spread of new schools and educational institutions, which were often established by the Jesuits. The arrival of Polish settlers in large numbers led to cultural assimilation. Over time, a significant portion of the Ukrainian nobility became '[[polonisation|polonized]]', adopting Polish customs, language, and converting to [[Roman Catholicism]]. However, the majority of [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian-speaking]] peasants remained loyal to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], which caused growing social and religious tensions. Polish influence extended not only politically but also culturally. Some polonized Ukrainian nobles, such as [[Stanisław Orzechowski]], made notable contributions to Polish intellectual and cultural life, writing influential works on theology, law, and politics. These changes contributed to the fragmentation of Ukrainian society, as the gap between the [[Catholic]], [[Polish language|Polish-speaking]] nobility and the Orthodox, Ruthenian-speaking peasants widened, creating the foundations for future conflicts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nowakowski |first=Przemysław |title=Statuty synodu zamojskiego 1720 roku: Nowe tłumaczenie z komentarzami |year=2020 |location=Cracow |pages=382–390}}</ref><ref name=KostKhmeln>"[[Nikolay Kostomarov]], ''[http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kostom/kostom36.htm Russian History in Biographies of its main figures.]'' "Little Russian Hetman Zinoviy-Bogdan Khmelnytsky." {{in lang|ru}}</ref>

The incorporation of [[Kyiv]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]], and [[Bratslav]] lands into the Crown also strengthened internal connections between various Ukrainian regions. New trade routes and urban centers facilitated greater economic, social, and cultural interaction across these previously fragmented territories, fostering regional cohesion. However, despite the spread of [[Polish culture]] and governance, the Ukrainian population maintained a distinct identity rooted in Orthodox traditions and Ruthenian language, which became a key factor in their resistance to cultural assimilation.<ref>[[Natalia Yakovenko|Yakovenko, N.]] (2008). ''Ukrainian nobility from the end of 14th century to the mid of 17th century''. 2nd ed. {{ill|Krytyka (publisher)|uk|Критика (видавництво)|lt=Krytyka}}. Kyiv. {{ISBN|966-8978-14-5}}.</ref>

At the same time, the harsh conditions imposed on Ruthenian peasants by the Polish nobility sparked widespread resistance. As serfdom expanded and economic exploitation intensified, many peasants fled to the borderlands of the Dnipro region, seeking freedom and a better life. These frontier settlers became known as [[Cossacks]], forming a distinct social and military group known for their martial prowess, independence, and deep ties to the Orthodox faith. The Cossacks quickly gained a reputation as skilled warriors, adept at defending the southeastern borders of the Commonwealth from [[Tatars|Tatar]] raids. Recognizing their military value, the Polish authorities enlisted Cossacks into the Commonwealth’s army, particularly for the defense of frontier regions, and granted them limited privileges through the creation of the [[Registered Cossacks]] in the late 16th century. [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]], one of the most prominent Cossack leaders, played a decisive role in the [[Battle of Khotyn (1621)|Battle of Khotyn]] in 1621, where the Commonwealth, with Cossack support, repelled a massive [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] army. His leadership and diplomatic efforts also strengthened ties with the Orthodox Church, as he sought to restore the Church’s influence in Ukrainian society.<ref name="Hrushevsky">Hrushevsky, M., 1999, The History of the Ukrainian Cossacks, Vol. 1, The Cossack Age to 1625, Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, {{ISBN|1895571286}}</ref>

[[File:BlackSea1600-es.svg|thumb|Control of the territory of Ukraine in 1600]]
However, despite their significant contributions to the Commonwealth’s military victories, the Cossacks were denied substantial political or social autonomy. The [[Szlachta]] (Polish nobility), which dominated the Commonwealth’s political system, viewed the Cossacks as a disruptive and uncontrollable force, refusing to recognize them as a distinct social class. Instead, the nobility made repeated attempts to reduce the Cossacks to the status of [[serfdom|serfs]], depriving them of their privileges and freedoms. This ongoing marginalization and denial of rights led to a series of [[Cossack uprisings]], as they sought to defend their autonomy, way of life, and religious identity. Notable rebellions included the [[Kosiński uprising|Kosiński Uprising]] (1591-1593) and the [[Nalyvaiko Uprising]] (1594-1596), both of which were brutally suppressed by the Polish authorities. These rebellions, however, underscored the growing discontent among the Cossacks and highlighted the tension between the Commonwealth’s central government and the frontier population.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Cossacks  The Cossacks of Poland]</ref>

By the early 17th century, the situation became increasingly volatile, with Cossack demands for recognition of their rights being continuously ignored. The Commonwealth's refusal to integrate the Cossacks politically and respect their distinct cultural and religious identity ultimately set the stage for larger conflicts, most notably the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of 1648, also known as the Cossack–Polish War,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |title=Cossack-Polish War |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611092927/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |archive-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> which profoundly reshaped the political landscape of Eastern Europe.<ref name="Chmielnicki-Massacres">{{cite book |author-last=Batista |author-first=Jakub |year=2014 |chapter=Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVqqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=[[Santa Barbara, California]] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |volume=1 |pages=100–101 |isbn=978-1-59884-926-4}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Size and population of the voivodeships in the 16th century<ref>A. Jabłonowski, Źródła Dziejowe (Warsaw, 1889) xix: 73</ref>
|-
! colspan="2" class="unsortable" | Voivodeship!! Square kilometers !! Population (est.)
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Ruthenian Voivodeship|Galicia]] || 45,000 || 446,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)|Volhynia]] || 42,000 || 294,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Podolian Voivodeship|Podilia]] || 19,000 || 98,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Bracław Voivodeship|Bratslav]] || 35,000 || 311,000
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Kiev Voivodeship|Kyiv]] || 117,000 || 234,000
|-
| rowspan="2" | [[Belz Voivodeship|Belz]] (two regions) || [[Chełm Land|Kholm]] || 19,000 || 133,000
|-
| [[Podlaskie Voivodeship (1513–1795)|Pidliassia]] || 10,000 || 233,000
|}

=== Cossack era ===
{{Main|History of the Cossacks|Zaporozhian Sich}}

==== Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764) ====
{{Main|Cossack Hetmanate|Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host}}
{{See also|Khmelnytsky Uprising|Great Northern War|Sack of Baturyn|Battle of Poltava}}

The [[Cossack Hetmanate]], also known as the Hetmanate of Ukraine, was a self-governing [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossack state]] that existed between 1649 and 1764. It arose during a particularly volatile era in Eastern European history, following the seismic upheaval of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. This revolt, led by the charismatic and astute military leader [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], sought to liberate Ukrainian lands from the dominion of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The rebellion not only destabilized one of Europe’s most prominent states at the time but also triggered a broader period of chaos in the region, known in Ukrainian history as the "[[the Ruin (Ukrainian history)|Ruin]]", while in Polish historiography it is referred to as "the [[Deluge (history)|Deluge]]".<ref name=Serhy>{{harvnb|Yekelchyk|2007}}</ref>

[[File:Location of Cossack Hetmanate.png|left|thumb|Territory gained after the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]]]]
The establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate in 1649 marked a pivotal shift in the political landscape of [[Eastern Europe]]. Officially recognized through the [[Treaty of Zboriv]] that same year, the Hetmanate emerged as a semi-autonomous entity within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Yet, this fragile self-governance was immediately tested by a turbulent geopolitical environment. The state found itself entangled in a web of diplomatic and military conflicts involving major regional powers, including the [[Ottoman Empire]], the Commonwealth, the [[Crimean Khanate]], and the [[Tsardom of Moscow]]. For these competing entities, the Hetmanate was not just a potential ally, but also a strategic prize, which complicated its quest for sovereignty and stability.<ref name=Serhy/>

As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres: military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the [[Zaporozhian Host]] under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] state, and he unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. This involved building a government system and a developed military and civilian administration out of Cossack officers and Ruthenian nobles, as well as the establishment of an elite within the Cossack Hetman state.<ref>{{Cite book|author-last=Zhukovsky |author-first=Arkadii |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\Z\A\ZaporozhianSich.htm |title=Zaporozhian Sich |date=13 September 2015 |publisher=Encyclopedia of Ukraine}}</ref>

[[File:Rzeczpospolita Trojga Narodów w roku 1658.png|thumb|Proposed creation of tripartite [[Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth]] in 1658]]
In 1654, under the continuous pressure of Poland and in pursuit of a more secure route to sovereignty, the Cossack leadership, headed by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, entered into the [[Pereiaslav Agreement]] with the Tsardom of Russia. This pact positioned the Hetmanate under the Russian protection, signaling a significant shift in the region’s balance of power. While the agreement initially promised mutual military support and guaranteed a degree of autonomy for the [[Cossacks]], it also laid the groundwork for Russia's gradual encroachment on Ukrainian governance. Over time, the aspirations of the Hetmanate for true independence were systematically undermined, as the Tsardom’s ambitions to consolidate control over the territory took precedence.{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC&q=%22March+articles%22+ukraine&pg=PA227 227]}}<ref name=Serhy/>

Efforts to reclaim autonomy and negotiate favorable terms with neighboring powers continued, culminating in the 1658 [[Treaty of Hadiach]]. This ambitious agreement aimed to elevate the Hetmanate to the status of the [[Grand Principality of Rus' (1658)|Grand Principality of Rus']], an equal partner within the Commonwealth alongside Poland and Lithuania. While the treaty represented a significant step toward reconciliation, it was ultimately derailed by fierce Russian opposition and deep-seated divisions within the Ukrainian leadership. Moreover, the agreement failed to stabilize the region, as ongoing conflicts, including Russian military campaigns and internal unrest, plunged the Hetmanate into over a decade of turmoil, leaving its aspirations for autonomy unfulfilled.<ref>''Наталія Яковенко'' [http://history.franko.lviv.ua/PDF%20Final/Jakovenko.pdf "Нарис історії України з найдавніших часів до кінця ХVІІІ ст."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111052824/http://history.franko.lviv.ua/PDF%20Final/Jakovenko.pdf |date=11 November 2020 }}:  "На початку серпня 1659 р. в одному зі згаданих локальних боїв на прикордонні від рук людей Цюцюри загинув 47-річний Юрій Немирич, найосвіченіший українець, аристократ і перший канцлер задуманого ним, але так і не збудованого Великого Князівства Руського."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://krotov.info/libr_min/28_ya/ko/vleva_t.htm |title=Т.Г.Яковлева. Гадячский договор - легенда и реальность |access-date=1 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401071028/http://krotov.info/libr_min/28_ya/ko/vleva_t.htm |archive-date=1 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Partition of Ukraine after the Truce of Andrusovo (1667).jpg|left|thumb|Partition of [[Cossack Hetmanate]] after the [[Truce of Andrusovo]] in 1667]]
The [[Truce of Andrusovo]] in 1667 marked a pivotal moment in Ukrainian history, as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia formalized an agreement to partition the Hetmanate's territories along the [[Dnieper River]]. Under the terms of the treaty, [[Right-Bank Ukraine]] was returned to Polish control, while [[Left-Bank Ukraine]], including [[Kyiv]], was ceded to Russia. Although the Hetmanate retained a nominal degree of autonomy on the Left Bank, this autonomy was heavily constrained by Russian oversight. The division not only symbolized the beginning of a new long-term foreign domination of Ukrainian lands, but also violated the unity of the Cossack state. This fragmentation further weakened the Hetmanate's capacity to resist external pressures and maintain its independence, leaving it increasingly vulnerable to the ambitions of neighboring powers.<ref name=Serhy/>

The late 17th century was characterized by civil strife, foreign intervention, and territorial shifts. From 1657 to 1686, the region was embroiled in nearly constant conflict, with neighboring powers, including the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Russia, capitalizing on Ukraine's vulnerability. During this period, [[Hetman]] [[Petro Doroshenko]], a prominent Cossack leader, sought to consolidate control over key territories such as [[Kyiv]] and [[Bratslav]]. However, his ambitions were thwarted as these areas fell under Turkish occupation, further complicating the geopolitical landscape.<ref name="Ágoston">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Gábor |last=Ágoston |title=Treaty of Karlowitz |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA309 |pages=309–10 |isbn=978-0816-06259-1 }}<!-- ISBN refers to 2008 edition; Google Books dates their copy as 2010. --></ref>

[[File:Carte d'Ukranie by Beauplan, Guillaume Le Vasseur (16..-1673), cartographer.jpg|thumb|French map of Ukraine (''Carte d'Ukranie''), by Beauplan (1600–1673), cartographer (south at the top)]]
In the broader context, the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] in 1699 played a pivotal role in redefining territorial control. It resulted in the return of much of the land previously held by the Ottomans to Polish authority. Despite this, Ukrainian Cossack forces, especially in the frontier regions of [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhzhia]] and [[Sloboda Ukraine]], managed to maintain a degree of autonomy. Semi-independent Cossack republics in these areas continued to challenge both Polish and Russian dominance, asserting their independence and preserving distinct cultural and political identities.<ref name="Ágoston"/>

In addition to political turbulence, the Hetmanate played a pivotal role in the cultural and intellectual development of both Ukraine and Russia during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Ukrainian clerics, scholars, and intellectuals, many of whom were educated at the esteemed [[Kyiv-Mohyla Academy]], served as key agents of cultural exchange and reform. Their influence was particularly pronounced during the reign of [[Peter the Great]], as they introduced new ideas and approaches that helped modernize Russian society. Figures such as [[Theophan Prokopovich]] and [[Stefan Yavorsky]], both leading members of the [[Most Holy Synod]], played an important role in shaping religious and educational reforms in Russia. The intellectual movement often referred to as the 'Ukrainian school' left a lasting imprint on Russian literature, theology, and pedagogy, becoming a dominant force in the region's cultural landscape.<ref name=empire>{{cite book |last1=Shkandrij |first1=Myroslav |title=Russia and Ukraine. Literature and the Discourse of Empire from Napoleonic to Postcolonial Times |date=2001 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=9780773569492 |page=4 |jstor=j.ctt7zz3w |access-date=6 June 2024 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zz3w}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Massie |first1=Robert K. |title=Peter the Great: His Life and World |date=2012 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=9780307817235 |pages=791–793}}</ref>

A critical turning point in Ukraine's religious history occurred in 1686, when the [[Metropolis of Kyiv]] was [[Annexation of the Metropolis of Kyiv by the Moscow Patriarchate|annexed]] by the [[Moscow Patriarchate]]. This event symbolized the consolidation of Moscow's influence over Ukrainian religious and cultural life. This annexation was a significant step towards the gradual erosion of Ukrainian ecclesiastical independence. Nonetheless, the Hetmanate's leadership continued to assert their autonomy, navigating complex political realities to safeguard their unique identity and governance. The interplay between cooperation and resistance defined this era, highlighting Ukraine's dual role as both a cultural sponsor of Moscovy's reforms and a defender of its own sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yekelchyk |first=Serhy |title=Ukraine: What everyone needs to know |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2019 |isbn=9780197532102 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=34, 65 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Marten's_Poltava.jpg|left|thumb|''The Battle of Poltava'' by [[Pierre-Denis Martin (1663–1742)|Pierre-Denis Martin]]]]
The Hetmanate reached its peak of independence under the leadership of Hetman [[Ivan Mazepa]], a complex and ambitious figure in Ukrainian history. Seeking to assert the autonomy of the Hetmanate, Mazepa pursued an alliance with the [[Swedish Empire]] during the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721), hoping to break free from Russian dominance. His decision to align with [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was a bold but perilous move, rooted in the desire to safeguard Ukrainian sovereignty and escape the tightening grip of Moscow.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bondar |first1=Andriy |title=Baturyn, a Small Town With a Grand History |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/post/20093 |website=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=7 August 2023}}</ref>

The turning point came in 1708, when the Moscovy's army, under orders from [[Tsar]] [[Peter the Great|Peter I]], sacked the Hetmanate's capital city, [[Baturyn]]. The brutal assault resulted in the [[Sack of Baturyn|massacre]] of thousands of defenders and civilians, with many burned alive or executed in other horrific ways. This act of retribution was a devastating blow to Mazepa's efforts, as it not only destroyed the administrative and military center of the Hetmanate but also served as a warning to other potential dissenters.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ben |first1=Bohdan |title=Baturyn massacre which brought Russian Empire to rank of global powers and destroyed Ukrainian Cossack state recalled |url=https://euromaidanpress.com/2021/11/20/baturyn-massacre-which-brought-russian-empire-to-rank-of-global-powers-and-destroyed-ukrainian-cossack-state-recalled/ |website=Euromaidan Press |date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Mazepa's rebellion culminated in the catastrophic defeat at the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709, where the combined Swedish-Ukrainian forces were decisively crushed by Peter's army. The aftermath of Poltava marked the end of Mazepa's aspirations for Ukrainian independence and significantly tightened Russia's control over the Hetmanate. The rebellion's failure also signaled a shift in the balance of power in [[Eastern Europe]], consolidating Russia's dominance in the region and diminishing the Hetmanate's autonomy.<ref>Kamenskii, Alexander. "The Battle of Poltava in Russian Historical Memory." ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 31.1/4 (2009): 195–204 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756503 online].</ref><ref>Brown, Peter B. "Gazing Anew at Poltava: Perspectives from the Military Revolution Controversy, Comparative History, and Decision-Making Doctrines." ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 31.1/4 (2009): 107–133. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41756499 online]</ref>

[[File:Ukraine 1740 kossaks map.svg|thumb|Map of the part of Ukrainian lands in the [[Russian Empire]], 1740-1750, superimposed over the territory of modern Ukraine in yellow. Grey: the [[Cossack Hetmanate|Hetmanate]]. Yellow: [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhzhia]]. Green: [[Sloboda Ukraine]]]]
After the defeat at Poltava, [[Ivan Skoropadsky]] led the Hetmanate (1708–1722) during a challenging period of diminishing autonomy. While he sought to navigate the growing pressures from Russia, his efforts were significantly undermined in 1722 when Peter I established the [[Collegium of Little Russia (1722–1727)|Little Russian Collegium]]. This administrative body, composed largely of imperial officials, was tasked with supervising the Hetmanate's governance, effectively curtailing Skoropadsky's authority and undermining traditional Cossack institutions. His death in 1722 left the Hetmanate vulnerable to further imperial centralization.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/bojko2000#page/n13/mode/2up Центральні органи Московської держави, що діяли в Гетьманщині] // Бойко І.&nbsp;Й.&nbsp;Держава і право Гетьманщини. Навчальний посібник.&nbsp;— Львів: Світ, 2000.&nbsp;— С. 14.&nbsp;— 120 с.&nbsp;— ISBN 5-7773-0374-9.</ref> Following Skoropadsky's death, [[Pavlo Polubotok]], serving as acting Hetman, attempted to resist Moscow's encroachments. Polubotok appealed to Peter I to honor the Hetmanate's earlier agreements, particularly those guaranteeing autonomy. However, his resistance led to his arrest and imprisonment in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]], where he died in 1724. Polubotok's fate symbolized the futility of overt resistance during this phase, as the imperial government tightened its grip on the region.<ref name="КМА">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukma.edu.ua/index.php/projectsdone/personal-grants/91-about-us/vudatni-prof-stud/142-polybotok|title= Павло Полуботок // Києво-Могилянська академія в іменах XVII—XVIII ст.|accessdate=2 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201233029/https://www.ukma.edu.ua/index.php/projectsdone/personal-grants/91-about-us/vudatni-prof-stud/142-polybotok}}</ref>

A brief resurgence of autonomy occurred under [[Danylo Apostol]] (1727–1734), whose election marked a temporary relaxation of imperial policies following Peter I's death. Apostol negotiated limited autonomy for the Hetmanate, securing greater control over local taxation and governance. He also implemented administrative and judicial reforms aimed at strengthening internal stability. Despite these achievements, Apostol's death led to another period of direct imperial administration under the [[Governing Council of the Hetman Office]], a body dominated by Russian officials. This period (1734–1750) deepened the integration of the Hetmanate into the [[History of the administrative division of Russia#Imperial Russia|imperial administrative structure]].<ref name="dict">{{cite book |last1=Katchanovski |first1=Ivan |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon E. |last3=Nebesio |first3=Bohdan Y. |last4=Yurkevich |first4=Myroslav |title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine |date=11 July 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7847-1 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Гетманщина18век.gif|thumb|left|Cossack Hetmanate (1750) and the Russian provinces in its place (1809)]]
In 1750, the Hetmanate was restored under [[Kyrylo Rozumovsky]], a politically savvy leader with close ties to the Russian court. Rozumovsky sought to modernize the Hetmanate by reforming its administration, judiciary, and military while working to strengthen its autonomy. He relocated the Hetmanate's capital to [[Hlukhiv]], transforming it into a political and cultural center. Rozumovsky also initiated ambitious projects, including plans to establish a university, reflecting his vision of the Hetmanate as a semi-autonomous, modernized polity within the [[Russian Empire]]. However, his growing influence and calls for greater independence alarmed [[Catherine the Great]], who was determined to centralize power.<ref>[[Oleksander Ohloblyn]]. ''[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRozumovskyKyrylo.htm Rozumovsky, Kyrylo]''. [[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]</ref><ref name=ehurkh>Putro, O. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Rozumovskyj_K Kyrylo Rozumovsky (РОЗУМОВСЬКИЙ КИРИЛО ГРИГОРОВИЧ)]''. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine.</ref>

In 1764, Catherine the Great [[Liquidation of the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate|formally abolished the Hetmanate]], transferring its governance to the Little Russian Collegium. This move marked the end of the Hetmanate's semi-autonomous status and its complete incorporation into the administrative structure of the Russian Empire. The abolition not only dismantled the Hetmanate's unique political and military institutions but also signified the culmination of a broader imperial strategy to suppress regional autonomy in favor of centralized governance.<ref>[[Рибалка Іван Климентійович|Рибалка I. К.]] Історія України. Частина І: Від найдавніших часів до кінця XVIII століття. Харків, «Основа», 1995.&nbsp;— 448 с. [http://readbookz.com/book/200/7637.html 2. Остаточна ліквідація царизмом автономного устрою Лівобережжя і Слобожанщини] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916083431/http://readbookz.com/book/200/7637.html|date=16 вересня 2016}}</ref>

==== Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich ====
{{See also|Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich}}
During the 18th century, the [[Russian Empire]] transitioned from providing nominal "protection" to exerting direct control over central Ukraine, progressively eroding the autonomy of the Cossacks. The Cossack uprisings, which had once been directed against the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], now shifted focus to the Russian authorities. By the late 18th century, these uprisings had largely subsided, their potency undermined by the overwhelming might of the Russian Empire and deep divisions within the Cossack leadership.<ref>Яворницький Д.І. Запорожжя в залишках старовини і переказах народу: Ч. І; Ч.ІІ. К.: Веселка, 1995. – 447 с.: іл., с. 376 – 391.</ref>

[[File:1775 Zaporizhya.png|thumb|Territories controlled by Ukrainian Cossacks at the end of their existence]]
The [[Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]] marked a pivotal moment for the Ukrainian Cossacks and their role within the Russian Empire. The Cossacks had provided crucial support during the war, significantly contributing to Russian victories. The conflict culminated in the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]], which granted Russia significant territorial acquisitions along the [[Black Sea]] coast, further consolidating its influence in the region. This success reduced the strategic importance of the [[Zaporozhian Sich]], as the borderlands the Cossacks had long defended were now firmly under Russian control. The geopolitical realignment weakened the Cossacks’ traditional role, setting the stage for their eventual demise.<ref>{{cite book |first=Brian L. |last=Davies |title=The Russo-Turkish War, 1768–1774 |location=New York |publisher= Bloomsbury Academic |year=2016 |isbn= 978-1-47250801-0 |page= 248}}</ref>

In 1775, Empress [[Catherine the Great]] took decisive action to eliminate what she perceived as a potential threat to her centralized rule. The Zaporozhian Sich, with its semi-autonomous status and militarized society, stood as a symbol of independence that clashed with the empire’s drive toward unification. Acting on her orders, General [[Peter Tekeli]] led a massive military force to suppress the Sich. On 15 June 1775, Tekeli’s forces, composed of 45,000 troops—including 8 cavalry regiments, 10 infantry regiments, 20 hussar squadrons, 17 pike squadrons, and 13 squadrons of [[Don Cossacks]]—overwhelmed the Sich. Defended by a mere 3,000 Cossacks, the Sich fell with little resistance. The destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich marked the end of an era, effectively dismantling one of the last vestiges of Ukrainian self-rule.<ref name=Solovyov>{{cite web
 |last       = Solov'yov V
 |title      = Конец Запорожской Сечи
 |publisher  = Кубань, XXI век
 |url        = http://www.kuban-xxi.h1.ru/history/21.shtml
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040712153329/http://kuban-xxi.h1.ru/history/21.shtml
 |url-status   = dead
 |archive-date = 12 July 2004
 |access-date = 1 October 2008
}}</ref>

The last [[Kosh Otaman]], [[Petro Kalnyshevsky]], was arrested and exiled to the [[Solovetsky Islands]] in the far north, where he spent the remainder of his life in harsh conditions, dying in captivity. Following the destruction, a smaller group of Cossacks fled to the lands of the Ottoman Empire, settling beyond the [[Danube]], where they formed the [[Danubian Sich]]. Others relocated to the [[Kuban]] region in the Russian Empire, where they helped establish the [[Kuban Cossacks|Kuban Cossack Host]]. However, the majority of the Ukrainian Cossacks were deported to remote parts of the Russian Empire, including [[Siberia]], in a move that sought to break their power and disperse their population. In addition to the loss of Cossack autonomy, the Russian troops seized over 30,000 documents, along with weapons and other valuables, representing the history of Ukraine from the 16th to the 18th centuries. These items were stored in the [[fortress of St. Elizabeth]], which had been the primary military base of the Russian Imperial Army in Ukraine. These historical artifacts remained in St. Elizabeth’s fortress until they were eventually transferred to Kyiv in 1918, providing valuable insights into the rich history of the Ukrainian Cossacks.<ref>[https://romny-vk.gov.ua/novini-mista/ostanniy-zaporizkiy-koshoviy-kalnish/ ОСТАННІЙ ЗАПОРІЗЬКИЙ КОШОВИЙ КАЛНИШЕВСЬКИЙ ОПИНИВСЯ НА СОЛОВКАХ, БО ЗАВАЖАВ ТВОРИТИ]</ref><ref>[https://m.gazeta.ua/articles/history/_ostannogo-koshovogo-vidpravili-na-solovki/918421 Останнього кошового відправили на Соловки]</ref><ref>[https://www.solovki.ca/ukrainskie_solovki/ovsienko_02.php СОЛОВКИ В ИСТОРИИ УКРАИНЫ]</ref>

[[File:CossackMamay.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cossack Mamay]] and the [[Haidamaka]] hang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century]]
Meanwhile, in right-bank Ukraine, dissatisfaction with Polish rule had been growing for decades. Increased corvée (forced labor) obligations, along with the abuse of power by Polish magnates, nobles, and their [[History of the Jews in Ukraine|Jewish]] stewards, led to widespread unrest. The peasants, many of whom were Orthodox Christians, resented the imposition of taxes and labor on their lands, as well as the presence of Roman Catholic and [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Uniate]] clergy. The resulting discontent gave rise to a series of [[Haidamak]] uprisings, in which bands of rebels attacked and looted towns, targeting the estates of nobles, clergy, and Jewish populations. Major uprisings occurred in 1734, 1750, and the largest—known as [[Koliyivschyna]]—took place in 1768. This revolt was a culmination of decades of accumulated grievances, sparked by rumors of impending changes in religious and social policies that threatened the Orthodox community. The rebellion saw widespread attacks across towns and estates, resulting in significant loss of life and property. While the Haidamaks initially achieved some successes, the uprising was ultimately brutally suppressed by Polish forces with the assistance of Russian troops.<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\H\A\Haidamakauprisings.htm Haidamaka uprisings]</ref>

By the end of the century, Catherine the Great’s policies had reshaped the political landscape of Ukraine. The Cossack's role in defending the borderlands was no longer necessary, as the Russian Empire now controlled the Black Sea and [[Crimea]]. In 1783, the [[Crimean Khanate]] was formally [[Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire|annexed by Russia]], cementing control over the northern Black Sea region. A few years earlier, in 1778, [[Emigration of Christians from the Crimea (1778)|a mass emigration of Christians from Crimea occurred]], further altering the demographic balance of the region. Finally, in 1793, following the [[Partitions of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]], right-bank Ukraine was officially incorporated into the Russian Empire. By the end of Catherine’s reign, most of Ukraine had fallen under Russian control, bringing an end to the centuries-old struggle for autonomy and leaving the Ukrainian people under the rule of the imperial power.<ref>Orest Subtelny; [https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 ''Ukraine: A History'']; University of Toronto Press; 2000. {{ISBN|0-8020-8390-0}}. pp. 117–145; 146–148</ref>

== Modern history ==
{{main|Modern history of Ukraine}}

=== Empires and Ukrainian National Revival ===
{{main|Ukrainian National Revival}}
{{see also|Austro-Hungarian Empire|Russian Empire}}

Under the reign of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] (1801–1825), the Russian presence in Ukraine was largely limited to the imperial army and its bureaucracy. However, by the reign of [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (1825–1855), Russia had established a centralized administration in Ukraine. After suppressing the [[November Uprising]] of 1830, the tsarist regime implemented Russification policies, particularly on the [[Right-bank Ukraine]]. These policies not only suppressed the [[Ukrainian language]] but also aimed to weaken local traditions by emphasizing loyalty to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], which actively promoted [[Russification]] in contrast to the [[Uniate Church]]'s earlier influence in Western Ukraine.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=History of Ukraine |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CI%5CHistoryofUkraine.htm |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>

The 1861 [[Emancipation reform of 1861|emancipation of serfs]] had a profound effect on Ukraine, as 42% of its population were serfs. By the late 19th century, heavy taxes, rapid population growth, and land shortages led to widespread impoverishment among the peasantry. Many rural Ukrainians began migrating to cities, where [[industrialization]] and urban development created new economic opportunities but also fostered a growing sense of class consciousness. The construction of the first railway track in 1866 not only integrated Ukraine’s economy into the Russian imperial system but also facilitated the mobility of workers and goods. Despite their hardships, Ukrainian peasants and workers contributed significantly to the empire’s economy, with the [[Ukrainian steppe|steppe regions]] producing 20% of the world's wheat and 80% of the empire's sugar.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Учасники з’їзду українських письменників з нагоди 100-річчя виходу в світ «Енеїди».jpeg|thumb|The board and members of the [[Shevchenko Scientific Society]] celebrating the 100th anniversary of the publication of [[Ivan Kotliarevsky]]'s [[Eneida]], [[Lviv]], 31 October 1898: Sitting in the first row: Mykhaylo Pavlyk, [[Yevheniya Yaroshynska]], [[Nataliya Kobrynska|Natalia Kobrynska]], [[Olha Kobylianska]], Sylvester Lepky, Andriy Chaykovsky, Kost Pankivsky. In the second row: Ivan Kopach, [[Volodymyr Hnatiuk]], Osyp Makovej, [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]], [[Ivan Franko]], Oleksandr Kolessa, [[Bohdan Lepky]]. Standing in the third row: Ivan Petrushevych, [[Filaret Kolessa]], Yossyp Kyshakevych, [[Ivan Trush]], Denys Lukianovych, [[Mykola Ivasyuk]]]]
The [[Ukrainian national revival]] began in the late 18th century with the emergence of modern [[Ukrainian literature]], spearheaded by [[Ivan Kotliarevsky]]. Prominent 19th-century Ukrainian authors included [[Taras Shevchenko]], [[Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky]], and [[Lesya Ukrainka]] in the Russian Empire, and [[Ivan Franko]] in [[Austria-Hungary]]. The rise of a Ukrainian intelligentsia, increasingly composed of commoners and peasants, challenged the dominance of the traditional nobility and fueled the movement for national rights and social justice. However, fearing the rise of separatism, the Russian government imposed strict limits on Ukrainian language and culture. In 1863, the [[Valuev Circular]] banned the use of Ukrainian in religious and educational texts. Further repression came with the [[Ems Ukaz]] in 1876, which prohibited Ukrainian-language publications, the import of Ukrainian books from abroad, the use of Ukrainian in theater, and even public readings. Ukrainian schools were also suppressed. These policies prompted many Ukrainian intellectuals, such as [[Mykhailo Drahomanov]] and [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]], to flee to Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 August 2016 |title=Документи про заборону української мови |url=http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |access-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819125540/http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |archive-date=19 August 2016 }}</ref> In addition, the development of underground educational organizations, such as the "[[Prosvita]]" society, played a critical role in preserving Ukrainian culture. Despite the restrictions, Ukrainians within the [[Russian Empire]] sometimes succeeded in advancing within the system, often blending loyalty to the tsar with a subtle promotion of their heritage.

The fate of Ukrainians under the [[Austrian Empire]] was markedly different. In Austrian-ruled [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], Ukrainians found themselves in a delicate position within the broader Russian-Austrian rivalry for influence in Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in the Russian Empire, Galicia’s ruling elite were primarily of Austrian or Polish descent, while the Ruthenian population remained predominantly peasant. During the 19th century, [[Galician Russophilia|Russophilia]] was initially common among Galicia’s Slavic population. However, the influx of Ukrainian intellectuals fleeing Russian repression, combined with Austrian intervention, gradually replaced Russophilia with a growing [[Ukrainophilia]]. This sentiment spread back into Russian-ruled Ukraine, fueling the national revival.<ref name=":2" />

The 2.4 million Ukrainians under Habsburg rule lived primarily in Eastern Galicia, with 95% of them being peasants. The region remained one of the poorest in [[Europe]], with persistent land shortages and limited industrialization. Nevertheless, the [[Greek Catholic Church]] in Galicia became a key institution in preserving Ukrainian culture and fostering national identity. The first Ukrainian-language newspaper, ''[[Zoria Halytska]]'', launched in 1848, symbolized the growing national awakening. Many Ukrainians from Galicia and other Austrian territories also emigrated to [[North America]] and [[South America]] during this period, seeking economic opportunities and escaping poverty.<ref>Kost' Levytskyi, ''The History of the Political Thought of the Galician Ukrainians, 1848–1914'', (Lviv, 1926)</ref>

The late 19th century witnessed a slow but steady growth of Ukrainian urban populations and the beginnings of a political awakening. Ukrainians in Galicia formed the [[Supreme Ruthenian Council]] and began advocating for autonomy and reforms, such as land redistribution. In Russian Ukraine, underground networks spread literature, education, and national ideas among the peasantry, contributing to the resilience of Ukrainian identity under challenging conditions.

=== War of Independence (1917–1922) ===
{{Main|Ukraine during World War I|Ukrainian War of Independence|Ukraine after the Russian Revolution|1918 Central Powers occupation of Ukraine}}
{{Further|Polish–Ukrainian War|Ukrainian–Soviet War}}
{{See also|Battle of Kyiv (1918)}}

[[World War I]] and the wave of revolutions that swept across Europe—including the [[October Revolution]] in Russia—shattered empires such as the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[Russian Empire]]s, leaving Ukraine caught in the midst of geopolitical upheaval. Between 1917 and 1919, several Ukrainian republics declared independence, marking the emergence of a complex array of states and territories seeking sovereignty. Among these were the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]], the [[Ukrainian State]], the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]], the [[Makhnovshchina]], the [[Kholodny Yar Republic]], and the [[Kuban People's Republic]]. Concurrently, a number of [[Bolshevik]] revolutionary committees, or revkoms, sought to establish Soviet power, leading to the formation of various Soviet-aligned entities, including the [[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets]], the [[Odessa Soviet Republic]], the [[Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Republic]], the [[Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic]], the [[Galician Soviet Socialist Republic]], and the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]. Each of these republics and regimes represented different visions for Ukraine's future, reflecting the era's ideological and territorial conflicts that would profoundly impact the region.

==== Ukrainian People's Republic ====
{{Main|Ukrainian People's Republic}}

[[File:Propaganda UPR.jpg|left|thumb|UPR postcard depicting a group with the [[Flag of Ukraine|yellow-blue flag]] and [[National anthem of Ukraine|anthem lyrics]], defending themselves from a Russian [[Coat of arms of Russia|double-headed eagle]] (November–December 1917)]]
The Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) was officially proclaimed on 20 November 1917, amidst the turmoil of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the disintegration of the [[Russian Empire]]. Initially, the [[Ukrainian Central Council]] (Rada), comprising influential Ukrainian political figures, pursued autonomy within a [[Russian Republic|federated Russia]]. However, as the political situation in Russia grew increasingly unstable, the UPR took a decisive step by declaring full independence on 22 January 1918.{{Sfn|Yekelchyk|2007|p=27}}

From its inception, the fledgling UPR faced significant challenges. Internally, political divisions among various factions, including socialists, nationalists, and federalists, complicated governance and decision-making. Economically, the nascent republic struggled with the transition from imperial control to an independent administration, resulting in shortages, inflation, and a weakened infrastructure. Externally, the UPR faced threats from multiple sides, primarily from the [[Bolsheviks]], who regarded Ukraine as essential to their revolutionary agenda. As a result, they launched a series of military campaigns to assert control over Ukrainian territories, triggering prolonged and intense conflicts with UPR forces.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230108219_2|The Russian Civil War, 1917–1921]</ref>

==== The first Bolshevik revolutionary committees ====
{{Main|Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets|Ukrainian Soviet Republic}}
{{See also|Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic|Odessa Soviet Republic}}

As the Bolsheviks sought to expand their influence across the former territories of the [[Russian Empire]], Ukraine became a significant battleground. In December 1917, amidst the chaos of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the collapse of imperial power, the [[Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets]] was proclaimed. This was a direct challenge to the Ukrainian People's Republic, which had declared its independence from the Russian Empire earlier that year. The UPR, led by nationalists and democrats, sought to build an independent Ukrainian state. In contrast, the Bolshevik-backed People's Republic of Soviets aimed to bring Ukraine under Soviet control and align it with the goals of the Russian Bolsheviks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richard Pipes |title=The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923 |date=1997 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674417649}}</ref>

[[File:Flag_of_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Soviets.svg|thumb|Flag of Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets]]
In March 1918, this newly established republic merged with two other short-lived Soviet republics in the region: the [[Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic]] and the [[Odessa Soviet Republic]]. These republics were formed by local Bolshevik groups seeking to establish Soviet power across key industrial and strategic regions of Ukraine. The result of this merger was the [[Ukrainian Soviet Republic]], a state that was aligned with [[Soviet Russia]] and part of the larger efforts of the Bolsheviks to secure control over Ukraine during the chaotic period of civil war and foreign intervention. This period was marked by fierce conflicts between various Ukrainian factions, including the Ukrainian People's Republic, anarchists, and foreign powers, alongside the advancing Bolshevik forces, contributing to the overall instability of the region. When the Bolshevik troops retreated from the territory, on 18 April 1918, the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was officially dissolved.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Smele |author-first=Jonathan D. |chapter=Odessa Soviet Republic|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3 |pages=812–813 |year=2015|lccn=2015011566}}</ref><ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\D\O\DonetshD7KryvyiRihSovietRepublic.htm Donets–Kryvyi Rih Soviet Republic], article from the [[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]</ref>

==== Ukrainian State ====
{{Main|Ukrainian State}}

Amid growing unrest, a coup d'état led by General [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]] on 29 April 1918, dismantled the UPR and established the [[Ukrainian State]], also known as the Hetmanate. Skoropadskyi, a former officer in the [[Russian Imperial Army]], assumed the title of [[Hetman of all Ukraine]], aiming to create a strong, centralized state with close ties to the [[German Empire]] and [[Austria-Hungary]]. His vision for the Hetmanate included restoring order, promoting economic development, and implementing agrarian reforms to stabilize the economy and society.<ref name=endSkoro>{{cite book |author=Europa Publications |title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmN95fFocsMC&pg=PA849 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1999 |page=849 |isbn=978-1-85743-058-5}}</ref>

[[File:Skoropadsky - 1918 (2).jpg|left|thumb|Skoropadskyi inspecting troops from the "Greycoat" division]]
While the Hetmanate initially brought some stability, Skoropadskyi's alignment with the [[Central Powers]] and his authoritarian policies alienated many [[Ukrainians]]. Nationalists, socialists, and peasant groups grew increasingly discontented, perceiving his regime as prioritizing foreign interests over Ukrainian sovereignty. Additionally, Skoropadskyi's agricultural reforms, which often favored large landowners and reinstated some pre-revolutionary land policies, furthered resentment among the rural populace.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Showalter |first1=Dennis E. |last2=Royde-Smith |first2=John Graham |date=30 October 2023 |title=World War I {{!}} History, Summary, Causes, Combatants, Casualties, Map, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I |access-date=31 October 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

As the Central Powers began to crumble in late 1918 with their defeat in [[World War I]], opposition to Skoropadskyi's rule surged. In November 1918, a coalition of anti-Hetmanate forces known as [[Directorate of Ukraine|The Directorate]], led by [[Symon Petliura]], [[Volodymyr Vynnychenko]], and other prominent Ukrainian leaders, initiated a successful uprising against Skoropadskyi’s government. By December 1918, Skoropadskyi was forced to abdicate, dissolving the Ukrainian State and restoring the Ukrainian People's Republic.{{Sfn|Yekelchyk|2007}}

==== West Ukrainian People's Republic ====
{{Main|West Ukrainian People's Republic}}

Simultaneously, a separate Ukrainian state was established in the western part of the country. The [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]] (WUPR) was proclaimed on 19 October 1918, following the disintegration of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. This new state centered around [[Eastern Galicia]], including the key city of [[Lviv]], [[Transcarpathia]] and extended into parts of [[Bukovina]], areas with substantial Ukrainian populations. The WUPR government, led by [[Yevhen Petrushevych]], aspired to build an independent Ukrainian state in Western Ukraine, distinct from both Polish and Russian influences.<ref name=Shkandrij2>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DjZ-m82b91MC&dq=West+Ukrainian+People%27s+Republic+independence&pg=PA206 |title=Russia And Ukraine |author-first=Myroslav |author-last=Shkandrij |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |date=2001 |isbn=0-7735-2234-4 |page=206}}</ref><ref>[https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-society/2335111-ukraine-marks-anniversary-of-west-ukrainian-peoples-republic.html   Ukraine marks anniversary of establishment of West Ukrainian People's Republic]</ref>

[[File:Pic U K Ukrainian Galician Army supreme command.jpg|thumb|The Supreme Command of the Ukrainian Galician Army. Sitting, 5th through 7th from left, Gen [[Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko]], Col Viktor Kurmanovych, and Otaman Alfred Schamanek]]
The WUPR quickly developed its administrative structures, forming the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]] to defend its territories and introducing social and economic reforms to stabilize the new state. However, the WUPR’s claim over Eastern Galicia sparked immediate conflict with the [[Second Polish Republic|re-established Polish state]], which also sought control over the region. This territorial dispute erupted into the [[Polish-Ukrainian War]] (1918-1919), beginning with fierce fighting in Lviv, where Polish paramilitary forces resisted Ukrainian authority.<ref>[https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/polish-ukrainian-conflict-over-eastern-galicia/   Polish-Ukrainian Conflict over Eastern Galicia]</ref>

Although Ukrainian forces initially gained some ground, the Polish Army, bolstered by material support from the [[Entente Powers]], soon regained momentum. By mid-1919, the Polish Army launched a major offensive, pushing back the Ukrainian Galician Army and regaining control over contested areas. Facing overwhelming opposition, WUPR forces retreated into Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) territory by July 1919, marking the end of the WUPR as an independent state.<ref name="Chojnowski">[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\N\O\NovemberUprisinginLviv1918.htm Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 5, 1993] entry written by Andrzej Chojnowski</ref>

==== Unification Act ====
{{Main|Unification Act}}

[[File:Signing of the Act Zluky on January 22 1919. Урочисте оголошення Акту Злуки 22 січня 1919.jpg|left|thumb|The signing of the Act Zluky, on the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|St. Sophia Square]] in [[Kyiv]]]]
In an effort to consolidate their positions during a tumultuous period, UPR and WUPR formally united on 22 January 1919, through the signing of the [[Unification Act]] (Act Zluky). This historic declaration symbolized the unification of the two republics into a single Ukrainian state. Despite its significance as a milestone for Ukrainian national aspirations, the unification remained largely symbolic in practice. The lack of effective integration between the UPR and WUPR resulted in minimal military coordination or mutual support. Both entities were preoccupied with their respective military challenges: the UPR was engaged in a desperate struggle against advancing [[Bolshevik]] forces, while the WUPR was embroiled in a conflict with Polish troops over territorial claims in [[Eastern Galicia]].<ref name="subtelny-362">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History|author=Subtelny, Orest|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2000|isbn=0-8020-8390-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/362 362]|author-link=Orest Subtelny|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/362}}</ref>

==== Other Ukrainian states and movements ====
{{Main|Makhnovshchina|Kholodny Yar Republic|Kuban People's Republic}}

The [[Makhnovshchina]], which existed from 1918 to 1921, was a revolutionary anarchist movement in southern Ukraine led by [[Nestor Makhno]]. It emerged during the chaos of the [[Russian Civil War]]. The Makhnovists aimed to establish a stateless, self-managed society based on anarchist principles, where peasants and workers controlled the land and factories. Makhno's forces fought against various powers, including the [[Bolsheviks]], the [[White Army]], and foreign invaders. Despite initial successes, the movement was eventually crushed by the Bolsheviks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Darch|first=Colin|title=Nestor Makhno and Rural Anarchism in Ukraine, 1917–1921|year=2020|location=London|publisher=[[Pluto Press]]|isbn=978-1786805263|oclc=1225942343}}</ref>

[[File:Euromaidan in Kyiv (2013-12-15) 17.JPG|thumb|Flag of Kholodny Yar Republic during [[Euromaidan]] in [[Kyiv]]]]
The [[Kholodny Yar Republic]], which existed from 1919 to 1922, was a small Ukrainian insurgent state located in the [[Chyhyryn]] region. It was formed by local resistance fighters and peasants who opposed both the Bolshevik [[Red Army]] and White Army forces during the Russian Civil War. Inspired by Ukrainian independence and nationalist ideals, the republic remained independent for a few years but was eventually overwhelmed by Bolshevik forces.<ref name="kholodnogoyaru15000">{{cite news|language=uk |url=https://espreso.tv/article/2020/02/09/povstannya_u_lukyanivskiy_tyurmi_yak_vidbuvsya_ostanniy_biy_otamaniv_kholodnogo_yaru |title=Uprising in Lukyanovka Prison: How the Last Battle of the Cold Yar Atamans took place |work=[[Espresso TV]] |date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Doskoch |first=Viktoriya |date=7 October 2018 |title=Ukrainian writer & publisher: Language is the most important marker of national identity |url=http://euromaidanpress.com/2018/10/07/ukrainian-writer-publisher-language-is-the-most-important-marker-of-national-identity/ |access-date=18 June 2020 |website=Euromaidan Press |language=en-US}}</ref>

In May 1919, in central Ukraine began the [[Hryhoriv Uprising]], largest anti-soviet Uprising in Ukraine, which was brutally suppressed by regular troops.<ref>Михайличенко Д. Ю. Травнева військово-політична криза в УСРР, 1919 р. // Вісник Харківського національного університету ім. В. Н. Каразіна. — Сер. Історія України. — Вип. 5. — Харків, 2002. — С. 137.</ref>

The [[Kuban People's Republic]], which existed from 1918 to 1920, was a short-lived state established by [[Cossacks]] in the [[Kuban]] region, near the [[Black Sea]]. In the wake of the [[Russian Empire]]'s collapse during the revolution, the [[Kuban Cossacks]] declared independence and formed the [[Kuban Rada]] to govern. Their goal was to preserve their cultural identity and retain control over their land amid the Russian Civil War. The republic allied with the White Army against the Bolsheviks and sought to unite with the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] (UPR) due to shared Cossack heritage and mutual strategic interests. However, these negotiations never culminated in a formal union, as the republic, isolated at the time, fell to the advancing Bolshevik Red Army in 1920, ending its brief independence.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kuban.in.ua/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%96-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8/2013-04-07-22-54-26.html |title=Примарний день незалежності // Українська Кубань |access-date=4 May 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130706154947/http://kuban.in.ua/index.php/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%96-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8/2013-04-07-22-54-26.html |archive-date=6 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Kenez, Peter C''ivil War in South Russia, 1919-1920: The Defeat of the Whites'', Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977</ref><ref name="Kubiyovych">{{cite book|author=Kubijovyč, Volodymyr|author-link=Volodymyr Kubiyovych|title=Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia|location=[[Toronto]]|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=1963|pages=790–793}}</ref>

==== Continued struggle and exile of the UPR government ====
{{See also|Treaty of Warsaw (1920)|Treaty of Riga}}

[[File:Symon Petliura and Antoni Listowski during Polish-Soviet War.PNG|thumb|left|Exiled Ukrainian leader [[Symon Petliura]] (right foreground) conversing with Polish General [[Antoni Listowski]] after his alliance with the Poles]]
After being driven out of Kyiv by Bolshevik forces in early 1919, the UPR government, led by Symon Petliura, continued to resist Bolshevik advances and Polish encroachment. By 1920, facing insurmountable odds and a deteriorating military position, Petliura sought an alliance with Poland. In April 1920, the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1920)|Treaty of Warsaw]] was signed, under which the UPR agreed to recognize Polish control over Western Ukraine in exchange for Polish military support against the Bolsheviks.<ref name="Debo210">Richard K Debo, ''Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918–1921'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=gQfUB0CXBO4C&pg=PA210 pp. 210–211], McGill-Queen's Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-7735-0828-7}}.</ref>

The joint Polish-Ukrainian campaign initially achieved some success, including the temporary recapture of Kyiv in May 1920. However, the Bolshevik counter-offensive soon pushed back the allied forces. The situation for the UPR became even more precarious when Poland sought a peace agreement with [[Soviet Russia]], culminating in the signing of the [[Treaty of Riga]] in March 1921. The treaty effectively partitioned Ukraine, leaving most of its territory under Soviet control and the western parts under Polish administration.<ref>K. Marek. ''Identity and Continuity of States in Public International Law''. Librairie Droz 1968. pp. 419–420.</ref>

With the signing of the Treaty of Riga, the UPR government went into exile, primarily in Poland and other European countries. Ukrainian leaders continued their efforts to advocate for Ukrainian independence in the international arena, but without a territorial base or significant military forces, their influence was limited. Symon Petliura, a key figure in the UPR, continued his political activities in exile until his assassination in [[Paris]] in 1926.<ref>[https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkPath=pages%5CP%5CE%5CPetliuraSymon.htm   Petliura, Symon]</ref>

Canadian scholar [[Orest Subtelny]] says:
: In 1919 total chaos engulfed Ukraine. Indeed, in the modern history of Europe no country experienced such complete anarchy, bitter civil strife, and total collapse of authority as did Ukraine at this time. Six different armies – those of the Ukrainians, the Bolsheviks, the Whites, the Entente [French], the Poles and the anarchists – operated on its territory. Kiev changed hands five times in less than a year. Cities and regions were cut off from each other by the numerous fronts. Communications with the outside world broke down almost completely. The starving cities emptied as people moved into the countryside in their search for food.<ref>{{cite book|author=Orest Subtelny|title=Ukraine: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=U of Toronto Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/359 359]|isbn=9780802083906}}</ref>

Historian [[Paul Kubicek]] says:
:Between 1917 and 1920, several entities that aspired to be independent Ukrainian states came into existence. This period, however, was extremely chaotic, characterized by revolution, international and civil war, and lack of strong central authority. Many factions competed for power in the area that is today's Ukraine, and not all groups desired a separate Ukrainian state. Ultimately, Ukrainian independence was short-lived, as most Ukrainian lands were incorporated into the Soviet Union and the remainder, in western Ukraine, was divided among Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania.<ref>Paul Kubicek, ''The History of Ukraine'' (2008) p 79</ref>

==== Formation of the Ukrainian SSR ====
{{Main|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic#Founding: 1917–1922}}

[[File:Europe location UkrSSR 1922.png|thumb|Boundaries of the Ukrainian SSR in 1922]]
As both the UPR and WUPR faced defeat, the Bolshevik forces consolidated their control over Ukraine. On 30 December 1919, the Bolsheviks proclaimed the establishment of the [[Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic]] (Ukrainian SSR), positioning it as a satellite of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR). The new Soviet government aimed to establish complete Soviet authority over all Ukrainian territories, incorporating Ukraine into the broader framework of Soviet expansion.<ref name="eb Makuchand">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Oleksa Eliseyovich |last1=Zasenko |first2=Andrij |last2=Makuchand |date= 8 February 2024 |last3=Hajda|first3=Lubomyr A. |title=History of Ukraine §Ukraine in the interwar period |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Ukraine/Ukraine-in-the-interwar-period |language=en |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}
* §§ 8.1.2–3 [https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/Ukraine-in-the-interwar-period#ref275912 "Soviet Ukraine{{snd}}Industrialization-and-collectivization"] and{{snd}}[https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-famine-of-1932-33-Holodomor "The famine of 1932–33 (Holodomor)]". {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505162714/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/275912/Industrialization-and-collectivization |date=5 May 2015 }}</ref>

The creation of the Ukrainian SSR marked the beginning of Soviet rule in Ukraine. Over the next two years, the [[Red Army]] systematically subdued remaining Ukrainian forces, nationalist resistance movements, and other anti-Bolshevik factions. By 1921, Bolshevik forces had largely crushed organized resistance, paving the way for the integration of the Ukrainian SSR as one of the founding republics of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1922.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Договор об образовании Союза Советских Социалистических Республик — Викитека |url=https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=ru.wikisource.org |language=ru |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419182258/https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%BE%D0%B1_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Ukraine in Soviet Union (1922–1991) ===
{{Main|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic}}
{{Further|Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Operation Vistula}}

==== Ukrainization and New Economic Policy ====
{{Main|Ukrainization#1923–1931: early years of Soviet Ukraine|New Economic Policy}}

[[File:Ukposter.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ukrainianization]] program aimed at fostering [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian ethnic identity]] among the population of Ukraine. This 1921 recruitment poster uses Ukrainian orthography to convey its message, "Son, join the {{ill|School of Red Commanders|uk|Школа червоних старшин}}, and the defense of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured".]]
In the 1920s, the Soviet government implemented a policy of "[[Ukrainization]]" as part of its broader strategy to strengthen support for the Soviet regime in non-Russian republics. This policy encouraged the use of the [[Ukrainian language]] in education, government, and media. [[Ukrainian culture]] and history were promoted to win over the local population and intellectual elite. Ukrainization allowed a degree of cultural revival after years of Russian dominance in Ukraine. [[Ukrainian literature]], theater, and arts experienced significant growth, and schools began teaching in the Ukrainian language. However, this policy was carefully controlled by the [[Communist Party]], ensuring that cultural development aligned with [[Soviet ideology]].<ref name=EncUkr>[[Volodymyr Kubiyovych]]; Zenon Kuzelia, Енциклопедія українознавства ''(Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies)'', 3-volumes, Kyiv, 1994, {{ISBN|5-7702-0554-7}}</ref>

Following the devastation of war and revolution, the Soviet government introduced the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) to stabilize the economy. It represented a temporary retreat from pure socialist policies, allowing some elements of private enterprise and market mechanisms to function alongside state-controlled industries. The NEP had a mixed impact on Ukraine. On one hand, it allowed limited economic recovery, especially in agriculture and small-scale industry. Peasants were permitted to sell surplus products on the market, and small businesses could operate under certain conditions. On the other hand, large-scale industries remained under state control, and the heavy industrial sector, which Ukraine relied on, remained inefficient and slow to recover. While the NEP offered some relief to peasants, many remained suspicious of Soviet power, particularly after the harsh grain requisition policies during the civil war. Tensions between the peasantry and the Soviet regime continued to simmer.<ref name="Bloomsbury Education">{{Citation|chapter=The New Economic Policy (NEP)|publisher=Bloomsbury Education|isbn=9781472926647|doi=10.5040/9781472926647.ch-034|title=Resources for Teaching History : 14–16|year=2010}}</ref>

During this period, the Communist Party tightened its control over Ukraine. The [[Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Ukraine]] (CPU) became a key instrument in enforcing Soviet policies and maintaining order. Political power was highly centralized, with decisions made in [[Moscow]] dictating policy in Ukraine. Despite the relative cultural freedom of Ukrainization, any political opposition to the Soviet regime was harshly repressed. Former nationalists, intellectuals, and opponents of Soviet power were marginalized, and any movement toward true Ukrainian autonomy was quickly suppressed.<ref>Pyrih, R. ''[http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=EIU&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Kom_partiya_Ukr_Radyanska_doba Communist Party of Ukraine, the Soviet period (КОМУНІСТИЧНА ПАРТІЯ УКРАЇНИ РАДЯНСЬКОЇ ДОБИ)]''. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine. 2007</ref>

[[File:Dmitry Kardovsky - NEPmen.jpg|thumb|"Nepmen", caricature by [[Dmitry Kardovsky]], 1920s]]
In the early Soviet years, there was a strong emphasis on rebuilding Ukraine's war-ravaged economy. Ukraine was a critical industrial center, especially in coal, steel, and machinery production. While some infrastructure was rebuilt, economic challenges remained due to the inefficiency of state control and the lingering effects of war. Ukraine, being an agriculturally rich region, faced difficulties as the peasants were subjected to state control over grain production. Despite the NEP, rural areas continued to suffer from poverty, which would later fuel resistance to Soviet policies.<ref name="Richman">{{cite journal|last1= Richman|first1= Sheldon|title= War Communism to NEP: the road from serfdom|journal= Journal of Libertarian Studies|date= 1981|pages= 93–94|url= https://cdn.mises.org/5_1_5_0.pdf|access-date= 12 July 2017}}</ref>

By the late 1920s, the NEP was being phased out as the [[Soviet Union]] shifted toward a more centralized, state-controlled economy under [[Stalin]]. The focus turned to rapid industrialization and forced [[collectivization]], laying the groundwork for the dramatic and tragic events of the 1930s, including the [[Holodomor]]. Although Ukrainization had seen relative success during the 1920s, Stalin’s regime began reversing the policy by the decade’s end, replacing it with a drive toward Russian centralization. The following years would witness a harsh crackdown on Ukrainian nationalism and culture as part of Stalin’s broader effort to consolidate control over the Soviet republics.<ref name="Bloomsbury Education"/>

==== Forced collectivization, industrialization and Holodomor ====
{{Main|Collective farming#Soviet Union|Industrialization in the Soviet Union|Holodomor}}

In 1929, [[Joseph Stalin]] launched a campaign of forced collectivization across the Soviet Union, including Ukraine. The policy aimed to consolidate individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms ([[kolkhoz]]es) to increase agricultural productivity and secure grain supplies for rapid [[industrialization]]. Ukrainian peasants, particularly wealthier ones known as "[[kulak]]s", resisted [[collectivization]]. The Soviet regime responded with brutal force, seizing land, livestock, and grain, and deporting or executing those who resisted. Collectivization led to widespread chaos in rural areas. Agricultural output plummeted due to poor planning, lack of incentives, and resistance from the peasantry. The disruption of traditional farming practices and the state's requisition of grain exacerbated food shortages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |date=1 October 2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |page=195 |isbn=978-0-300-13493-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JGzAoMLjoC |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ukraine famine map.png|thumb|left|Depopulation in 1929–1933, including during the [[Holodomor]].]]
In 1932-33, [[Holodomor]], derived from the Ukrainian words for "hunger" ({{lang|uk|holod}}) and "extermination" ({{lang|uk|moryty}}), was a man-made famine that resulted from the Soviet government's grain requisition policies and punitive measures against those who resisted collectivization. Several millions of Ukrainians died from starvation during the Holodomor. Entire villages were decimated, and the event remains one of the most tragic episodes in Ukrainian history. The Soviet government denied the famine's existence and continued exporting grain during the crisis. The Holodomor not only devastated the rural population but also weakened [[Ukrainian national identity]] and culture. It served as a stark warning against any resistance to Soviet authority.{{r|eb Makuchand|at=[https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-famine-of-1932-33-Holodomor §§ 8.1.3]|q=The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33 – a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine ... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated ... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself.}}<ref>{{cite magazine| first=Michael |last=Ellman|date=April 2018 |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 |title=Review of: Anne Applebaum's ''Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'', New York: Doubleday. 2017. 496{{nbsp}}pp. $35.00 |magazine=H-Diplo, H-Net Reviews in the Humanities and Social Sciences|pages=1–4}}<!--{{isbn| 978-0-385-53885-5}}--> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227202140/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 |date=27 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Andreas|last=Kappeler|author-link=Andreas Kappeler|title=Ungleiche Brüder: Russen und Ukrainer vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart|trans-title=Unequal Brothers: Russians and Ukrainians from the Middle Ages to the Present|year=2023|publisher=C.H.Beck oHG|place=München|isbn=978-3-406-80042-9|language=de|page=168|quote=Der weit überproportionale Anteil an ukrainischen Opfern wirft die Frage auf, ob die sowjetische Führung mit der von ihr herbeigeführten Hungersnot nicht nur allgemein die Bauern, sondern spezifisch die ukrainischen Bauern und damit die Basis der ukrainischen Nation treffen wollte.|trans-quote=The vastly disproportionate number of Ukrainian victims raises the question whether the Soviet leadership was targeting not just the peasants in general with the famine it caused, but specifically the Ukrainian peasants and thereby the foundations of the Ukrainian nation.}}</ref>

Stalin's economic strategy included a series of [[Five-year plans of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] aimed at rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union. Ukraine, with its rich natural resources and strategic location, was a key focus of these plans. Ukraine became a major center for heavy industry, particularly in coal mining, steel production, and machine building. Cities like [[Kharkiv]], Dnipropetrovsk (now [[Dnipro]]), and Stalino (now [[Donetsk]]) were transformed into industrial hubs. The rapid growth of industry led to significant urbanization. Millions of [[Ukrainians]] moved from rural areas to cities in search of work, fundamentally altering the demographic and social landscape.<ref name="PetrovskyII">Petrovsky David Alexandrovich. [http://alkruglov.narod.ru/z-petrovsk.pdf Reconstruction of the Technical School and the Five-Year Frame]. Page 5 – Leningrad, Gostekhizdat, 1930. – 42 pages. (Leningrad Regional Sovnarkhoz)</ref>

==== Political repression and the Great Purge ====
{{Main|Executed Renaissance|Great Purge}}

Throughout the 1930s, [[Stalin]]'s regime became increasingly marked by paranoia and a relentless drive to eradicate any perceived threats to his authority. This climate of suspicion fueled widespread political repression across the [[Soviet Union]], profoundly impacting every layer of society in Ukraine. The purges specifically targeted Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, political leaders, and ordinary citizens suspected of harboring nationalist sympathies or potential dissenting views. Stalin’s objective was clear: to eliminate any possible source of opposition to Soviet rule, no matter how tenuous or imagined.<ref>[https://www.thecollector.com/stalin-great-purge-political-rivals/  Stalin’s Great Purge: Gulags, Show Trials, and Terror]</ref>

[[File:Биківнянські могили3.jpg|thumb|Mass burial in Bykivnia]]
The [[Great Purge]], reaching its zenith between 1936 and 1938, devastated Ukraine. During this period, tens of thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed, or sent to forced labor camps (the [[Gulag]]) in remote Soviet regions. The Ukrainian intelligentsia, initially supported during the Soviet policy of Ukrainization in the 1920s, became a particular target as they were increasingly viewed as a threat to Soviet ideological conformity. In a systematic crackdown, the [[NKVD]], Stalin’s secret police, dismantled the Ukrainian cultural and intellectual community. Most members of this intelligentsia were either imprisoned, executed, or driven to despair and suicide. One notable site, the [[Slovo Building]] in Kharkiv, where many prominent Ukrainian intellectuals resided, became infamous as a place where residents were closely surveilled, then rounded up in these purges.<ref>Павличко С. Дискурс модернізму в українській літературі: [монографія] / С. Павличко. — К.: Либідь, 1997. — C. 170.</ref><ref>Українська література XX століття: навч.-метод. посіб. для студентів 2-го курсу, які навчаються за спец. 035 — Філологія (заоч. форма) / Нар. укр. акад., каф. українознавства; упоряд. О. В. Слюніна. — Харків: Вид-во НУА, 2018. — 128 с.</ref>

The terror also took a horrific toll on [[Kyiv]], which became the capital of the Ukrainian SSR in 1934, replacing Kharkiv. Tens of thousands of Kyiv’s citizens were abducted by Soviet security forces, tortured, and summarily executed on fabricated charges. Victims were accused of treason, espionage, or nationalist activities without evidence and sentenced to death in sham trials. Their bodies were secretly buried in [[Bykivnia]], a wooded area near Kyiv, which later became one of the largest mass grave sites in Ukraine. After Ukraine’s independence and the declassification of [[KGB]] archives, thousands of graves were discovered in Bykivnia, leading to the establishment of the [[Bykivnia graves|Bykivnia Graves Memorial Complex]]. Soviet authorities had long denied the truth, claiming instead that [[Nazi]] atrocities had caused the mass burials.<ref name="Pearson">{{cite book |author=Raymond Pearson |author-link=Raymond Pearson |title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=0333948076 |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet00pear |page=[https://archive.org/details/risefallofsoviet00pear/page/n243 220] |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name="Kuzio">{{cite book | author =Taras Kuzio |author2=Andrew Wilson | title = Ukraine: Perestroika to Independence |year=1994 |publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press |location=[[University of Alberta]] | isbn=092086287X }}</ref>

These purges were marked by infamous show trials, where prominent figures were coerced, often through brutal interrogation, into confessing to invented charges of anti-Soviet activity. The loss of Ukraine's educated and skilled citizens stifled intellectual, cultural, and social progress for decades, creating a legacy of fear that has hampered Ukraine's development and left a scar that is remembered in Ukraine to this day.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge  Britannica: Great-Purge]</ref>

==== World War II and the Nazi Occupation ====
{{Main|Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine|Reichskommissariat Ukraine|The Holocaust in Ukraine}}

[[File:Act_of_Subcarpathian_Rus_Autonomy_1938.png|thumb|left|Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Carpatho-Ukraine]]
In October 1938, following the [[Munich Agreement]], [[Carpatho-Ukraine]], also known as Subcarpathian Ruthenia, gained autonomy within [[Second Czechoslovak Republic|Czechoslovakia]]. This allowed the formation of a local government led by [[Avhustyn Voloshyn]]. However, this period of autonomy was brief.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rychlík|first1=Jan|last2=Rychlíková|first2=Magdaléna|title=Podkarpatská Rus v dějinách Československa 1918–1946|year=2016|location=Praha|publisher=Vyšehrad|isbn=9788074297694 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIJuDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>

In March 1939, as Czechoslovakia disintegrated under pressure from [[Nazi Germany]], Carpathian Ukraine declared independence as the [[Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine]]. The government envisioned this small, mountainous region as the nucleus of a future independent Ukrainian state. This independence was short-lived. Within days, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] forces, supported by Nazi Germany, invaded and occupied the region. The occupation was brutal, and many Ukrainian leaders were arrested or executed. Carpathian Ukraine remained under Hungarian control.<ref name="2660044karpatskoiukraini">{{cite web|title = Today is the 80th anniversary of the proclamation of Carpatho-Ukraine|url = https://ukrinform.ua/rubric-society/2660044-sogodni-80ricca-z-dna-progolosenna-karpatskoi-ukraini.html|work = [[Ukrinform]]|language = uk|date = 15 March 2019|access-date = 24 March 2019|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

On 1 September 1939, [[World War II]] began with [[Invasion of Poland|Nazi Germany’s invasion]] of western [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]. Sixteen days later, the [[Soviet Union]] [[Soviet invasion of Poland|invaded eastern Poland]] under the terms of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], dividing [[Eastern Europe]] into spheres of influence between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The eastern part of Poland, which included Western Ukraine ([[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Volhynia]]), was annexed into the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]]. As Soviet forces occupied these territories, they quickly implemented [[Sovietization]] policies, repressing nationalist movements and religious institutions, which fueled local resentment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=German-Soviet Pact |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-soviet-pact |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |quote=...paved the way for the joint invasion and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that September.}}</ref>

On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany and [[Axis powers|its allies]] launched [[Operation Barbarossa]], invading the Soviet Union. Ukraine became one of the main battlegrounds during the conflict, as Nazi forces occupied large parts of the country, including major cities such as [[Kyiv]], [[Odesa]], and [[Lviv]]. The [[German-occupied Europe|German occupation]], while initially seen by some as a potential liberation from the oppressive Soviet regime, quickly turned brutal. [[Nazi ideology]] viewed Ukraine as a critical part of its plan for [[Lebensraum]] (living space) and exploitation of resources.<ref name="Mineau180">{{Cite book |last=André Mineau |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLcDEUZfW4EC |title=Operation Barbarossa: Ideology and Ethics Against Human Dignity |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=978-9042016330 |page=180 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Baranowski141">{{Cite book |first=Shelley |last=Baranowski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iA-NZ_RgP5kC&q=continental+Lebensraum |title=Nazi Empire: German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0521857390 |page=141 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeremy Noakes |date=30 March 2011 |title=BBC – History – World Wars: Hitler and ''Lebensraum'' in the East |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/hitler_lebensraum_01.shtml}}</ref><ref name="USHMM">{{Cite web |title=Lebensraum |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lebensraum |access-date=9 March 2019 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ukrayins'ka Povstans'ka Armiya (poster).jpg|thumb|UPA propaganda poster. The OUN/UPA's formal greeting is written in Ukrainian on two of horizontal lines ''Glory to Ukraine – Glory to (her) Heroes''. The soldier is standing on the banners of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.]]
Around 4.5 to 6 million [[Ukrainians]] fought in the Soviet [[Red Army]] against Nazi Germany, contributing significantly to the eventual Soviet victory. At the same time, Ukraine became a center of [[Soviet partisans|partisan resistance]]. Some Ukrainians collaborated with the [[Germans]], hoping to secure independence, while others joined the resistance movement. The [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA), formed by the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]] (OUN), fought for an independent Ukraine, engaging in conflict with both the Nazis and the Soviet forces. This dual struggle was motivated by a desire to free Ukraine from foreign domination, but the complexity of alliances and enmities made this a multi-sided war.<ref>Leonid D. Grenkevich. The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis.Routledge. 2013. p.325</ref>

Meanwhile, some factions within the [[Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainian nationalist]] movement, such as the [[Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance]] (UNDA), sought autonomy within a pro-Polish framework before the war. However, Polish policies of forced assimilation marginalized these efforts, leading to growing tensions between [[Polish people|Poles]] and Ukrainians. During the German occupation, these tensions escalated into violent ethnic conflicts in [[Volhynia]] and [[Eastern Galicia]], known as the [[Volhynia genocide]]. The [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA) and Polish underground forces, including the [[Armia Krajowa]], engaged in a simultaneous campaign of mutual violence during 1943–1944. The UPA targeted Polish civilians in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, resulting in the deaths of up to 100,000 Poles, while Polish forces carried out attacks on Ukrainian civilians, killing up to 25,000 Ukrainians. These events, driven by competing nationalist ambitions, caused immense suffering on both sides and remain a deeply painful chapter in Ukrainian-Polish history.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |title=Mariusz Zajączkowski: ''1943 Volhynia massacre'' |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132510/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |archive-date=13 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Nazi occupation of Ukraine]] was marked by extreme brutality, especially towards [[Jews]]. Around 1.5 million Jews were murdered during the [[Holocaust in Ukraine]], with atrocities such as the [[Babi Yar massacre]], where tens of thousands of Jews were executed near Kyiv. The occupation also saw widespread repression of other groups, including [[Romani people|Roma]], communists, and Ukrainian nationalists.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich | date = 2011 | publisher = William Shirer | isbn = 978-1-4516-5168-3 | page = 939}}</ref>

By 1943, following the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the tide of the war began to turn in favor of the Soviet Union. Soviet forces began to push the Germans out of Ukraine, and by 1944, the entire country was back under Soviet control. However, Soviet "liberation" did not bring freedom for many Ukrainians. The Soviet government imposed harsh reprisals against those suspected of collaboration with the Nazis or support for Ukrainian independence. The [[NKVD]] (Soviet secret police) conducted mass arrests, deportations, and executions. Small groups of UPA partisans continued their armed resistance against the Soviet regime well into the late 1940s and early 1950s, particularly in Western Ukraine, though the Soviet authorities eventually crushed this insurgency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/ukrainian-insurgent-army-myths-and-facts-314313.html|title=Ukrainian Insurgent Army: Myths and facts - Oct. 12, 2012|website=KyivPost|date=12 October 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:ZakapratskaUkraina1944.png|thumb|left|Front page of the Zakarpattia Ukraine newspaper with manifest of unification with [[Soviet Ukraine]], 1944]]
Carpathian Ukraine, during the [[Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II|Hungarian occupation]], faced significant repression, particularly against its Jewish and Ukrainian populations. Thousands of Jews from the region were deported to [[Nazi concentration camps]], and many Ukrainian nationalists were imprisoned or killed. In 1944, the Soviet Red Army "liberated" Carpathian Ukraine from Hungarian and German forces.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A kárpátaljai magyar és német polgári lakosság tömeges elhurcolása szovjet hadifogságba|journal=Orpheus Noster|date=2012|volume=4|issue=2|pages=46–47|trans-title=The deportation of masses of Hungarian and German civilians from Subcarpathia to Soviet prisoner of war camps|url=https://www.academia.edu/11885029|publisher=Károli Gáspár Református Egyetem|location=Budapest|language=hu}}</ref>

In addition to the annexation of Galicia and Volhynia, several other territories were incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and subsequent wartime events. These included [[Bukovina|Northern Bukovina]], [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Carpathian Ukraine]] (Transcarpathia), and parts of [[Bessarabia|Northern and South Bessarabia]], regions with a predominantly Ukrainian population.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bukovyna |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513152453/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |archive-date=13 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Kafkadesk-2021">{{Cite web|title=On this Day, in 1945: Carpathian Ruthenia was annexed by the Soviet Union |date=29 June 1992 |publisher=Kafkadesk |url=https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726185851/https://kafkadesk.org/2021/06/29/on-this-day-in-1945-carpathian-ruthenia-was-annexed-by-the-soviet-union/ |archive-date=26 July 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Post-war Ukrainian SSR, limited reforms and continuation of repressions ====
{{Main|Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#postwar|De-Stalinization|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Glasnost|Perestroika|label 1=Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Post-war years: 1945–1953}}

After World War II, amendments to the [[Constitutions of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR]] were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of [[international law]] in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]]. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was [[List of members of the United Nations Security Council|an elected member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.<ref name=":Summits">{{Cite book|last=Reynolds|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646810103|title=Summits: six meetings that shaped the twentieth century|date=2009|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-4458-9|location=New York|oclc=646810103}}</ref><ref>Stalin: The Man and His Era. by Adam B. Ulam, pp. 606–607</ref>

[[File:Крытый-вагон-на-РЖД.jpg|thumb|The deportees were transported in such wagons]]
However, this period was also marked by severe repression and social upheaval. The [[Soviet famine of 1946–1947|famine of 1946-1947]] devastated large parts of Ukraine, as the Soviet government requisitioned the entirety of the grain harvest, exacerbating food shortages. Western Ukraine, however, was less affected by the famine, largely due to the resistance efforts of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UIA). In response, the Soviet regime launched Operation "West" in 1947, [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forcibly deporting]] over 77,000 individuals—men, women, and children—from Western Ukraine to [[Siberia]]. These deportees later played a critical role in organizing uprisings within the Soviet [[Gulag]] system, including the notable [[Norilsk Uprising]], which hastened the decline of the forced labor camp network.<ref>[http://24tv.ua/chomu_radyanska_vlada_zrobila_masovu_deportatsiyu_ukrayintsiv_u_sibir_n879491 Чому радянська влада зробила масову депортацію українців у Сибір]</ref><ref>История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920-х — первая половина 1950-х годов: Собрание документов в 7 томах. — Т. 6: Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключённых Архивная копия от 1 апреля 2024 на Wayback Machine / Ответственный редактор и составитель В. А. Козлов; Составитель О. В. Лавинская. — М.: РОССПЭН, 2004. — 736 с.</ref><ref>Макарова А. Б. Норильское восстание // «Воля»: журнал узников тоталитарных систем. — 1993. — № 1. — С. 68—108.</ref>

After Stalin's death in 1953 and the rise of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] to power, a significant number of political prisoners were released from the [[Gulag]], including many Ukrainian nationalists and intellectuals. However, those deemed a threat to Soviet authority often remained under close surveillance. While some victims of Stalinist purges were formally rehabilitated, this process was selective and incomplete, with many individuals still excluded from full reintegration into society.<ref>[http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html Joseph Stalin killer file] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803144222/http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html |date=3 August 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:25th anniversary of conquering virgin land. USSR block. 1979.jpg|thumb|left|USSR postage stamp of 1979, celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Virgin Lands campaign]]
Khrushchev, focusing on agricultural development, emphasized the importance of Ukraine’s fertile soil in Soviet food production. This was particularly significant in the context of the [[Virgin Lands Campaign]], which saw resources and personnel diverted to develop agricultural lands in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]] and [[Siberia]]. While the campaign had long-term effects on the Ukrainian agricultural sector, Ukrainian collective farms remained inefficient, plagued by bureaucratic mismanagement that hampered the potential benefits of these reforms. During this period, industrial growth continued, with particular emphasis on heavy industries like steel production and mining. However, outdated infrastructure and poor planning often undermined progress, and economic inefficiency persisted throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book | last = Taubman | first = William | authorlink = William Taubman | title = Khrushchev: The Man and His Era | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | year = 2003 | location = New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 260–262] | isbn = 978-0393051445 | url = https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 }}</ref>

The [[Khrushchev Thaw]], a period of relative cultural liberalization, also allowed for a limited expression of Ukrainian identity, especially through literature, the arts, and historical studies. Prominent Ukrainian writers such as [[Oles Honchar]] and [[Lina Kostenko]] emerged, reflecting themes of national identity and social change. Their work offered subtle resistance to Soviet ideologies, though they had to navigate a highly censored environment. [[Industrialization]] also sparked rapid [[urbanization]], with many Ukrainians moving to cities for factory and mining jobs. This period saw a rise in literacy rates and access to education, contributing to the development of a more technically skilled population. However, the curricula remained ideologically driven, prioritizing loyalty to the [[Communist Party]] over independent thought or national identity.<ref>Tompson, William J. ''Khrushchev: A Political Life''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995</ref>

[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|Location of the Ukrainian SSR (yellow) within the [[Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]
In 1954, the [[Crimean Peninsula]] [[1954 transfer of Crimea|was transferred]] from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) to the Ukrainian SSR. The transfer was largely administrative, as both the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR were part of the [[Soviet Union]], and it was part of Khrushchev's broader strategy, rather than a gesture of genuine autonomy for Ukraine.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18287223 Crimea profile – Overview], BBC News</ref> Meanwhile, [[Ukrainian nationalists]], including remnants of the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]] (OUN) and the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA), continued to face persecution. While the UPA’s armed resistance had been largely crushed by the early 1950s, nationalist sentiments remained a clandestine force, particularly among intellectuals and rural populations. Those who strayed too far from [[Soviet ideology]] faced [[censorship]], [[harassment]], and sometimes [[imprisonment]]. Despite the brief cultural revival and improvements in living standards, the era was marked by continued economic inefficiency and political repression. The limited freedoms allowed under Khrushchev's rule fostered a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals who began to explore national identity in ways that would later fuel the dissident movement. However, despite these small steps toward cultural and intellectual freedom, Ukraine remained firmly under Soviet control, with little political autonomy or room for genuine national development.<ref>[[Sergei Khrushchev|Khrushchev, Sergei N.]], ''Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower'', Penn State Press, 2000.</ref><ref>Schecter, Jerrold L, ed. and trans., ''Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes'', Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1990</ref>

The transfer of power from Nikita Khrushchev to [[Leonid Brezhnev]] in 1964 was a result of a coup orchestrated by the Communist Party leadership. Khrushchev's policies, such as [[de-Stalinization]] and economic reforms, had created dissatisfaction among party elites due to their perceived instability and inefficiency. In October 1964, during a [[Politburo]] meeting, Khrushchev was accused of policy failures and forced to resign. Leonid Brezhnev, who had gained the trust of party conservatives, replaced Khrushchev as [[General Secretary]]. Brezhnev’s leadership marked a return to collective decision-making, stability, and more conservative policies, emphasizing continuity and avoiding the bold reforms associated with Khrushchev.<ref name=":KBL">George W. Breslauer, ''Khrushchev and Brezhnev As Leaders'' (1982).</ref>

{{Multiple image
| header            = Some Ukrainian dissidents
| align             = left
| total_width       = 230
| image1            = Ivan Dziuba (2004).jpg
| caption1          = [[Ivan Dziuba]]
| image2            = EthnoCarpathians 22082017DolynaUA-26 Crop and fix.jpg
| caption2          = [[Vasyl Stus]]
}}
Under Brezhnev, often associated with the "stagnation" period, Ukraine faced significant challenges. Centralized control from [[Moscow]] left [[Ukrainian Communist Party]] leaders, such as [[Volodymyr Shcherbytsky]], as mere executors of [[Kremlin]] policies. [[Russification]] policies intensified, sidelining the Ukrainian language and culture in favor of Soviet Russian dominance. Ukrainian literature, art, and history were heavily censored, with works reflecting national identity banned or rewritten. Political repression was severe. The [[KGB]] targeted [[dissident]]s, intellectuals, and cultural figures advocating for Ukrainian autonomy or identity. Figures like [[Vasyl Stus]], [[Ivan Dziuba]], and [[Viacheslav Chornovil]] faced harassment, imprisonment, or exile. Despite repression, underground movements persisted, using samizdat to circulate banned works and raise awareness of Soviet human rights violations.<ref name=":KBL"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://liva.com.ua/vladimir-shherbiczkij-i-ego-vremya.html|title=ВЛАДИМИР ЩЕРБИЦКИЙ И ЕГО ВРЕМЯ|newspaper=liva.com.ua|date=13 February 2020 |access-date=5 August 2022}}</ref>

Economically, Ukraine remained an industrial powerhouse, producing [[steel]], [[coal]], and [[machinery]], and serving as the Soviet Union's "breadbasket". However, inefficient planning, outdated infrastructure, and environmental degradation plagued the economy. Poor agricultural yields and bureaucratic mismanagement led to food shortages. Urbanization grew, but housing shortages and inadequate services highlighted the stagnation. Environmental issues worsened, particularly in industrial regions like [[Donbas]], where pollution severely impacted public health. Rural areas were neglected, fueling urban migration. Despite Ukraine’s contributions to the [[Soviet space program]] and industrial output, minimal modernization occurred.<ref name=":KBL"/>

[[File:UAHELG.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian Helsinki Group]]
The suppression of Ukrainian identity and the struggles of dissidents sowed seeds of resistance. Activists like Vasyl Stus and the [[Ukrainian Helsinki Group]] exposed Soviet human rights abuses, though they faced harsh punishments. From the 1960s through the 1980s, Ukraine became a focal point for [[Soviet dissidents|dissident activity]] within the USSR. A disproportionately high number of Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and cultural figures were imprisoned, exiled, or subjected to [[Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union|punitive psychiatry]] for opposing the regime. These movements not only highlighted systemic oppression in the Soviet Union, but also laid the foundation for a national awakening that ultimately fueled Ukraine's quest for independence.<ref>Дисиденти. Антологія текстів / Упоряд.: О. Сінченко, Д. Стус, Л. Фінберг; Наук. ред. О. Сінченко. Національний університет «Києво-Могилянська академія», Центр досліджень історії та культури східноєвропейського єврейства, Центр європейських гуманітарних досліджень; Український католицький університет, Інститут релігії та суспільства. ‒ K.: Дух і Літера, 2018. ‒ 656 с. ‒ (БІБЛІОТЕКА СПРОТИВУ, БІБЛІОТЕКА НАДІЇ)</ref>

After the death of Leonid Brezhnev in 1982, the [[Soviet Union]] experienced a period of short-lived leadership under [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982–1984) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984–1985), before [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] assumed power in 1985. Gorbachev's introduction of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) marked a turning point, fostering an atmosphere of reform and amplifying public dissatisfaction with Soviet governance. Glasnost opened the door for greater freedom of expression, allowing Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and dissidents to publicly address long-suppressed issues such as [[Russification]], environmental degradation, and historical atrocities like the [[Holodomor]]. During this time, organizations like the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, and movements like [[People's Movement of Ukraine|Rukh]] (the People’s Movement of Ukraine, established in 1989) emerged as key advocates for greater autonomy, cultural revival, and ultimately, independence. As a major industrial and agricultural hub within the USSR, Ukraine bore the brunt of the broader Soviet economic stagnation. Inefficient central planning, a lack of innovation, and overexploitation of resources resulted in widespread economic inefficiencies and severe environmental damage.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=30 August 2022 |title=How 'Glasnost' and 'Perestroika' Changed the World |url=https://time.com/5512665/mikhail-gorbachev-glasnost-perestroika/ |access-date=2 February 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=Perestroika: Glasnost, Definition & Soviet Union |url=https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/perestroika-and-glasnost |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG|thumb|left|[[Pripyat]] with the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] in the distance]]
On 26 April 1986, the Ukrainian town of [[Pripyat]] became the site of one of the worst nuclear disasters in history when Reactor 4 of the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] exploded. This released a significant amount of radioactive material into the atmosphere, which was carried across [[Europe]] by wind currents. The resulting radioactive fallout contaminated vast areas of northern [[Ukraine]] and neighboring [[Belarus]]. The immediate aftermath of the explosion was devastating. Two plant workers died on the night of the accident, and in the weeks that followed, 28 emergency workers succumbed to acute radiation sickness. The disaster forced the evacuation of over 100,000 people from Pripyat and surrounding areas, leaving behind ghost towns and a contaminated [[Chernobyl exclusion zone]] that remains uninhabitable to this day. This tragedy had profound environmental, health, and political consequences. The [[Chernobyl disaster]] galvanized local independence movements, such as Rukh, which gained significant momentum in the late 1980s and contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Accident of 1986 |url=https://chnpp.gov.ua/en/about/history-of-the-chnpp/accident-of-1986 |access-date=14 July 2022 |website=Chornobyl NPP}}</ref>

The late 1980s witnessed a cultural awakening in Ukraine, characterized by a renewed interest in the [[Ukrainian language]], traditions, and history. Efforts to revive Ukrainian cultural identity challenged decades of Soviet policies aimed at suppressing it. The reestablishment of the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church]] and movements advocating for an independent Ukrainian Orthodox Church underscored growing dissatisfaction with Soviet [[atheism]] and fueled nationalist sentiment. These developments signaled a rising tide of Ukrainian self-awareness and a determination to reclaim national identity and sovereignty.<ref>Victoria Smolkin, ''A Sacred Space is Never Empty: A History of Soviet Atheism'' (Princeton UP, 2018) [https://hdiplo.org/to/RT21-56 online reviews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221605/https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XXI-56.pdf |date=24 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>Bociurkiw В. R. Religious Situation in the Soviet Ukraine. A paper presented at a Symposium marking the 30th anniversary of the Ukrainian Quarterly in Doc. 1974.Koszeliwec I. Kronika ukrainskiego oporu. Kultura. № 1 — 2 (328 — 329).</ref>

==== The Path to Independence ====
{{Main|People's Movement of Ukraine|1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution|Revolution on Granite|Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}
{{See also|Viacheslav Chornovil}}

By 1990, calls for Ukrainian sovereignty reached a fever pitch, fueled by decades of cultural suppression, economic exploitation, and a growing national consciousness among [[Ukrainians]]. On 21 January 1990, one of the most iconic demonstrations of unity and determination occurred when over 300,000 Ukrainians formed the "human chain" stretching from [[Kyiv]] to [[Lviv]]. This symbolic act, known as the "Chain of Unity", marked the anniversary of the [[Unification Act]] of the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] and the [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]] in 1919. It highlighted the nation's steadfast commitment to reclaiming its independence, emphasizing the unity between eastern and western Ukraine.<ref name="subtelny-576">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History|author=Subtelny, Orest|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2000|isbn=0-8020-8390-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576 576]|author-link=Orest Subtelny|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576}}</ref>

[[File:В.М.Чорновіл на шахті ім. Поченкова. 3.JPG|thumb|[[Viacheslav Chornovil]] meeting with striking miners during the [[1990s Donbas miners' strikes]]]]
These events were part of the broader [[1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution]]—a period of democratic transformation, national awakening, and growing resistance to Soviet authoritarianism. The revolution was driven by civil society, student movements, intellectuals, and reform-minded politicians who pushed for sovereignty, environmental justice, human rights, and national self-determination. One of the most influential forces during this period was [[People's Movement of Ukraine|Rukh]] (the People's Movement of Ukraine). Initially established as a cultural and civic organization, Rukh quickly evolved into a powerful political force advocating for Ukrainian independence. It played a central role in organizing protests, defending national symbols, and supporting legislative reforms, such as the recognition of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] as the official state language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sappa |first=M. M. |title=Національно-визвольна революція в Україні 1989–1991 рр. як продукт соціального руху з багатовекторною мережною структурою |trans-title=The 1989–1991 National Liberation Revolution in Ukraine as a product of a social movement and multivector network of structures |url=https://dspace.univd.edu.ua/items/4761cd68-45f9-4e45-bd33-18d119272676 |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=Kharkiv National University of Internal Affairs}}</ref>

A key figure in this movement was [[Viacheslav Chornovil]]—a former Soviet [[dissident]], journalist, and passionate advocate for national rights. Chornovil emerged as one of the most respected voices of the revolution. His moral authority, experience of imprisonment for political beliefs, and powerful rhetoric inspired thousands. As a leader within Rukh, he helped to unify disparate opposition groups and articulate a clear vision for an independent Ukraine based on democratic principles and historical justice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hrytsak |first=Yaroslav |author-link=Yaroslav Hrytsak |title=Ukraine 1989: The Blessing of Ignorance |url=https://www.iwm.at/transit-online/ukraine-1989-the-blessing-of-ignorance |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen]]}}</ref>

One of the defining moments of this period came in October 1990, during the student-led protest in [[Kyiv]] known as the [[Revolution on Granite]]. Hundreds of students went on hunger strike in the central square, demanding the resignation of the Soviet-aligned government, the rejection of a new union treaty, and the mandatory military service of Ukrainians only within Ukraine. Their peaceful protest captured the public’s imagination and ended in success—the resignation of Prime Minister [[Vitaly Masol]] and the partial acceptance of their demands. It was a landmark event that showed the strength of civic resistance and the determination of Ukraine’s younger generation to chart a new political course.<ref name="lesson-revolution-granite">[http://m.day.kyiv.ua/en/article/day-after-day/lesson-revolution-granite The lesson of the Revolution on Granite], ''[[Den (newspaper)|Den]]'' (4 October 2016)</ref><ref name=istpravda246>{{in lang|uk}}
 [http://www.istpravda.com.ua/artefacts/2013/10/2/137246/#0 "Revolution on Granite". Photos of October 1990], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (accessdate: 11 November 2017)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Revolution on Granite |url=https://gis.huri.harvard.edu/revolution-granite |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=Harvard University Digital Atlas on Ukraine}}</ref>

[[File:1991 CPA 6338.jpg|thumb|left|The Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine was marked on a 1991 USSR postage stamp]]
On 16 July 1990, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] adopted the [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine]]—a foundational legal document asserting the supremacy of Ukrainian laws over Soviet legislation, the right to form its own military, conduct international relations, and establish an independent economy. Though not a declaration of full independence, it was a decisive step that laid the groundwork for the future Ukrainian state and provided a legal framework for distancing from the USSR.<ref>{{cite book |last=Åslund |first=Anders |author-link=Anders Åslund |date=March 2009 |title=How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C8C3xuqd6aMC&pg=PA21 |access-date=29 January 2021 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Peterson Institute for International Economics]] |page=21 |isbn=9780881325461}}</ref>

In March 1991, a [[1991 Soviet Union referendum|referendum on preserving the Soviet Union]] was held, and in Ukraine, the majority of voters approved the new Union Treaty, supporting the idea of joining the Soviet Union based on [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine|Ukraine's Declaration of State Sovereignty]]. Voters were specifically asked, "Do you agree that Ukraine should be part of a Union of Soviet sovereign states on the basis of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine?" The proposal was approved by 81.7% of voters.<ref name=N2>Nohlen & Stöver, p1985</ref>

However, a few months later, events occurred that radically changed the situation. In August 1991, the so-called [[August Coup]] took place in [[Moscow]], an attempt by conservative communists to seize power and regain tight control within the USSR. The coup failed, but it seriously undermined trust in the central government in the USSR, provoking a wave of declarations of independence among the republics.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 November 2021|title=Union of Sovereign States|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/union-sovereign-states|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

== Contemporary history ==
=== Independent Ukraine (1991–present) ===
{{Main|Ukraine|Politics of Ukraine|President of Ukraine|Verkhovna Rada}}

==== Establishing the foundations of independence ====
{{Main|Declaration of Independence of Ukraine|Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine|Constitution of Ukraine|Hryvnia}}
{{See also|Leonid Kravchuk|Leonid Kuchma}}

[[File:Проголошення незалежності України.pdf|thumb|The front page of the parliamentary newspaper ''[[Holos Ukrayiny]]'' with the text of the declaration printed on the lower half (27 August 1991)]]
On 24 August 1991, the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (Ukrainian Parliament) [[Declaration of Independence of Ukraine|declared Ukraine’s independence]] from the [[Soviet Union]], a decisive step taken in the wake of the failed August Coup.<ref name=Magocsi>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722 A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples] by [[Paul Robert Magocsi]], [[University of Toronto Press]], 2010, {{ISBN|1442610212}} (page 722/723)</ref> This historic decision was reinforced by [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|a nationwide referendum]] on 1 December 1991, where 90.32% of voters supported independence, with majorities in every region (including 54.19% in [[Crimea]]).<ref name=NS>[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', page 1976 {{ISBN|9783832956097}}</ref> That same day, [[Ukraine]] held its [[1991 Ukrainian presidential election|first presidential election]], a pivotal moment in its post-Soviet history. [[Leonid Kravchuk]], a former high-ranking Soviet official, won the election, becoming first [[President of Ukraine]]. During his tenure, Kravchuk worked to maintain stability, distance Ukraine from Moscow’s influence, and manage internal political challenges.<ref name=UKrW812991>[http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml Independence - over 90% vote yes in referendum; Kravchuk elected president of Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019083729/http://www.ukrweekly.com/old/archive/1991/499101.shtml |date=19 October 2017 }}, ''[[The Ukrainian Weekly]]'', 8 December 1991</ref>

The dissolution of the USSR was formalized in the [[Białowieża Forest]] in [[Belarus]], where the leaders of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia—[[Leonid Kravchuk]], [[Stanislav Shushkevich]], and [[Boris Yeltsin]]—signed the [[Belovezha Accords]] on 8 December 1991. These accords declared the Soviet Union defunct and established the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) as a loose association of former Soviet republics. By 26 December 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist, and Ukraine's independence gained de jure recognition from the international community.<ref name="c97">{{cite news |title=14 Years of Belavezha Accords' Signing |url=http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/2005/12/08/14 |archive-date=3 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203021058/http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/2005/12/08/14 |publisher=Charter'97 |date=8 December 2005}}</ref>

After declaring independence, Ukraine began a complex [[Post-Soviet transition in Ukraine|post-Soviet transition]], shaping its identity as a new independent nation. From 1991 to 1996, Ukraine experienced significant political, economic, and social transformations aimed at establishing itself as a sovereign state on the global stage.<ref>[[Volodymyr Vasylenko]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190620220422/https://i.tyzhden.ua/content/photoalbum/2018/05_2018/30/bild/specproject.pdf Non-nuclear status of Ukraine: past, present, and future (Без'ядерний статус України: минуле, сучасне, майбутнє)]. ''[[The Ukrainian Week]]''. 31 May 2018</ref>

In the early years of independence, the [[Verkhovna Rada]] played a key role in establishing the country’s legal and political framework. As Ukraine’s legislative body, the Rada was responsible for drafting and passing laws to build the foundation of Ukraine’s political and economic structures. However, it faced ideological divides as members debated Ukraine’s path—whether to orient toward Western integration or maintain stronger ties with [[Russian Federation]]. These debates mirrored broader societal divides and significantly influenced legislative reform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/site/postanova_eng/Rres_Declaration_Independence_rev12.htm|title=Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Resolution On Declaration of Independence of Ukraine|access-date=11 October 2007|work=Official website of the Verkhovna Rada|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930203430/http://gska2.rada.gov.ua:7777/site/postanova_eng/Rres_Declaration_Independence_rev12.htm|archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref>

[[File:UkraineFlag.png|thumb|left|Modern [[flag of Ukraine]]]]
To solidify its national identity, Ukraine adopted state symbols that resonated with historical and cultural significance. The Parliament selected the [[Flag of Ukraine|blue-and-yellow flag]] and the [[coat of arms of Ukraine|tryzub]] (trident) as national emblems, which became powerful representations of Ukrainian sovereignty and unity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ukraine's national flag celebrating 25th anniversary today|url=https://www.unian.info/society/1747301-ukraines-national-flag-celebrating-25th-anniversary-today.html|access-date=4 March 2022|website=[[UNIAN]]|date=28 January 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Symbolsx2">{{cite news|last=Trach|first=Nataliya|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/the-story-behind-2-top-ukrainian-symbols-national-flag-and-trident-421675.html|title=The story behind 2 top Ukrainian symbols: National flag and trident|publisher=Kyiv Post|date=26 August 2016|access-date=27 August 2016}}</ref>

A significant historical moment of this period was the transfer of powers from the [[President of Ukraine (in exile)|President of the Ukrainian People's Republic in exile]], [[Mykola Plaviuk]], to the newly elected President of independent Ukraine, Leonid Kravchuk, during the solemn session of the Verkhovna Rada on 22 August 1992 in [[Kyiv]]. This transfer, while largely symbolic, marked a continuity of the Ukrainian struggle for independence, linking the efforts of past leaders to those of the new government. This act represented the culmination of over 70 years of Ukrainian national aspirations and signaled a deepening commitment to the state’s sovereignty and historical continuity.<ref name="Plaviuk163058UPR"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uvkr.com.ua/ua/visnyk/uvkr-2002/august/gr-ukr.html|title=10 years since the Government center of the UNR in exile gave to the free and sovereign Ukraine the symbols of government authority. This establishes that Ukraine is the legal successor to the Ukrainian National Republic. This action was proclaimed by the former President of the UNR in exile Mykola Plaviuk|accessdate=18 December 2008|work=Visnyka UVKR|publisher=Ukrainian World Coordination Council|language=Ukrainian|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727114824/http://www.uvkr.com.ua/ua/visnyk/uvkr-2002/august/gr-ukr.html|archivedate=27 July 2011}}</ref> In his declaration, Plaviuk proclaimed that the current Ukrainian state is the lawful successor to the Ukrainian People's Republic and a continuation of its authority and state traditions.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mykhailo|last=Rol|title=Tenth President|url=http://www.umoloda.kiev.ua/number/352/264/12716/|publisher=Ukrayina Moloda|accessdate=30 December 2008|language=Ukrainian}}</ref><ref name="Plaviuk163058UPR">{{Cite web|date=22 August 2023|title=Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian People's Republic|url=https://www.istpravda.com.ua/columns/2023/08/22/163058/|access-date=22 August 2023|website=[[Istorychna Pravda]] |language=Ukrainian}}</ref>{{efn|According to [[Ukrainian law]] current Ukraine is the [[successor state]] of the [[Ukrainian SSR]] that was part of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Plaviuk163058UPR"/><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722 A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407100810/https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&dq=16+July+1991+Ukrainian+state+sovereignty.&pg=PA722 |date=7 April 2023 }} by [[Paul Robert Magocsi]], [[University of Toronto Press]], 2010, {{ISBN|1442610212}} (page 563/564 & 722/723)</ref>}}

The [[Budapest Memorandum]] on Security Assurances, signed on 5 December 1994, by Ukraine, [[Russia]], the [[United States]], and the [[United Kingdom]], was a critical agreement in post-Soviet geopolitics. It formalized the process by which Ukraine surrendered the world’s third-largest [[nuclear arsenal]], inherited after the Soviet Union's collapse, which included approximately 1,900 strategic [[nuclear warheads]]. Although these weapons were stationed on Ukrainian territory, they were operationally controlled by Moscow, and Ukraine’s possession of such an arsenal posed significant concerns for global non-proliferation efforts. In return for surrendering the weapons, the signatory powers provided assurances of Ukraine's sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence. The memorandum guaranteed that no force or threats of force would be used against Ukraine, and no economic or political pressure would be employed to undermine its status. It also affirmed that the [[United Nations Security Council]] would intervene in case of aggression against Ukraine. However, the assurances were political commitments, not legally binding guarantees, which made their enforcement dependent on the goodwill of the signatories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/nonproliferation-arms-control-and-disarmament/budapest-memorandums-security-assurances-1994/p32484 |title=Budapest Memorandums on Security Assurances, 1994 - Council on Foreign Relations |publisher=Cfr.org |date=5 December 1994 |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312052208/http://www.cfr.org/nonproliferation-arms-control-and-disarmament/budapest-memorandums-security-assurances-1994/p32484 |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=UKR>Paull, John (2023). [http://www.academia.edu/98199478/War_in_Ukraine_From_Treaty_to_Treachery War in Ukraine: Treaty to Treachery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310022214/https://www.academia.edu/98199478/War_in_Ukraine_From_Treaty_to_Treachery |date=10 March 2023 }},  
in Proceedings of Russia-Ukraine War: Consequences for the World, 3rd International Scientific and Practical Internet Conference, 2–3 March 2023. WayScience, Dnipro, Ukraine (pp. 18-20)</ref>

The transition to a [[market economy]] was compounded by inflation and political instability. The absence of immediate reforms led to widespread frustration, culminating in a snap [[1994 Ukrainian presidential election|presidential election in 1994]], where Leonid Kravchuk was succeeded by [[Leonid Kuchma]], an engineer and former Soviet official. Kuchma’s presidency aimed at modernizing Ukraine’s economy and fostering a balanced relationship with both Russia and [[Western Europe]], a delicate approach to preserving Ukraine’s independence amid complex geopolitical pressures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Birch |first=Sarah |date=1995 |title=The Ukrainian parliamentary and presidential elections of 1994 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(95)95775-6 |journal=Electoral Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1016/0261-3794(95)95775-6 |issn=0261-3794}}</ref>

[[File:Grivna 1.jpg|thumb|11th–12th century Kyiv hryvnia, as reproduced by the [[National Bank of Ukraine]]]]
Trying to stabilize the economy, back in 1992, Ukraine introduced a temporary currency, the [[Ukrainian karbovanets]]. This currency was intended to serve as a stopgap measure until a more permanent solution could be implemented. The karbovanets quickly devalued, contributing to growing economic instability.<ref>НБР: [http://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/article?art_id=37482&cat_id=37437 History of Hryvnia]</ref> In 1996, Ukraine introduced the [[Hryvnia]] as the national currency, marking a significant milestone in the country’s economic transition and further solidifying its independence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/printable_article;jsessionid=15111854B1ABFB8B3B2073ED5CB1BD7F?art_id=37482&showTitle=true|title=National Bank of Ukraine|website=Bank.gov.ua|access-date=11 February 2017|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402175059/https://www.bank.gov.ua/control/en/publish/printable_article;jsessionid=15111854B1ABFB8B3B2073ED5CB1BD7F?art_id=37482&showTitle=true|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Matvienko>{{cite web|url=http://www.obriy.pib.com.ua/2002/04_02/01.htm |title=Volodymyr Matvienko. Autograph on Hryvnia |language=uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231072715/http://www.obriy.pib.com.ua/2002/04_02/01.htm |archive-date=31 December 2008 }}</ref> It is named after [[Grivna|a measure of weight]] used in [[Kievan Rus']].<ref name="Langer">{{cite book |last1=Langer |first1=Lawrence N. |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia |date=2002 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810866188 |pages=56–57 |chapter=Grivna |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlWPEH3dF38C&pg=PA56 |access-date=2 March 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117181510/https://books.google.com/books?id=DlWPEH3dF38C&pg=PA56 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Despite disputes in the Verkhovna Rada, which at the time struggled to reach consensus on reform initiatives and reconcile the interests of pro-Western and pro-Russian factions, Ukraine took a decisive step in defining its legal structure by adopting the [[Constitution of Ukraine]] on 28 June 1996. This document established Ukraine as a [[Democracy|democratic]], law-based state with a presidential-parliamentary system, clearly delineating the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Drafted with input from various political factions and scholars, the Constitution enshrined Ukraine’s commitment to legal governance and [[human rights]], becoming a cornerstone for Ukraine’s development as an independent nation.<ref name="UNIANCD28616">[http://www.unian.info/society/1389415-ukraine-celebrating-20th-anniversary-of-constitution.html Ukraine celebrating 20th anniversary of Constitution], [[UNIAN]] (28 June 2016)</ref>

At the end of its transition, Ukraine created the main components of its independence. With its own currency, Constitution, national symbols, and a growing sense of [[national identity]], Ukraine began to chart its course as a [[sovereign state]]. Despite the fact that the post-Soviet transition period caused numerous economic and political challenges, this formative period played an important role in shaping the direction and identity of [[Ukraine|modern Ukraine]].

<gallery>
File:Buleten 1991-12.jpg|[[Declaration of Independence of Ukraine]]. As printed on the ballot for the national referendum on December 1, 1991.
File:Leonid Kravchuk.jpg|[[Leonid Kravchuk]], the first President of Ukraine, in 1992
File:Kuchmaukraine.jpg|[[Leonid Kuchma]], the second President of Ukraine, in 2001
File:Constitution_of_Ukraine.jpg|[[Constitution of Ukraine]]
</gallery>

==== Strengthening and growing contradictions ====
{{Main|Cassette Scandal}}
{{See also|Viktor Yushchenko|Yulia Tymoshenko}}

The [[1999 Ukrainian presidential election|third presidential election in Ukraine]] took place in 1999, resulting in a victory for [[Leonid Kuchma]], who defeated [[Petro Symonenko]] in the run-off. This secured Kuchma a second consecutive term. However, his second term was plagued by widespread controversies, including allegations of authoritarianism, pervasive corruption scandals, curtailment of media freedoms, and large-scale public protests that challenged his leadership and legitimacy.<ref>[[Dieter Nohlen]] & Philip Stöver (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p. 1976. {{ISBN|9783832956097}}</ref>

[[File:Ukraine_Without_Kuchma_6_February.jpg|thumb|left|Protests of 6 February 2001 during Ukraine without Kuchma campaign]]
One of the darkest episodes of Kuchma’s presidency was the "[[Cassette Scandal]]", which erupted after recordings allegedly made by his former bodyguard, [[Mykola Melnychenko]], were leaked. These recordings implicated Kuchma in severe abuses of power, including involvement in the murder of journalist [[Georgiy Gongadze]], as well as corruption and electoral manipulations. The scandal provoked massive public outrage, culminating in the "[[Ukraine without Kuchma]]" protests of 2000–2001. These protests, marked by their intensity and broad support, severely undermined Kuchma's standing both domestically and internationally.<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002 Ukraine country profile – Overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325182022/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002 |date=25 March 2022 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref><ref>Adrian Karatnycky, "Ukraine's Orange Revolution," ''Foreign Affairs'', Vol. 84, No. 2 (March – April 2005), pp. 35–52 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206103903/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274 |date=6 December 2018 }}</ref>

During his presidency, Kuchma’s administration was accused of suppressing opposition media outlets and harassing journalists and political opponents. High-profile figures like [[Viacheslav Chornovil]] died under mysterious circumstances, further fueling suspicions of state complicity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2006 |title=Vyacheslav Chornovil was murdered, rather than killed in road accident |url=http://www.nrcu.gov.ua/index.php?id=148&listid=33534 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014426/http://www.nrcu.gov.ua/index.php?id=148&listid=33534 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=5 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukrainian Government Archives |url=https://www.archives.gov.ua/Sections/Ukraineomni/prechornovil.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233412/http://www.archives.gov.ua/Sections/Ukraineomni/prechornovil.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm#media "Country profile: Ukraine"], [[BBC News]]</ref> Historian [[Serhy Yekelchyk]] observed that Kuchma's government "employed electoral fraud freely", particularly during the 1999 presidential elections and the [[2000 Ukrainian constitutional referendum|2000 constitutional referendum]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_KRBCgAAQBAJ&dq=Ukrainian+constitutional+referendum+election+fraud+2000&pg=PA87 ''The Conflict in Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know''] by [[Serhy Yekelchyk]], [[Oxford University Press]], 2015, {{ISBN|0190237287}} (page 87)</ref>

Amid these challenges, [[Viktor Yushchenko]], a respected economist and reformer, rose to prominence. His tenure as the Governor of the [[National Bank of Ukraine]] earned him recognition for his professionalism and integrity, which led to his appointment as [[Prime Minister of Ukraine|Prime Minister]] in 1999, during Kuchma's re-election campaign. Yushchenko was perceived as a technocratic leader capable of addressing Ukraine’s economic stagnation and corruption.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Viktor-Yushchenko|title=Viktor Yushchenko|encyclopedia=Britannica|access-date=6 December 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Viktor_Yushchenko_in_Polish_parliament..jpg|thumb|Yushchenko as prime minister visiting Poland in 2000]]
Initially, Yushchenko's government embarked on an ambitious reform agenda. These reforms included fiscal discipline, restructuring of key industries, and efforts to stabilize the economy, which had suffered during Kuchma’s first term. However, Yushchenko's policies soon clashed with the entrenched oligarchic networks that had flourished under Kuchma's protection. These oligarchic factions, wielding significant influence in Parliament and the Kuchma administration, actively resisted reforms that threatened their monopolistic practices and access to state resources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/27/iantraynor|title = Ukraine's popular PM forced out|website = [[TheGuardian.com]]|date = 27 April 2001}}</ref>

One of the most contentious episodes of Yushchenko’s premiership was the dismissal of his deputy prime minister, [[Yulia Tymoshenko]], in 2001. Tymoshenko, who spearheaded anti-corruption initiatives and energy sector reforms, posed a significant challenge to oligarchic interests. Under pressure from Kuchma and oligarchic allies, Yushchenko was forced to dismiss Tymoshenko, a move that symbolized the constraints on reform under Kuchma’s presidency. Shortly after, the [[Verkhovna Rada]], dominated by pro-Kuchma factions, passed a vote of no confidence in Yushchenko’s government, effectively ending his tenure as Prime Minister. Kuchma’s lack of support during this political crisis highlighted the deepening rift between the two leaders.<ref name="LushnyckyRiabchuk2009">{{cite book|first1=Andrej N.|last1=Lushnycky|first2=Mykola|last2=Riabchuk|author-link2=Mykola Riabchuk|title=Ukraine on Its Meandering Path Between East and West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQqr7f9QkngC&pg=PA87|access-date=7 November 2015|year=2009|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03911-607-2|page=87}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU-uTX6IYCQC&pg=PT77 Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union: Russia's Power, Oligarchs' Profits and Ukraine's Missing Energy Policy, 1995–2006] by Margarita M. Balmaceda, [[Routledge]], 2007, {{ISBN|978-0-415-43779-0}}, p. 59.</ref>

Following his dismissal, Yushchenko became a potent symbol of reform and anti-corruption, gaining significant public support. In 2002, he founded the "[[Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc|Our Ukraine]]" (''Nasha Ukrayina'') political coalition, which championed pro-Western and democratic ideals. This bloc emerged as a key opposition force against Kuchma’s policies and set the stage for the pivotal [[2004 Ukrainian presidential election|2004 presidential election]]. In this election, Yushchenko, as the leading opposition candidate, challenged [[Viktor Yanukovych]], Kuchma’s chosen successor, in a contest that would shape Ukraine’s political trajectory for years to come.<ref name=CarnIP>[https://books.google.com/books?id=X0PAQrsx-6YC&q=Force+of+the+people&pg=PA34 ''Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough''] by [[Anders Aslund]] and [[Michael A. McFaul]], [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], 2006, {{ISBN|0-87003-221-6}}; {{ISBN|978-0-87003-221-9}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Georgi gongadse.jpg|[[Georgiy Gongadze]], journalist, founder of a popular Internet newspaper ''[[Ukrainska Pravda]]'', who was kidnapped and murdered in 2000
File:Vladimir Putin at CIS Summit 30 November-1 December 2000-2.jpg|Leonid Kuchma with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] and Azerbaijani President [[Heydar Aliyev]]
File:Julija tymoschenko 2002.jpg|[[Yulia Tymoshenko]], Yushchenko's deputy prime minister, in 2002
</gallery>

==== Orange Revolution and post-revolution challenges====
{{Main|Orange Revolution|2008 Ukrainian political crisis|Russia–Ukraine gas disputes}}
{{See also|Viktor Yanukovych}}

In 2004, Ukrainian President [[Leonid Kuchma]] announced he would not seek re-election after serving two terms in office. This decision created a political vacuum that set the stage for a highly contested [[2004 Ukrainian presidential election|2004 presidential election]] between two main candidates. [[Viktor Yanukovych]], the incumbent [[Prime Minister]], was supported by Kuchma and the [[Russian Federation]]. He advocated closer ties with Russia. On the other hand, [[Viktor Yushchenko]], the opposition leader, campaigned as a reformist, emphasizing democratic changes and closer integration with the [[European Union]].<ref name=CarnIP/><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=Yanukovych is president |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Ukrainian_Round_Table_2004.jpg|thumb|left|Round table talks with Ukrainian and foreign representatives during the Orange Revolution]]
The campaign highlighted deep regional and cultural divisions within Ukraine. The western and central regions of the country rallied behind Yushchenko, while the eastern and southern regions strongly supported Yanukovych. A prominent figure in Yushchenko's coalition was [[Yulia Tymoshenko]], a charismatic and polarizing politician. Known for her iconic braided hairstyle and fiery rhetoric, Tymoshenko played a pivotal role in galvanizing support for the opposition. Her speeches and leadership became symbols of the movement for change.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.for-ua.com/news/2009/12/11/162738.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708110747/https://en.for-ua.com/news/2009/12/11/162738.html|archive-date=8 July 2012 |title=Tymoshenko does not regret supporting Yushchenko in 2004 |publisher=En.for-ua.com |date=11 December 2009 |access-date=28 December 2013}}</ref>

The second round of the presidential election, held on 21 November 2004, officially declared Viktor Yanukovych as the winner. However, widespread allegations of electoral fraud, including ballot-stuffing, voter intimidation, and falsification of results, led to a political crisis. The situation was further intensified by the attempted poisoning of Viktor Yushchenko with [[2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin|dioxin]] during the campaign, which left him severely disfigured. This attack garnered widespread sympathy for Yushchenko and galvanized his supporters.<ref name="CNN: Doctors: Yushchenko was poisoned">{{cite news|first=Jill |last=Dougherty |title=Doctors: Yushchenko was poisoned |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/12/11/yushchenko.austria/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=11 December 2004 |access-date=2 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218082557/http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/12/11/yushchenko.austria/index.html |archive-date=18 February 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CBS: Yushchenko: Live And Carry On">{{cite news | title = Yushchenko: 'Live And Carry On' | publisher = CBS News | date = 30 January 2005 | url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/yushchenko-live-and-carry-on/ | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121025143917/https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/01/28/60minutes/main670103.shtml |archive-date = 25 October 2012 }}</ref>

The announcement of Yanukovych’s victory sparked massive protests, marking the beginning of the [[Orange Revolution]], a landmark event in Ukraine’s modern history. From 22 November 2004, hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians gathered at [[Kyiv]]’s [[Maidan Nezalezhnosti]] (Independence Square), demanding justice, democracy, and fair elections. The protesters adopted the color orange, symbolizing Yushchenko’s campaign and the broader ideals of hope and resistance to corruption and authoritarianism.<ref name=CarnIP/>

[[File:Morning_first_day_of_Orange_Revolution.jpg|thumb|Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the [[Maidan Nezalezhnosti|Independence Square]] in Kyiv]]
Yulia Tymoshenko emerged as a central figure in the revolution, inspiring crowds with her impassioned speeches and coordinating efforts to sustain the movement. The protests remained largely peaceful, with participants emphasizing nonviolence and civil disobedience, despite provocations aimed at inciting unrest. On 3 December 2004, Ukraine’s [[Supreme Court]] invalidated the election results due to evidence of fraud and ordered a re-run of the runoff. This repeat election, held on 26 December 2004, resulted in Viktor Yushchenko's victory with 52% of the vote. Yanukovych resigned as Prime Minister, and his cabinet was dismissed on 5 January 2005. Yushchenko's inauguration as president marked the culmination of the Orange Revolution.<ref name="Forua_110055">{{cite news|url=http://en.for-ua.com/news/2007/08/15/110055.html|title=Half of Ukrainians ready to deprive Yushchenko of presidency|publisher=ForUm News agency|date=15 August 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120717/http://en.for-ua.com/news/2007/08/15/110055.html|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref><ref name=CarnIP/>

In February 2005, Yulia Tymoshenko was appointed [[Prime Minister]], cementing her role as a key political figure in post-revolution Ukraine. However, the Orange coalition faced internal struggles during Yushchenko’s presidency. Relations between Yushchenko and Tymoshenko began to deteriorate, weakening the government’s ability to implement reforms. In September 2005, Yushchenko dismissed Tymoshenko from her position as Prime Minister, creating a rift that would have lasting effects on Ukrainian politics.<ref name=CarnIP/><ref>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=MacKinnon |url= https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/peace-deal-that-frees-yulia-tymoshenko-a-harsh-blow-to-ukraines-president/article17052169/ |title=Peace deal that frees Yulia Tymoshenko a harsh blow to Ukraine's President |publisher=The Globe and Mail |date=21 February 2014 |access-date=7 November 2015}}</ref>

Under Yushchenko, Ukraine’s foreign policy shifted toward strengthening [[EU–Ukraine relations|ties with the European Union]], often at the expense of its [[Russia–Ukraine relations|relationship with Russia]]. This realignment caused tensions, particularly over energy issues. In 2005, a [[Russia-Ukraine gas dispute|dispute over natural gas prices]] with Russia resulted in shortages across [[Europe]], as Ukraine served as a critical transit country for gas supplies. A compromise was reached in January 2006, but the incident underscored the fragility of Ukraine's relations with its eastern neighbor.<ref name="BBCprofileYushchenko">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm Profile: Viktor Yushchenko] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023150016/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm |date=23 October 2017 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref><ref name="BBCprofileUkraine2012">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm Ukraine country profile – Overview 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609073220/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm |date=9 June 2012 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref>

[[File:2006_Ukrainian_parliamentary_election.svg|thumb|left|Results of the 2006 Ukrainian parliamentary election, showing the most popular party in each electoral okrug]]
The [[2006 Ukrainian parliamentary election|2006 parliamentary elections in Ukraine]] reflected a deeply fragmented political landscape. The elections were marked by the re-emergence of Viktor Yanukovych, a rival of President Viktor Yushchenko and a proponent of closer ties with Russia. Yanukovych’s [[Party of Regions]] secured significant support, enabling him to become Prime Minister. This marked a shift in Ukraine’s political orientation, with Yanukovych advocating for a more pro-Russian agenda in contrast to Yushchenko’s pro-European stance. The elections exacerbated tensions between the presidency and parliament, as the balance of power between the two branches of government became a central issue. Frequent political deadlocks ensued, paralyzing governance and delaying key reforms. The strained relationship between Yushchenko and Yanukovych led to a standoff, which ultimately resulted in [[2007 Ukrainian parliamentary election|snap elections in 2007]]. The snap elections led to the formation of a coalition opposed to Yanukovych’s agenda. Yulia Tymoshenko returned as Prime Minister, yet the political environment remained fraught with instability. Conflicts between Yushchenko and Tymoshenko, which had begun earlier, persisted, further weakening the government and contributing to widespread public frustration.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-mar-26-fg-ukraine26-story.html Ukraine Is the Winner as Nation Heads to the Polls], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' (26 March 2006)</ref><ref name="meeting_30Sept">{{cite news|url=http://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/data/1_16140.html|title=Ukraine leaders agree on poll date|publisher=Secretariat of President of Ukraine|date=27 May 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070906124644/http://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/data/1_16140.html|archive-date=6 September 2007}}</ref><ref name="Agreement_27May">{{cite news|url=http://en.for-ua.com/news/2007/05/29/101029.html|title=Ukraine leaders sign joint statement|date=27 May 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219181612/http://en.for-ua.com/news/2007/05/29/101029.html|archive-date=19 February 2013}}</ref>

Tensions reached a breaking point in September 2008, triggering [[2008 Ukrainian political crisis|a major political crisis]]. The crisis began when Yushchenko’s [[Our Ukraine–People’s Self-Defense Bloc]] (NU-NS) withdrew from the governing coalition after the [[Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko]] (BYuT) sided with the opposition [[Party of Regions]] in supporting a bill on 4 September 2008 that sought to curtail the president’s powers in favor of the prime minister and parliament. Yushchenko saw this as a direct challenge to his authority, accusing Tymoshenko of betraying the coalition’s principles and aligning with pro-Russian forces. On 16 September 2008, the official collapse of the BYuT/NU-NS coalition was announced. As attempts to restore the alliance failed, this led to a deepening political stalemate.<ref name="zik.com.ua">{{cite news|url=http://zik.com.ua/en/news/2008/09/04/148874|title=Rada clipping Yushchenko's wings by reassigning prosecutor general and heads of oblast and city administrations|publisher=Western Information Agency|date=4 September 2008|access-date=11 September 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080920080029/http://zik.com.ua/en/news/2008/09/04/148874| archive-date= 20 September 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

[[File:Flickr - europeanpeoplesparty - EPP Summit Lisbone 18 October 2007 (27).jpg|thumb|Yushchenko and Tymoshenko representing their parties at the Summit of [[European People's Party]], [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]], 18 October 2007]]
The crisis finally ended on 9 December 2008, when the Orange Coalition was reformed, now including [[Lytvyn Bloc]]. This followed the election of [[Volodymyr Lytvyn]] as parliamentary speaker on 8 December, securing his faction’s support for a new governing majority. Shortly after, on 16 December 2008, a new government was formed, representing a 245-seat parliamentary majority composed of the Lytvyn Bloc, the Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko, and Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc. Though this coalition temporarily stabilized the political landscape, deep divisions among Ukraine’s leadership persisted, continuing to undermine governance and public confidence.<ref>[http://www.kyivpost.com/nation/32015 Three factions sign coalition agreement], [[Kyiv Post]] (16 December 2008)</ref>

Ukraine was severely impacted by the [[Great Recession|global financial crisis of 2008-2009]]. The crisis led to a sharp economic downturn, with GDP contracting significantly as demand for Ukraine’s key exports, such as steel, plummeted. The government faced a budgetary crisis and had to rely on a bailout from the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) to stabilize the economy. The IMF package came with stringent conditions, including fiscal austerity measures and structural reforms, which sparked domestic controversy. Adding to Ukraine’s economic woes was an escalating energy dispute with Russia. Ukraine, as a major transit country for Russian natural gas to Europe, found itself at the center of geopolitical tensions. Disagreements over gas pricing and transit fees between Ukraine’s [[Naftogaz]] and Russia’s [[Gazprom]] reached a boiling point in 2009.<ref name="Ukrainian recession data">{{cite web|url=http://ukrstat.org/en/druk/publicat/kat_u/2013/sb/08_13/zb_krvp_01_12.zip|title=Quarterly gross domestic product estimates of Ukraine for 2001 – 2012|format=PDF|work=Seasonally Adjustment of gross domestic product at constant prices of 2007 (Table 5.1 - Gross Domestic Product, page 99)|publisher=State Statistics Service Of Ukraine|date=30 August 2013|access-date=10 June 2023|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813103304/http://ukrstat.org/en/druk/publicat/kat_u/2013/sb/08_13/zb_krvp_01_12.zip|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

[[File:Major russian gas pipelines to europe.png|thumb|left|Natural gas pipelines from Russia to Europe]]
The [[2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute|2009 gas conflict]] was a major standoff that highlighted Ukraine’s vulnerability and its dependence on Russian energy. The dispute centered on allegations of unpaid bills and demands by Russia for higher gas prices. In January 2009, Gazprom cut off gas supplies to [[Europe]] via Ukraine, plunging several European countries into an energy crisis during the winter. Negotiations eventually resulted in a new agreement, but the episode underscored the fragility of Ukraine’s energy security. The crisis damaged Ukraine’s reputation as a reliable transit country and strained its relations with both Russia and the European Union. It also placed significant financial pressure on the government, further destabilizing the economy.<ref name="Russia to cut Ukraine gas supply">{{cite news| title = Russia to cut Ukraine gas supply |work=BBC News | date =5 January 2009| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7812368.stm| accessdate =5 January 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090117130639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7812368.stm| archivedate=17 January 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Throughout this period, the rivalry between Yushchenko and Tymoshenko continued to destabilize [[Politics of Ukraine|Ukrainian politics]]. Their clashes over policy, governance, and political priorities created a climate of dysfunction. Tymoshenko accused Yushchenko of obstructing her efforts to address economic and social issues, while Yushchenko criticized her populist policies as reckless and counterproductive. These internal conflicts not only hindered progress but also deepened public disillusionment with the political elite.

<gallery>
File:Портрет_3-го_президента_України_Віктора_Ющенка.jpeg|Official portrait of [[Viktor Yushchenko]], the 3rd president of Ukraine
File:Tymoshenko Appointment Feb04 2005.jpg|[[Yulia Tymoshenko]] in [[Verkhovna Rada|Parliament]], 4 February 2005
File:BushYushchenkoWH1.jpg|Yushchenko meeting U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] at an April 2005 press conference
File:Flickr - europeanpeoplesparty - EPP Summit 19 March 2009 (91) (cropped).jpg|Viktor Yushchenko with Yulia Tymoshenko in 2009
</gallery>

==== Period of political turbulence ====
{{Main|2010 Ukrainian presidential election|2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election}}
{{See also|Party of Regions|Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform|Svoboda (political party)}}

By the time of [[2010 Ukrainian presidential election|Ukraine's 2010 presidential election]], the alliance between [[Viktor Yushchenko]] and [[Yulia Tymoshenko]], key figures of the [[Orange Revolution]], had disintegrated. Tymoshenko competed against both Yushchenko and [[Viktor Yanukovych]] in a tightly contested three-way race.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=The Orange Revolution |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/orange-revolution/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="BBCprofileUkraine"/> With Yushchenko’s approval rating drastically weakened, many pro-Orange voters abstained, leading to a runoff between Tymoshenko and Yanukovych.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100215041206/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1963613,00.html Ukraine's New President: Is the Orange Revolution Over?], [[Time.com]] (11 February 2010)</ref> In the final round, Yanukovych secured the presidency with 48% of the vote, while Tymoshenko received 45%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=The Orange Revolution |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in Kharkov - 21 April 2010-9.jpeg|thumb|Signing of the Kharkiv Pact on 21 April 2010]]
Upon taking office, Yanukovych and his [[Party of Regions]] swiftly moved to consolidate power.<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle Ukraine right-wing politics: is the genie out of the bottle?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014083516/http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle |date=14 October 2017 }}, [[openDemocracy.net]] (3 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740 Ukraine viewpoint: Novelist Andrey Kurkov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011223832/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740 |date=11 October 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (13 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561 Ukraine ex-PM Tymoshenko charged with misusing funds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201225215/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561 |date=1 December 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (20 December 2010)<br />[http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5 The Party of Regions monopolises power in Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903124818/http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5 |date=3 September 2011 }}, [[Centre for Eastern Studies]] (29 September 2010)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712 Ukraine launches battle against corruption] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321003502/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712 |date=21 March 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (18 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381 Ukrainians' long wait for prosperity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321004648/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381 |date=21 March 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (18 October 2010)<br />[http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future Ukraine:Journalists Face Uncertain Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204055/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future |date=5 October 2011 }}, [[Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting]] (27 October 2010)<br />{{cite news |date=25 May 2011 |title=Our Ukraine comes to defense of Tymoshenko, Lutsenko, Didenko, Makarenko in statement |publisher=[[Interfax-Ukraine]] |url=http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603124713/http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/ |archive-date=3 June 2012}}</ref> In March 2010, the newly formed parliamentary majority, the "Coalition of Stability and Reforms", dismissed Tymoshenko as Prime Minister, replacing her with Yanukovych’s longtime ally, [[Mykola Azarov]].<ref name=newPMAZ>{{cite news|url=http://unian.net/eng/news/news-366879.html|date=11 March 2010|title=Azarov became Prime Minister|agency=[[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency|UNIAN]]|access-date=11 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314085313/http://unian.net/eng/news/news-366879.html|archive-date=14 March 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> His administration pursued closer ties with Russia, notably signing the controversial [[Kharkiv Pact]], which extended Russia’s [[Black Sea Fleet]] lease in [[Sevastopol]] until 2042 in exchange for discounted gas prices. The deal sparked protests from pro-European and nationalist groups, who saw it as a threat to Ukraine’s sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/05/14/5040281/ |script-title=uk:"Харківський пакт" не гарантує, що з ЧФ РФ не буде проблем |date=14 May 2010 |publisher=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]] |language=uk |access-date=11 June 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100619110246/http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2010/05/14/5040281/| archive-date= 19 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=cnn21410>{{cite news|title=Russia, Ukraine agree on naval-base-for-gas deal|date=21 April 2010|work=[[CNN]]|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/04/21/russia.ukraine/index.html}}</ref>

In the [[2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election|2012 parliamentary elections]], the Party of Regions further strengthened its grip on power, securing the largest number of seats despite widespread allegations of vote-rigging, administrative pressure, and misuse of state resources. The opposition remained fragmented, though it made notable gains. The newly formed [[Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform|UDAR]] party, led by heavyweight boxing champion [[Vitali Klitschko]], positioned itself as a pro-European force, while the nationalist [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]] party, previously on the political margins, unexpectedly surpassed the electoral threshold, capitalizing on growing dissatisfaction with Yanukovych’s rule.<ref name="CESOlszańskiUKel12">[https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/analyses/2012-11-07/after-parliamentary-elections-ukraine-a-tough-victory-party-regions After the parliamentary elections in Ukraine: a tough victory for the Party of Regions], [[Centre for Eastern Studies]] (7 November 2012).</ref>

The largest opposition bloc, Batkivshchyna, led by [[Arseniy Yatsenyuk]] in Tymoshenko’s absence, struggled to counterbalance the ruling party’s dominance. By this time, [[Criminal cases against Yulia Tymoshenko since 2010|Tymoshenko had been imprisoned]] since 2011 on charges of abuse of office, a case widely condemned by Western governments and human rights organizations as politically motivated. Her imprisonment, along with the selective prosecution of other opposition figures, was cited as a key reason for the [[European Union]]'s reluctance to deepen ties with Ukraine under Yanukovych’s leadership.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Government Statement of Concern about Arrest of Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko |url=http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025646/http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=8 February 2016}} [[Embassy of the United States, Kyiv|US Embassy, Kyiv]], (24 September 2011)<br />{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14459446 |title=Q&A;: Ukraine's Yulia Tymoshenko on trial|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021141928/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14459446 |archive-date=21 October 2018|work= [[BBC News]]|date= 11 October 2011}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Viktor Yanukovych official portrait.jpg|Official portrait of Viktor Yanukovych, the 4th president of Ukraine
File:Dmitry Medvedev in the United States 14 April 2010-2.jpeg|Yanukovych, [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] and [[Dmitry Medvedev]] before the beginning of the [[Nuclear Security Summit]], 2010
File:Bronisław Komorowski and Viktor Yanukovych 03 - 20110203.jpg|Yanukovych with Polish president [[Bronisław Komorowski]], 3 February 2011
</gallery>

==== Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity ====
{{Main|Euromaidan|Revolution of Dignity}}

In late 2013, Ukraine faced a pivotal moment in its modern history. After years of negotiations, the government was expected to sign an [[Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement with the European Union]]. However, on 21 November 2013, President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] abruptly suspended the signing, citing pressure from [[Russia]]. Instead, the government chose closer alignment with the Russian-led [[Eurasian Economic Union]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182823 Why is Ukraine in turmoil?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218180637/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182823 |date=18 December 2013 }}, [[BBC News]] (21 February 2014)</ref><ref name="aljVS291113">{{Cite web |title=Ukraine 'still wants to sign EU deal' &#124; News &#124; al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/11/ukraine-still-wants-sign-eu-deal-20131129111345619208.html}}</ref>

[[File: Anti-government protests in Kiev (13087651675).jpg|thumb|left|2013 [[Euromaidan]] protests in Kyiv]]
This decision sparked mass protests in [[Kyiv]]'s [[Maidan Nezalezhnosti|Independence Square]] (Maidan Nezalezhnosti), led by students, civic activists, and ordinary citizens who saw European integration as a path to democracy, justice, and modernization. The movement, soon known as [[Euromaidan]], quickly grew into a nationwide uprising.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330 Ukraine crisis: Police storm main Kyiv 'Maidan' protest camp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201194141/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330 |date=1 December 2008 }}, [[BBC News]] (19 February 2014)</ref> Tensions escalated after riot police violently dispersed peaceful demonstrators on 30 November, leading to outrage and a wave of solidarity protests across Ukraine. In Kyiv, protesters built a large encampment in Maidan, while demonstrations spread to other major cities, including [[Lviv]], [[Kharkiv]], [[Cherkasy]], [[Ternopil]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], [[Odesa]], [[Donetsk]] and others.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 Ukraine protests timeline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 |date=3 June 2014 }}, [[BBC News]] (21 February 2014)</ref>

Political opposition played a key role in organizing the movement. Three major parties stood against Yanukovych's rule: [[Batkivshchyna]] (Fatherland), led by [[Arseniy Yatsenyuk]]; [[UDAR]], led by boxing champion [[Vitali Klitschko]]; and the nationalist [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]], led by [[Oleh Tyahnybok]]. These parties supported the protests and sought political reforms, including the return to a parliamentary-presidential republic.<ref name=19janKPlive>{{cite news|title=EuroMaidan rallies in Ukraine (Jan. 19 live updates)|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/euromaidan-rallies-in-ukraine-jan-19-live-updates-335218.html|newspaper=[[Kyiv Post]]|date=19 January 2014|access-date=19 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119200703/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/euromaidan-rallies-in-ukraine-jan-19-live-updates-335218.html|archive-date=19 January 2014}}</ref>

In January 2014, the government passed harsh anti-protest laws, further fueling unrest. [[2014 Hrushevsky Street protests|Violent clashes broke out]] in central Kyiv, particularly on [[Hrushevsky Street (Kyiv)|Hrushevskyi Street]]. Protesters formed self-defense units, while police used tear gas, rubber bullets, and, eventually, live ammunition.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 January 2014 |title=15 Journalists Injured in Clashes on Hrushevskoho Street |language=en |work=Interfax-Ukraine |url=https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/186657.html |access-date=20 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nst.com.my/latest/200-000-mass-in-ukraine-in-defiance-of-protest-curbs-1.466059 |title=200,000 mass in Ukraine in defiance of protest curbs |newspaper=[[New Straits Times]] |date=19 January 2014 |access-date=19 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119221436/http://www.nst.com.my/latest/200-000-mass-in-ukraine-in-defiance-of-protest-curbs-1.466059 |archive-date=19 January 2014 }}</ref>

[[File:The earthly ways of the Heavenly Hundred 20.jpg|thumb|Faces of deceased protestors in an exhibition at the [[Kyiv History Museum]]]]
The crisis culminated between 18–20 February, when [[Revolution of Dignity|government snipers opened fire on demonstrators]]. Around 100 protesters were killed, later honored as the “[[Maidan casualties|Heavenly Hundred]]” (Небесна Сотня). The violence drew international condemnation, prompting the EU and U.S. to impose sanctions on Ukrainian officials.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sandford Daniel |date=19 February 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: Renewed Kyiv assault on protesters |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26252679 |access-date=19 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 February 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: Yanukovych announces 'peace deal' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26284505 |access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref>

On 21 February 2014, President Yanukovych signed an EU-mediated agreement with opposition leaders to hold early elections and restore the 2004 Constitution. However, amid mounting pressure, mass defections from his party, and the loss of support from law enforcement, Yanukovych fled Kyiv that same night. He traveled by helicopter and a car convoy toward [[Eastern Ukraine]], ultimately crossing into Russia. A few days later, he resurfaced in the Russian city of [[Rostov-on-Don]], where he held a press conference.<ref>{{cite news |author=Taylor, Charles |date=28 February 2014 |title=Profile: Ukraine's ousted President Viktor Yanukovych |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182830 |access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref>

On 22 February 2014, the [[Verkhovna Rada]] voted to remove Yanukovych from office, citing his abandonment of constitutional duties. Parliament also voted to release [[Yulia Tymoshenko]] from prison. That same day, [[Volodymyr Rybak (politician, born 1946)|Volodymyr Rybak]], the parliamentary speaker and Yanukovych ally, resigned, and was replaced by [[Oleksandr Turchynov]], a close associate of Tymoshenko. Turchynov was appointed Acting [[President of Ukraine]] until new elections could be held.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 February 2014 |title=Profile: Olexander Turchynov |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26316268 |access-date=25 February 2014}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Spoilt.exile_23.02.2014_(12756747354).jpg|Maidan from the top
File:Київ Місце бойових дій та масової загибелі громадян в районі Інститутської 8.jpg|Memorial to protesters killed in the Maidan massacre in Kyiv
File:Opposition leaders by the Cabinet of Ministers on Wednesday.jpg|Opposition leaders [[Oleh Tyahnybok]], [[Arseniy Yatsenyuk]] and [[Vitali Klitschko|Vitalii Klychko]] addressing demonstrators
File:SState flag of Ukraine carried by a protester to the heart of developing clashes in Kyiv, Ukraine. Events of February 18, 2014.jpg|State flag of Ukraine behind a wall of anonymous protesters in Kyiv, Ukraine. Events of February 18, 2014
</gallery>

==== Russo-Ukrainian War and Western integration ====
{{Main|Russo-Ukrainian War|Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|War in Donbas|Ukraine–European Union relations|Ukraine–NATO relations|Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

In March 2014, [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russia invaded and annexed Crimea]]. Although official results of a [[2014 Crimean status referendum|referendum]] on Crimean reunification with Russia were reported as showing a large majority in favor of the proposition, the vote was organized under Russian military occupation and was denounced by the European Union and the [[United States]] as illegal.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26606097| title = Crimea referendum: Voters 'back Russia union'| date = 10 March 2014| access-date = 4 May 2014
|work = BBC News}}</ref>

[[File:2014-07-31. Батальон «Донбасс» под Первомайском 29.jpg|thumb|left|[[War in Donbas]], [[Pervomaisk, Luhansk Oblast|Pervomaisk]], July 2014]]
The Crimean crisis was followed by [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine|pro-Russian unrest]] in [[Eastern Ukraine|east Ukraine]] and [[Southern Ukraine|south Ukraine]].<ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 Ukraine crisis timeline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 |date=3 June 2014 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref> In April 2014 Ukrainian separatists [[self-proclaimed]] the [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic]] and held [[2014 Donbas status referendums|referendums]] on 11 May 2014; the separatists claimed nearly 90% voted in favor of independence.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/05/07/310451535/putin-tells-separatists-to-postpone-may-11-referendum Putin Tells Separatists In Ukraine To Postpone 11 May Referendum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319033458/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/05/07/310451535/putin-tells-separatists-to-postpone-may-11-referendum |date=19 March 2015 }}, [[NPR]] (7 May 2014)<br />{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27360146 | title=Ukraine rebels hold referendums in Donetsk and Luhansk | work=BBC News | date=11 May 2014 | access-date=11 May 2014}}<br />{{cite news|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/russian-roulette-dispatch-thirty-eight/|title=Russian Roulette (Dispatch Thirty-Eight)|date=13 May 2014|access-date=7 July 2014|newspaper=[[Vice News]]}}</ref><ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC"/> Later in April 2014, fighting between the [[Ukrainian army]] and [[Ukrainian territorial defence battalions|pro-Ukrainian volunteer battalions]] on one side, and forces supporting the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics on the other side, escalated into the [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war in Donbas]].<ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC"/><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30414955 Ukraine underplays role of far right in conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602182154/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30414955 |date=2 June 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (13 December 2014)</ref> By December 2014, more than 6,400 people had died in this conflict, and according to [[United Nations]] figures it led to over half a million people becoming [[internally displaced]] within Ukraine and two hundred thousand refugees to flee to (mostly) [[Russia]] and other neighboring countries.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30454746 Fergal Keane reports from Mariupol on Ukraine's 'frozen conflict'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723122836/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30454746 |date=23 July 2016 }}, [[BBC News]] (12 December 2014)</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49533#.VI4Wv3vX4Yg Half a million displaced in eastern Ukraine as winter looms, warns UN refugee agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111091846/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49533#.VI4Wv3vX4Yg |date=11 November 2016 }}, [[United Nations]] (5 December 2014)</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28656147 Ukraine conflict: Refugee numbers soar as war rages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708145441/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28656147 |date=8 July 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (5 August 2014)</ref><ref>[http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-death-toll/27047512.html UN Says At Least 6,400 Killed In Ukraine's Conflict Since April 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223061830/http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-death-toll/27047512.html |date=23 December 2015 }}, [[RFE/RL]] (1 June 2015)</ref> During the same period, political (including adoption of [[Lustration in Ukraine|the law on lustration]] and [[Decommunization in Ukraine|the law on decommunization]]) and economic reforms started.<ref name="carnegie"/> On 25 May 2014, [[Petro Poroshenko]] was elected president<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=Petro Poroshenko becomes President of Ukraine |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/petro-poroshenko-becomes-president-of-ukraine/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> in the first round of the presidential election. By the second half of 2015, independent observers noted that reforms in Ukraine had considerably slowed down, [[corruption in Ukraine|corruption]] did not subside, and the [[economy of Ukraine]] was still in a deep crisis.<ref name="carnegie">{{cite web|url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/08/19/ukraine-reform-monitor-august-2015/iewe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820123300/http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/08/19/ukraine-reform-monitor-august-2015/iewe|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 August 2015|title=Ukraine Reform Monitor: August 2015|date=August 2015|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-11-06/unreformed-ukraine-is-self-destructing|title=Ukraine Is in Danger of Becoming a Failed State|last=Bershidsky|first=Leonid|date=6 November 2015|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=8 November 2015|archive-date=10 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110025333/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-11-06/unreformed-ukraine-is-self-destructing|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/25/money-still-rules-ukraine-poroshenko-corruption/|title=Money Still Rules Ukraine|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|date=25 August 2015|work=[[Foreign Policy]]|access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://opendemocracy.net/od-russia/mikhail-minakov-maryna-stavniichuk/ukrainian-constitution-reform-or-crisis|title=Ukraine's constitution: reform or crisis?|last1=Minakov|first1=Mikhail|first2=Maryna|last2=Stavniichuk|date=16 February 2016|publisher=OpenDemocracy|access-date=19 February 2016|archive-date=17 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217091235/https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/mikhail-minakov-maryna-stavniichuk/ukrainian-constitution-reform-or-crisis|url-status=dead}}</ref> By December 2015, more than 9,100 people had died (largely civilians) in the war in Donbas,<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=Separate districts of Donbas and Luhansk regions (ORDLO)
 |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/ldnr/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> according to United Nations figures.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/10/world/europe/ukraine-conflict-toll.html?_r=0 At Least 9,115 Killed in Ukraine Conflict, U.N. Says] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724003009/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/10/world/europe/ukraine-conflict-toll.html?_r=0 |date=24 July 2016 }}, [[New York Times]] (9 December 2015)<br />[http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-separatists-holiday-cease-fire-violations/27445518.html Kyiv, Separatists Accuse Each Other Of Violating Holiday Cease-Fire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226020428/http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-separatists-holiday-cease-fire-violations/27445518.html |date=26 December 2015 }}, [[Radio Free Europe]] (24 December 2015)</ref>

The [[Budapest Memorandum]]'s fragility became evident in 2014 when Russia annexed [[Crimea]] and began supporting separatist movements in Ukraine's Donetsk and Luhansk regions. These actions violated the agreement’s commitments to respect Ukraine's borders and sovereignty. Russia justified its actions by claiming they were protecting Russian-speaking populations, a rationale widely rejected by the international community. Despite protests from Ukraine and [[Western powers]], no direct action was taken to compel Russia to adhere to the memorandum. The crisis exposed the limitations of non-binding agreements, leaving Ukraine in a precarious position and reshaping the global conversation about security assurances and the reliability of international commitments.<ref name="addvr">{{cite news |title=Address of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine to the Guarantor States in accordance with the Budapest Memorandum of 1994 on Security Assurances in connection with Ukraine's accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://uk.mfa.gov.ua/en/press-centr/3732-adress |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine |date=1 March 2014 |access-date=19 August 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930132229/https://uk.mfa.gov.ua/en/press-centr/3732-adress |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/193360.html|title=Ukrainian parliament appeals to Budapest Memorandum signatories|publisher=Interfax Ukraine|date=28 February 2014|access-date=1 March 2014|archive-date=4 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304202441/http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/193360.html|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=these are primary sources|date=December 2024}}

On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the [[Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area|DCFTA]] with the EU. Ukrainian citizens were granted [[Visa policy of the Schengen Area|visa-free travel]] to the [[Schengen Area]] for up to 90 days during any 180-day period on 11 June 2017, and the Association Agreement formally came into effect on 1 September 2017.<ref name="2017-assoc">{{Cite web |title=European Commission - EU-Ukraine Association Agreement fully enters into force |url=https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-17-3045_en.htm |website=europa.eu}} (Press release)</ref> Significant achievements in the foreign policy arena include support for anti-Russian sanctions, obtaining a visa-free regime with the countries of the [[European Union]], and better recognition of the need to overcome extremely difficult tasks within the country. However, the old local authorities did not want any changes; they were cleansed of anti-Maidan activists ([[Lustration in Ukraine|lustration]]), but only in part. The fight against corruption was launched, but was limited to sentences of petty officials and electronic declarations, and the newly established [[National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine|NABU]] and [[National Agency on Corruption Prevention|NACP]] were marked by scandals in their work. Judicial reform was combined with the appointment of old, compromised judges. The investigation of crimes against Maidan residents was delayed. In order to counteract the massive global [[Russian-Ukrainian information war|Russian anti-Ukrainian propaganda]] of the "information war", the [[Ministry of Information Policy (Ukraine)|Ministry of Information Policy]] was created, which for 5 years did not show effective work, except for the ban on [[Kaspersky Lab]], [[Dr.Web]], [[1C Company|1С]], [[Mail.ru Group|Mail.ru]], [[Yandex]] and Russian social networks [[VK (service)|VKontakte]] or [[Odnoklassniki]] and propaganda media. In 2017, the president signed the law "On Education", which met with opposition from national minorities, and quarreled with the [[Government of Hungary]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Starobin |first1=Paul |title=Ukraine's real power broker |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/ukraines-real-power-broker-yermak-zelensky-russia-war-biden-2023-12?r=US&IR=T&fbclid=IwAR1UEZLoZyZ37Lo5RirygbAMp94HRKf49VtRXnOMbkkXAJ1Wc0ecHLN28_I |work=[[Business Insider]] |date=18 December 2023}}</ref>

On 19 May 2018, Poroshenko signed a Decree which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Україна остаточно вийшла з СНД |url=https://espreso.tv/news/2018/05/19/ukrayina_ostatochno_vyyshla_z_snd |access-date=19 May 2018 |website=espreso.tv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Президент підписав Указ про остаточне припинення участі України у статутних органах СНД — Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk |work=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |url=http://www.president.gov.ua/news/prezident-pidpisav-ukaz-pro-ostatochne-pripinennya-uchasti-u-47554 |access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> As of February 2019, Ukraine minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and effectively completed its withdrawal. The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.<ref>{{cite news |title=Україні не потрібно виходити із СНД – вона ніколи не була і не є зараз членом цієї структури |url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/ukrayina-dosi-v-snd-chy-ni/30969197.html |newspaper=Радіо Свобода|date=26 November 2020 |last1=Лащенко |first1=Олександр }}</ref>

The [[Kerch Strait incident]] occurred on 25 November 2018 when the [[Russia]]n [[Federal Security Service]] (FSB) [[Coast Guard (Russia)|coast guard]] fired upon and captured three [[Ukrainian Navy]] vessels attempting to pass from the [[Black Sea]] into the [[Sea of Azov]] through the [[Kerch Strait]] on their way to the port of [[Mariupol]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 November 2018 |title=Tension escalates after Russia seizes Ukraine naval ships |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46338671 |access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first1=Andrew |last1=Osborn |first2= Pavel |last2=Polityuk |date=26 November 2018 |title=Russia fires on and seizes Ukrainian ships near annexed Crimea |work=Reuters News |agency=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-russia-idUSKCN1NU0DL/ |access-date=14 June 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Порошенко_з_патріархом_Філаретом.jpg|thumb|President [[Petro Poroshenko]] and [[Filaret (Denysenko)|Filaret]], 16 April 2018]]
On 6 January 2019, in [[Fener]], a delegation of the [[Orthodox Church of Ukraine]] with the participation of President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko [[Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine|received]] a [[Tomos (Eastern Orthodox Church)|Tomos]] on [[autocephaly]]. The Tomos was presented to the head of the OCU, [[Epiphanius I of Ukraine|Metropolitan Epiphanius]], during a joint liturgy with the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Οικουμενικό Πατριαρχείο |url=https://ec-patr.org/ |access-date=14 June 2021 |language=el}}</ref> The next day, Tomos was brought to Ukraine for a demonstration at [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|St. Sophia Cathedral]]. On 9 January, all members of the [[Synod]] of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Constantinople Orthodox Church]] signed the Tomos during the scheduled meeting of the Synod.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

On 21 February 2019, the [[Constitution of Ukraine]] was amended, with the norms on the strategic course of Ukraine for membership in the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]] being enshrined in the preamble of the Basic Law, three articles and transitional provisions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The law amending the Constitution on the course of accession to the EU and NATO has entered into force |url=https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti |access-date=23 March 2021 |website=EU UA {{!}} European integration portal |language=uk |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928024828/https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 21 April 2019, [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. Early [[2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] on 21 July allowed the newly formed pro-presidential [[Servant of the People (political party)|Servant of the People party]] to win an absolute majority of seats for the first time in the history of independent Ukraine (248). [[Dmytro Razumkov]], the party's chairman, was elected speaker of parliament. The majority was able to form a government on 29 August on its own, without forming coalitions, and approved [[Oleksiy Honcharuk|Oleksii Honcharuk]] as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kitsoft |title=Кабінет Міністрів України&nbsp;— Новим Прем'єр-міністром України став Олексій Гончарук |url=https://www.kmu.gov.ua/news/novim-premyer-ministrom-ukrayini-stav-oleksij-goncharuk |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.kmu.gov.ua |language=uk}}</ref> On 4 March 2020, due to a 1.5% drop in GDP (instead of a 4.5% increase at the time of the election), the Verkhovna Rada fired [[Honcharuk Government|Honcharuk's government]] and [[Denys Shmyhal]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 March 2020 |title=Гончарука звільнили з посади прем'єра й відставили весь уряд |language=uk |work=BBC News Україна |url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-51734007 |access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref> became the new Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Денис Шмигаль – новий прем'єр України |url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2020/03/4/7242529/ |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=Українська правда |language=uk}}</ref>

On 28 July 2020, in [[Lublin]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and Ukraine created the [[Lublin Triangle]] initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the [[European Union|EU]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine Inaugurate 'Lublin Triangle' |url=https://jamestown.org/program/lithuania-poland-and-ukraine-inaugurate-lublin-triangle/ |website=Jamestown}}</ref>

On 2 February 2021, a presidential decree banned the television broadcasting of the pro-Russian TV channels [[112 Ukraine]], NewsOne and ZIK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №43/2021 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/432021-36441 |access-date=6 February 2021 |website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Зеленський‌ ‌"вимкнув"‌ ‌112,‌ ‌ZIK‌ ‌і‌ ‌NewsOne‌ ‌з‌ ефіру. Що відомо‌ |language=uk |work=BBC News Україна |url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-55907449 |access-date=6 February 2021}}</ref> The decision of the National Security and Defense Council and the Presidential Decree of 19 February 2021 imposed sanctions on 8 individuals and 19 legal entities, including Putin's pro-Russian politician and [[Vladimir Putin|Putin's]] godfather [[Viktor Medvedchuk]] and his wife Oksana Marchenko.<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №64/2021 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/642021-36753 |access-date=20 February 2021 |website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Зеленський ввів у дію санкції проти Медведчука |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/02/20/7284161/ |access-date=20 February 2021 |website=Українська правда |language=uk}}</ref>

On 17 May 2021, the [[Association Trio]] was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia|Foreign Ministers of Georgia]], [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of Moldova|Moldova]] and [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)|Ukraine]]. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the [[European Union]] on issues of common interest related to [[European integration]], enhancing cooperation within the framework of the [[Eastern Partnership]], and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Україна, Грузія та Молдова створили новий формат співпраці для спільного руху в ЄС |url=https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2021/05/17/7123240/ |website=www.eurointegration.com.ua}}</ref>

At the June [[2021 Brussels summit|2021 Brussels Summit]], NATO leaders reiterated the decision taken at the [[2008 Bucharest summit|2008 Bucharest Summit]] that Ukraine would become a member of the Alliance with the Membership Action Plan (MAP) as an integral part of the process and Ukraine's right to determine its own future and foreign policy without outside interference.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Brussels Summit Communiqué issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels 14 June 2021 |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_185000.htm |website=NATO}}</ref>

[[File:Робоча поїздка Президента України на Миколаївщину та Одещину 50.jpg|thumb|left|President [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] with members of the Ukrainian army on 18 June 2022]]
[[Prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Throughout 2021]], Russian forces built up along the [[Russia–Ukraine border|Russia-Ukraine Border]], in occupied Crimea, Donbas, and Belarus.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Buildup of Russian forces along Ukraine's border that has some talking of war |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/12/01/1060608432/buildup-of-russian-forces-along-ukraines-border-that-has-some-talking-of-war |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref> On 24 February 2022, Russian forces [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invaded]] Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ellyatt |first=Holly |title=Russian forces invade Ukraine |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/24/russian-forces-invade-ukraine.html |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=CNBC |date=24 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Russia quickly occupied much of the [[Eastern Ukraine offensive|east]] and [[Southern Ukraine offensive|south]] of the country, but failed to advance past the city of [[Mykolaiv]] towards [[Odesa]], and were forced to retreat from the [[Northern Ukraine offensive|north]] after failing to occupy [[Kyiv offensive (2022)|Kyiv]], [[Chernihiv]], [[Sumy]], and [[Kharkiv]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bigg |first=Matthew Mpoke |date=13 September 2022 |title=Russia invaded Ukraine more than 200 days ago. Here is one key development from every month of the war. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/ukraine-russia-war-timeline.html |access-date=4 October 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> After failing to gain further territories and being driven out of [[Kharkiv Oblast]] by a fast-paced [[2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive|Ukrainian counteroffensive]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ortiz |first=John Bacon and Jorge L. |title=Russians admit defeat in Kharkiv; Zelenskyy visits Izium after troops flee shattered city: Ukraine updates |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2022/09/14/ukraine-russia-war-live-updates/10375099002/ |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> Russia declared the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexation]] of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics, along with Kherson and Zaporizhzhia oblasts on 30 September.

The invasion was met with [[Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine|international condemnation]]. The [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1|a resolution]] condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The [[International Court of Justice]] ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the [[Council of Europe]] expelled Russia. Many countries [[International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|imposed sanctions]] on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided [[List of humanitarian aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War|humanitarian]] and [[List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War|military aid to Ukraine]]. The [[Baltic states]] all declared Russia a [[State terrorism|terrorist state]]. [[Protests against the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Protests occurred]] around the world, along with mass arrests of [[Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)|anti-war protesters in Russia]], which also enacted a law enabling greater [[Censorship in Russia|media censorship]]. Over 1,000 [[Corporate responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine|companies closed their operations]] in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maynes |first=Charles |date=30 September 2022 |title=Putin illegally annexes territories in Ukraine, in spite of global opposition |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/30/1126020895/russia-ukraine-putin-annexation |access-date=4 October 2022}}</ref>

On the eve of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country was [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP) per capita|the poorest in Europe]],<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP per capita (Current US$) &#124; Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true}}</ref> a handicap whose cause was attributed to high [[Corruption in Ukraine|corruption]] levels<ref>{{cite web |last=Bullough |first=Oliver |date=6 February 2015 |title=Welcome to Ukraine, the most corrupt nation in Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2015/feb/04/welcome-to-the-most-corrupt-nation-in-europe-ukraine |access-date=3 March 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |quote="Since 1991, officials, members of parliament and businessmen have created complex and highly lucrative schemes to plunder the state budget. The theft has crippled Ukraine. The economy was as large as Poland's at independence, now it is a third of the size. Ordinary Ukrainians have seen their living standards stagnate, while a handful of oligarchs have become billionaires."}}</ref> and the slow pace of [[economic liberalization]] and [[Reform|institutional reform]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine: Can meaningful reform come out of conflict? |url=https://www.bruegel.org/policy-brief/ukraine-can-meaningful-reform-come-out-conflict |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=Bruegel {{!}} The Brussels-based economic think tank |date=25 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pikulicka-Wilczewska |first=Agnieszka |date=19 July 2017 |title=Why the reforms in Ukraine are so slow? |url=https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/07/19/why-the-reforms-in-ukraine-are-so-slow/ |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The slow-reform trap |url=https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/slow-reform-trap |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=Bruegel {{!}} The Brussels-based economic think tank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 November 2000 |title=Ukraine Country Assistance Evaluation |url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/ukraine/35290615.pdf |website=OECD}}</ref> Russia's invasion of the country damaged Ukraine's economy and future prospects of improvement to such an extent, that the GDP of the country was projected to shrink by as much as 35% in its first year alone after the invasion.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1= Mackinnon|first1=Amy |last2=Gramer |first2=Robbie |title=The Battle to Save Ukraine's Economy From the War |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/10/05/russia-ukraine-war-reconstruction-european-bank-odile-renaud-basso/ |magazine=Foreign Policy |date=5 October 2022|access-date=2 October 2024 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Ukraine was originally preparing to formally apply for [[Accession of Ukraine to the European Union|EU membership]] in 2024, but instead signed an application for membership in February 2022.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=У 2024 році Україна подасть заявку на вступ до ЄС |url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/2629440-u-2024-roci-ukraina-podast-zaavku-na-vstup-do-es.html |website=www.ukrinform.ua|date=29 January 2019 }}</ref>

==National historiography==
{{split section|Ukrainian historiography|date=November 2023}}
{{Further|Ukrainian National Revival|Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainophilia|Russophilia|All-Russian nation|Pan-Slavism}}
Knowledge about Ukraine in other parts of the world came chiefly from Russian secondary sources until relatively recently. After the second half of the seventeenth century, when Muscovy and later the Russian Empire came to control much of Ukrainian territory, Russian writers included Ukraine as part of Russian history. This included referring to medieval [[Kievan Rus']] as "Kievan Russia" and its [[Old East Slavic]] culture and inhabitants as "Kievan Russian" or "Old Russian". Later Ukraine or its parts were called "[[Little Russia]]", "South Russia", "West Russia" (with Belarus), or "[[Novorossiya|New Russia]]" (the Black Sea coast and southeastern [[steppe]]). But parts of Ukraine beyond Russia's reach were called [[Ruthenia]] and its people [[Ruthenians]]. The names chosen to refer to Ukraine and Ukrainians have often reflected a certain political position, and sometimes even to deny the existence of Ukrainian nationality.<ref name="history of ukraine27" />{{Rp|pages=10–11}} The Russian point-of-view of Ukrainian history became the prevailing one in Western academia, and although the bias was identified as early as the 1950s, many scholars of Slavic studies and history believe significant changes are still necessary to correct the Moscow-centric view.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Prince |first=Todd |date=1 January 2023 |title=Moscow's Invasion Of Ukraine Triggers 'Soul-Searching' At Western Universities As Scholars Rethink Russian Studies |language=en |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-war-ukraine-western-academia/32201630.html |access-date=17 December 2023}}</ref>

The scholarly study of Ukraine's history emerged from romantic impulses in the late 19th century when [[German Romanticism]] spread to Eastern Europe. The outstanding leaders were [[Volodymyr Antonovych]] (1834–1908), based in Kiev, and his student [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky]] (1866–1934).<ref>Serhii Plokhy, ''Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History'' (2005)</ref> The first serious challenge to the Russian view of Ukraine was Hrushevsky's 1904 article "The Traditional Scheme of 'Russian' History and the Problem of the Rational organization of the History of the Eastern Slavs".{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=21}} For the first time full-scale scholarly studies based on archival sources, modern research techniques, and modern historical theories became possible. However, the demands of government officials—Tsarist, to a lesser degree Austro-Hungarian and Polish, and later Soviet—made it difficult to disseminate ideas that ran counter to the central government. Therefore, exile schools of historians emerged in central Europe and Canada after 1920.{{citation needed|reason=cite q using Q12072836 produces a junk citation;|date=March 2021}}

Strikingly different interpretations of the medieval state of Kievan Rus' appear in the four schools of historiography within Ukraine: [[Russophilia|Russophile]], [[Soviet historiography|Sovietophile]], Eastern Slavic, and [[Ukrainophilia|Ukrainophile]]. In the Soviet Union, there was a radical break after 1921, led by [[Mikhail Pokrovsky]]. Until 1934, history was generally not regarded as chauvinistic, but was rewritten in the style of [[Marxist historiography]]. National "pasts" were rewritten as social and national liberation for non-Russians, and social liberation for Russians, in a process that ended in 1917. Under Stalin, the state and its official historiography were given a distinct Russian character and a certain Russocentrism. Imperial history was rewritten such that non-Russian love caused an emulation and deference to "join" the Russian people by becoming part of the (tsarist) Russian state, and in return, Russian state interests were driven by altruism and concern for neighboring people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Velychenko |first=Stephen |title=Shaping Identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish Accounts of Ukrainian History, 1914–1991 |date=1993 |isbn=978-1-137-05825-6 |page=23|location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |oclc=1004379833}}</ref> Russophile and Sovietophile schools have become marginalized in independent Ukraine, with the Ukrainophile school being dominant in the early 21st century. The Ukrainophile school promotes an identity that is mutually exclusive of Russia. It has come to dominate the nation's educational system, security forces, and national symbols and monuments, although it has been dismissed as nationalist by Western historians. The East Slavic school, an eclectic compromise between Ukrainophiles and Russophilism, has a weaker ideological and symbolic base, although it is preferred by Ukraine's centrist former elites.<ref>Taras Kuzio, "National Identity and History Writing in Ukraine," ''Nationalities Papers'' 2006 34(4): 407–427, online in [[EBSCO Information Services|EBSCO]]</ref>

Many historians in recent years have sought alternatives to national histories, and Ukrainian history invited approaches that looked beyond a national paradigm. Multiethnic history recognises the numerous peoples in Ukraine; [[transnational history]] portrays Ukraine as a border zone for various empires; and [[area studies]] categorises Ukraine as part of East-Central Europe or, less often, as part of Eurasia. [[Serhii Plokhy]] argues that looking beyond the country's national history has made possible a richer understanding of Ukraine, its people, and the surrounding regions.<ref>Plokhy, Serhii (2007). "Beyond Nationality" ''Ab Imperio'' 2007 (4): 25–46,</ref> since 2015, there has been renewed interest in integrating a "territorial-civic" and "linguistic-ethnic" history of Ukraine. For example, the history of the [[Crimean Tatars]] and the more distant history of the [[Crimea]] peninsula is now integrated into Ukrainian school history. This is part of the constitutionally mandated "people of Ukraine" rather than "Ukrainian people". Slowly, the histories of Poles and Jews are also being reintegrated. However, due to the current political climate caused by territorial sovereignty breaches by Russia, the role of Russians as "co-host" has been greatly minimized, and there are still unresolved difficult issues of the past, for example, the role of Ukrainians during the Holodomor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Studenna-Skrukwa |first=Marta |chapter=What history? What homeland? The nationalization of history in the school education before the breakthroughs in 2014–15 and after |title=The politics of memory in Poland and Ukraine: From reconciliation to de-conciliation |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |date=2022 |editor1=Tomasz Stryjek|editor2=Joanna Konieczna-Sałamatin |pages=85–103 |isbn=978-1-003-01734-9 |location=London |oclc=1257314140}}</ref>{{rp|98}}

After 1991, historical memory was a powerful tool in the political mobilization and legitimation of the post-Soviet Ukrainian state, as well as the division of selectively used memory along the lines of the political division of Ukrainian society. Ukraine did not experience the restorationist paradigm typical of some other post-Soviet nations, for example the [[State continuity of the Baltic states|three Baltic countries]]—[[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], and [[Estonia]]—although the multifaceted history of independence, the [[Orthodox Church in Ukraine]], Soviet-era repressions, [[Holodomor|mass famine]], and World War II collaboration were used to provide a different constitutive frame for developing Ukrainian nationhood. The [[Identity politics|politics of identity]] (which includes the production of history textbooks and the authorization of commemorative practices) has remained fragmented and tailored to reflect the ideological anxieties and concerns of individual regions of Ukraine.<ref>See: Portnov, Andriy (2007). "Exercises with history Ukrainian style (notes on public aspects of history's functioning in post-Soviet Ukraine)". ''Ab Imperio'' 2007 (3): 93–138, {{inlang|uk}}</ref>

===Canadian historiography on Ukraine===
In Soviet Ukraine, twentieth-century historians were strictly limited in the range of models and topics they could cover, with Moscow insisting on an official [[Marxism|Marxist]] approach. However, émigré [[Ukrainians in Canada]] developed an independent scholarship that ignored Marxism, and shared the Western tendencies in historiography.<ref>Roman Senkus, "Ukrainian Studies in Canada Since the 1950s: An Introduction." ''East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' 5.1 (2018): 3–7.</ref> [[George W. Simpson]] and [[Orest Subtelny]] were leaders promoting Ukrainian studies in Canadian academe.<ref>Bohdan Krawchenko, "Ukrainian studies in Canada." ''Nationalities Papers'' 6#1 (1978): 26–43.</ref> The lack of independence in Ukraine meant that traditional historiographical emphases on diplomacy and politics were handicapped. The flourishing of social history after 1960 opened many new approaches for researchers in Canada; Subtelny used the [[Modernization theory|modernization]] model. Later historiographical trends were quickly adapted to the Ukrainian evidence, with special focus on Ukrainian nationalism. The new cultural history, [[Postcolonialism|post-colonial studies]], and the "[[linguistic turn]]" augmenting, if not replacing [[social history]], allowed for multiple angles of approach. By 1991, historians in Canada had freely explored a wide range of approaches regarding the emergence of a [[national identity]]. After independence, a high priority in Canada was assisting in the freeing of Ukrainian scholarship from Soviet-Marxist orthodoxy—which downplayed Ukrainian nationalism and insisted that true Ukrainians were always trying to reunite with Russia. Independence from Moscow meant freedom from an orthodoxy that was never well suited to Ukrainian developments. Scholars in Ukraine welcomed the "national paradigm" that Canadian historians had helped develop. Since 1991, the study of Ukrainian [[nation-building]] became an increasingly global and collaborative enterprise, with scholars from Ukraine studying and working in Canada, and with conferences on related topics attracting scholars from around the world.<ref>Serhy Yekelchyk, "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine," ''East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' (2018) 5#1 pp. 115–137. [https://www.ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/373/pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191910/https://www.ewjus.com/index.php/ewjus/article/view/373/pdf |date=28 February 2019 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Ukraine}}
{{Commons|Historical maps of Ukraine}}
* [[History of Ukraine-Rusʹ]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[List of leaders of Ukraine]]
* [[History of Christianity in Ukraine]]
* [[Politics of Ukraine]]
* [[History of the Jews in Ukraine]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="nvr 1969">{{cite book |last1=Riasanovsky |first1=Nicholas Valentine |title=A history of Russia |date=1969 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-873004-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofrussiab0000unse/page/198/mode/2up |url-access=registration|author-link=Nicholas V. Riasanovsky}}</ref>
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<ref name="Cosgrove_Russian_invasion">{{cite web | last1 = Cosgrove | first1 = Jonathon | title= The Russian invasion of the Crimean peninsula – 2014–2015 – A Post–Cold War Nuclear Crisis Case Study | website= [[Johns Hopkins University]] |year = 2020 | url = https://www.jhuapl.edu/Content/documents/RussianInvasionCrimeanPeninsula.pdf | access-date = 11 February 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220206000517/https://www.jhuapl.edu/Content/documents/RussianInvasionCrimeanPeninsula.pdf |archive-date= 6 February 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Not in use-->
}}

==Bibliography==
{{Main|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}

===Surveys and reference===
* ''Encyclopedia of Ukraine'' (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) 5 vol.; from [https://web.archive.org/web/20121001155033/http://www.utoronto.ca/cius/webfiles/eu.htm Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies], partly online as the [http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/ ''Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine''].
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=W. E. D. |author-link=W. E. D. Allen |title=The Ukraine: a history |publisher=Russell & Russell |year=1963 |page=404 |oclc=578666051}}
* Bilinsky, Yaroslav ''The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II'' (Rutgers UP, 1964).
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf |title=The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text |date=1953 |publisher=The Mediaeval Academy of America |editor-last=Cross |editor-first=Samuel Hazzard |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=325 |access-date=26 January 2023 |editor-last2=Sherbowitz-Wetzor |editor-first2=Olgerd P. |orig-year=1930}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cybriwsky |first=Roman Adrian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_4OEAAAQBAJ |title=Along Ukraine's River: A Social and Environmental History of the Dnipro |date=20 March 2018 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-9-6338-6205-6}}
* [[Dmytro Doroshenko|Doroshenko, Dmytro]], ''History of the Ukraine''. Institute Press (Edmonton, Alberta), 1939: [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/DORHOU/home.html ''Online''].
* {{cite book |last=Duczko |first=Wladyslaw |author-link=:pl:Władysław Duczko |title=Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEawXSP4AVwC |year=2004 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=9004138749}}
* {{Citation |last=Garipzanov |first=Ildar |title=The Annals of St. Bertin (839) and Chacanus of the Rhos |date=2006 |work=Ruthenica |volume=5 |pages=7–11 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2382954 |publisher=[[NASU Institute of History of Ukraine]] (Instytut istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny) |oclc=54413298}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gasparov |first1=Boris |url=https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520302471/christianity-and-the-eastern-slavs-volume-i |title=Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Volume I: Slavic Cultures in the Middle Ages |last2=Raevsky-Hughes |first2=Olga |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |page=374 |language=en |orig-date=1993}}
* Hrushevsky, Mykhailo. ''History of Ukraine-Rus''' in 9 volumes (1866–1934). Available online in Ukrainian as [http://litopys.org.ua/hrushrus/iur.htm "Історія України-Руси"] (1954–57). [https://www.ciuspress.com/about-author/?v=3e8d115eb4b3 Translated into English] (1997–2014). 
** [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky|Hrushevsky, Mykhailo]]. ''A History of Ukraine'' (1986 [1941]).
* Ivan Katchanovski; [[Zenon Kohut|Kohut, Zenon E.]]; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav (2013). ''Historical Dictionary of Ukraine''. Second edition.
* Kubicek, Paul. ''The History of Ukraine'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313349207 excerpt and text search].
* Kubijovyč, Volodymyr, ed. ''Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia''; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188 pp.
* Liber, George. ''Total wars and the making of modern Ukraine, 1914–1954'' (University of Toronto Press, 2016).
* {{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |author-link=Paul R. Magocsi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC |title=A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7 |edition=2nd rev. |location=Toronto |orig-year=1996}}
* [[Clarence Manning|Manning, Clarence]], ''The Story of the Ukraine''. [[Georgetown University Press]], 1947: [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANSOU/home.html ''Online''].
* {{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Donald |date=2018 |title=Was There a Riurikid Dynasty in Early Rus'? |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/css/52/1/article-p30_2.xml |journal=Canadian-American Slavic Studies |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=30–49 |doi=10.1163/22102396-05201009}}
*{{cite book|last=Stephenson|first=Paul|title=Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILiOI0UgxHoC&pg=PA56|access-date=24 November 2017|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77017-0}}
*{{cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |title=Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500-1300) (2 vols) |date=8 July 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-39519-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-sqiDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Katchanovski |first1=Ivan |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon E. |authorlink2=Zenon Kohut |last3=Nesebio |first3=Bohdan Y. |last4=Yurkevich |first4=Myroslav |date=2013 |title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]]; [[Toronto]]; [[Plymouth]] |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=992 |isbn=9780810878471 |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423152841/https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |author-link=Serhii Plokhy |url={{GBurl|pCdUmCWxwJ8C}} |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1394-5892-4}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine |date=2015 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-4650-5091-8 |ref=none}}
* Reid, Anna. ''Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine'' (2003). {{ISBN|0-7538-0160-4}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |publisher=Yale U.P. |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-3001-0586-5 |ref=none}} pp.&nbsp;105–216.
* {{Cite book |last=Subtelny |first=Orest |author-link=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine: A History |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |location=Toronto |ref=none}} A Ukrainian translation is available [http://www.infoukes.com/ukremb/history/SUBTELNY/title.htm online].
* [[Andrew Wilson (historian)|Wilson, Andrew]]. ''The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation''. Yale University Press; 2nd edition (2002). {{ISBN|0-3000-9309-8}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Yekelchyk |first=Serhy |author-link=Serhy Yekelchyk |title=Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-1953-0546-3 |location=[[Oxford]] |oclc=219616283}}
* {{cite book | last=Mason | first=Emma | title=The house of Godwine : the history of a dynasty | publisher=Hambledon and London | publication-place=London | date=2004 | isbn=1-85285-389-1 | oclc=51912953}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Vernadsky |first1=George |authorlink1=George Vernadsky |date=1970 |title=The Mongols and Russia. A History of Russia, Volume III. |url= |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |pages= |isbn= }}

===Topical studies===
* Kononenko, Konstantyn. ''Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917'' (Marquette University Press 1958).
* Luckyj, George S. ''Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995'' (1996).
* Shkandrij, Myroslav (2014). ''Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929–1956''. Yale University Press – Studies the ideology and legacy of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, especially of Dmytro Dontsov, Olena Teliha, Leonid Mosendz, Oleh Olzhych, [[Yurii Lypa]], Ulas Samchuk, Yurii Klen, and Dokia Humenna.

===1930s, World War II===
* [[Anne Applebaum|Applebaum, Anne]] (2017). ''[[Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine]]''. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 online review].
* {{cite book|title=Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath|last=Boshyk|first=Yuri|year=1986|publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies|isbn=0-920862-37-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ukraineduringwor0000unse |ref=none}}
* [[Karel C. Berkhoff|Berkhoff, Karel C.]], ''Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule''. Harvard U. Press, 2004.
* Brandon, Ray, and [[Wendy Lower]], eds. (2008). ''The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization''. 378 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=24078 online review].
* [[Robert Conquest|Conquest, Robert]] (1986). ''[[The Harvest of Sorrow|The Harvest Of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine]]'' 
* Gross, Jan T. (1988). ''Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia''
* Kostiuk, Hryhory (1960). ''Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine''. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/KOSSRU/home.html ''Online''].
* Kudelia, Serhiy. (2013). "Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in Western Ukraine", ''East European Politics and Societies'' 27#1 pp.&nbsp;149–181.
* Lower, Wendy, (2005). ''Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine''. University of North Carolina Press
* [[Clarence Manning|Manning, Clarence]] (1953). [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANUUS/home.htm ''Ukraine under the Soviets'']. New York: Bookman Associates.
* Narvselius, Eleonora (2012). "The 'Bandera Debate': The Contentious Legacy of World War II and Liberalization of Collective Memory in Western Ukraine", ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 54#3 pp.&nbsp;469–490. 
* Redlich, Shimon (2002). ''Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945''. Indiana University Press
* Zabarko, Boris, ed. (2005). ''Holocaust in the Ukraine''. Mitchell Vallentine & Co.

===Recent history===
* Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. (2006). ''Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough''
* {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/0965156X.2013.841797| title = Ukraine's Independence and Its Geostrategic Impact in Eastern Europe| journal = Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe| volume = 21| issue = 2–3| page = 165| year = 2013| last1 = Blaj | first1 = L. | s2cid = 143454991 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|author=Paul D'Anieri|title=Politics and Society in Ukraine|year=1999|publisher=Avalon |isbn=9780813335384 |ref=none}}
* [[Anatoliy Dimarov|Dimarov, Anatoliy]] et al. ''A Hunger Most Cruel: The Human Face of the 1932–1933 Terror-Famine in Soviet Ukraine'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/096838997X excerpt and text search].
* [[Askold Krushelnycky]]. ''An Orange Revolution: A Personal Journey Through Ukrainian History'' (2006). {{ISBN|0-436-20623-4}}. 320 pp.
* Kutaisov, Aleksandr. ''[https://archive.org/details/ukrainaby00kutauoft Ukraina]'' (1918).
* Kuzio, Taras. ''Ukraine: State and Nation Building'' (1998). {{ISBN|0-415-17195-4}}.
* Luckyj, George S. ''Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934'' (1990). {{ISBN|0-8223-1081-3}}.
* Wanner, Catherine. ''Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0271030011 excerpt and text search].

===Historiography and memory===
{{See also|List of Slavic studies journals}}
* {{Cite Q|Q113708200 |author=von Hagen, Mark |authorlink=Mark von Hagen |ref=none}}
* [[John-Paul Himka|Himka, John-Paul]]. "The National and the Social in the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1920- The Historiographical Agenda". ''Archiv für Sozialgeschichte'', vol. 34 (1994): 95–110.
* {{Cite Q|Q28703759 |author=Hrushevskyi, Mykhailo |authorlink=Mykhailo Hrushevskyi |ref=none}}
* Kasianov, Georgiy, and [[Philipp Ther]], eds. ''Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography'' (Central European University Press 2009). {{ISBN?}}.
* [[Bohdan Krawchenko|Krawchenko, Bohdan]]. "Ukrainian studies in Canada". ''Nationalities Papers'' 6.1 (1978): 26–43.
* {{Cite Q|Q116456399 |editor=Plokhy, Serhii |editor-link=Serhii Plokhy |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |author=Plokhy, Serhii |author-link=Serhii Plokhy |doi=10.2307/J.CTV2902B86.6 |id=[[WDQ (identifier)|Wikidata]]&nbsp;[[:d:Q116456336|Q116456336]] |isbn=978-0-674-26882-1 |series=The Frontline: Essays on Ukraine&#39;s Past and Present |language=en |pages=1–14 |publication-date=2021 |ref=none |title=Quo Vadis Ukrainian History?}}
* [[Anna Reid|Reid, Anna]]. "Putin's War on History: The Thousand-Year Struggle Over Ukraine" ''Foreign Affairs'' (May/June 2022) 101#1 pp.&nbsp;54–63. [https://tribunecontentagency.com/article/putins-war-on-history-the-thousand-year-struggle-over-ukraine/ excerpt]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite Q|Q116456099 |author=Smith-Peter, Susan |ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q116456077 |author=Subtelny, Orest |authorlink=Orest Subtelny |ref=none}}
* Velychenko, Stephen, ''National history as cultural process: a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914'' (Edmonton, 1992).
* Velychenko, Stephen, ''Shaping identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish accounts of Ukrainian history, 1914–1991'' (London, 1993).
* Verstiuk, Vladyslav. "Conceptual Issues in Studying the History of the Ukrainian Revolution". ''Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' 24.1 (1999): 5–20.
* [[Rex A. Wade|Wade, Rex A.]], "The Revolution At Ninety-(One): Anglo-American Historiography Of The Russian Revolution Of 1917", ''Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography'' 1.1 (2008): vii-42.
* [[Serhy Yekelchyk|Yekelchyk, Serhy]]. "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine". ''East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' 5.1 (2018).

=== Teaching and study guides ===
* John Vsetecka, "[https://clioandthecontemporary.com/2022/07/03/let-ukraine-speak-integrating-ukraine-into-syllabi/ Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom SyllabiLet Ukraine Speak: Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom Syllabii]".
* Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, "[https://huri.harvard.edu/teaching-resources-list Teaching and Studying Ukraine: List of Resources]".

===Primary sources in English===
* Luckyj, George S. ''Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995'' (1996).

====Ukrainian language====
* ''Essays on History on Ukraine''.
** Volume 1 by Natalia Yakovenko, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050110172544/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/yakovenkon/znaid/index.html ''"From the Earliest Times until the End of the 18th Century"''].
** Volume 2: {{cite book|author=Ярослав Грицак (Yaroslav Hrytsak)|title=Формування модерної української нації XIX-XX ст. (Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Nation in the late 19th–20th centuries)|location=[[Kyiv]]|publisher=Генеза (Heneza)|year=1996|isbn=966-504-150-9 |ref=none}}. Available [https://web.archive.org/web/20050302102308/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/grytsakj/formuv/index.html online].

==Further reading==
* Tsvirkun, Alexander F.; Savelii, Valentin A. (2005). ''History of Ukraine''. Kyiv: 7 class electronic textbooks.
* Alexander F. Tsvirkun (2010). E-learning course: ''History of Ukraine''. Kyiv: Journal Auditorium.
* [http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031/4 "Briefly about Her Past and Present"]. ''Welcome to Ukraine {{!}} WU Magazine'', 2003. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411070753/http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031%2F4 |date=11 April 2016 }}.

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Ukraine:_Primary_Documents History of Ukraine: Primary Documents (weblist)]
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/home.html History of Ukraine]: 10 complete books
* [http://www.day.kiev.ua/131109/ Ukrainian history overview] published in ''[[Den']]'' (in Ukrainian).

{{Ukraine topics}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{European history by country}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Ukraine| ]]
[[Category:Ukrainian studies]]