Editing History of Sudan

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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{History of Sudan}}
[[File:LocationSudan.svg|thumb|Map of Sudan from 2011 with South Sudan independent]]

The '''history of Sudan''' refers to the territory that today makes up [[Sudan|Republic of the Sudan]] and the state of [[South Sudan]], which became independent in 2011. The territory of Sudan is geographically part of a larger African region, also known as "[[Sudan (region)|Sudan]]". The term is derived from {{langx|ar|بلاد السودان}} ''bilād as-sūdān'', or "land of the black people",<ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. [http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571396/Sudan "Sudan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029233423/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571396/Sudan |date=29 October 2013 }}.</ref><ref>Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tsis/hd_tsis.htm Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517025116/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tsis/hd_tsis.htm |date=17 May 2013 }}. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 – (October 2001).</ref> and has sometimes been used more widely referring to the [[Sahel]] belt of [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]].

The modern Republic of the Sudan was formed in early 1956 and inherited its boundaries from [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]], established in 1899. For times predating 1899, usage of the term "Sudan" mainly applied to the [[Turkish Sudan]] and the [[Mahdist State]], and a wider and changing territory between Egypt in the North and regions in the South adjacent to modern Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia.

The early history of the [[Kingdom of Kush]], located along the [[Nile]] region in northern Sudan, is intertwined with the [[history of ancient Egypt]], with which it was politically allied over several regnal eras. By virtue of its proximity to [[Egypt]], Sudan participated in the wider history of the [[Near East]], with the important [[25th dynasty|25th dynasty of Egypt]] and the [[Christianization]] of the three Nubian kingdoms [[Nobatia]], [[Makuria]], and [[Alodia]] in the sixth century. As a result of Christianization, the [[Old Nubian language]] stands as the oldest recorded [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan language]] (earliest records dating to the eighth century in an adaptation of the [[Coptic alphabet]]).

While [[Islam]] was already present on the Sudanese [[Red Sea]] coast and the adjacent territories since the 7th century, the Nile Valley did not undergo [[Islamization of the Sudan region|Islamization]] until the 14th-15th century, following the decline of the Christian kingdoms. These kingdoms were succeeded by the [[Sennar (sultanate)|Sultanate of Sennar]] in the early 16th century, which controlled large parts of the Nile Valley and the [[Eastern Desert]], while the kingdoms of [[Darfur]] controlled the western part of Sudan. Two small kingdoms arose in the southern regions, the [[Shilluk Kingdom]] of 1490, and [[Taqali]] of 1750, near modern-day [[South Sudan]], but both northern and southern regions were seized by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] during the 1820s. The oppressive rule of Muhammad Ali and his immediate successors is credited for stirring up resentment against the Turco-Egyptian and British rulers and led to the establishment of the Mahdist State, founded by [[Muhammad Ahmad]] in 1881.

Since independence in 1956, the history of Sudan has been tarnished by internal conflict, including the [[First Sudanese Civil War]] (1955–1972), the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] (1983–2005), the [[War in Darfur]] (2003–2020)–culminating in the secession of [[South Sudan]] on 9 July 2011, after which the [[South Sudanese Civil War]] took place therein (2013–2020)– and the current [[Sudanese civil war (2023-present)]].

== Prehistory == <!--linked from [[Template:History of Sudan]-->
[[File:SabuJeddi4.jpg|thumb|260px|[[Sabu-Jaddi]] Rock Art site: Cattle]]

=== Nile Valley ===
{{see also|A-Group culture|Sabu-Jaddi|C-Group culture}}

[[Affad 23]] is an [[archaeological site]] located in the [[Affad Basin|Affad]] region of southern Dongola Reach in northern [[Sudan]],<ref name="Osypiński">{{cite journal |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |last2=Osypińska |first2=Marta |last3=Gautier |first3=Achilles |title=Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=2011 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10186 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 |issn=1612-1651 |oclc=7787802958 |jstor=43135549 |s2cid=161078189 |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801080857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 |url-status=live }}</ref> which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest [[Natural environment|open-air]] [[hut]] in the world) and diverse [[hunting]] and [[Hunter-gatherer|gathering]] loci some 50,000 years old".<ref name="Osypiński II">{{cite web |last1=Osypiński |first1=Piotr |title=Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory |url=https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |publisher=National Science Centre |date=2020 |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801081130/https://projekty.ncn.gov.pl/opisy/480275-en.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Osypińska">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |page=460 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Animals in the history of the Middle Nile |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801080935/https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Osypińska II">{{cite book |last1=Osypińska |first1=Marta |last2=Osypiński |first2=Piotr |title=From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan |date=2021 |publisher=Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw |isbn=9788395336256 |oclc=1374884636 |pages=187–188 |chapter-url=https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |chapter=Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801080935/https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/21580/Katalog%20wystawy%20From%20Faras%20to%20Soba%20-%20ONLINE%20o2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref>

By the eighth millennium&nbsp;BC, people of a [[Neolithic]] culture had settled into a sedentary way of life there in fortified [[mud-brick]] villages, where they supplemented [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] on the Nile with [[grain]] gathering and [[cattle]] herding.<ref name=locearlyhist>"Early History", [[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed. [http://countrystudies.us/sudan Sudan A Country Study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208183339/http://countrystudies.us/sudan/ |date=8 February 2016 }}. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991.</ref> During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying [[Sahara]] brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries and became the [[Kingdom of Kush]] (with the capital at [[Kerma]]) around 1070 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the pre-dynastic period [[Lower Nubia]] and Magadan [[Upper Egypt]] were ethnically, and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of Pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships| author = S.O.Y. Keita| year = 1993| pages = 129–154| volume = 20| journal = History in Africa | jstor = 3171969| doi = 10.2307/3171969| s2cid = 162330365}}</ref> Together with other countries on [[Red Sea]], [[Sudan]] is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient [[Egyptians]] as ''[[Land of Punt|Punt]]'' (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Plan"), whose first mention dates to the 10th century BC.<ref>Simson Najovits, ''Egypt, the trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.</ref>

=== Eastern Sudan ===
In eastern Sudan, the [[Butana Group]] appears around 4000 BC. These people produced simple decorated pottery, lived in round huts and were most likely herdsmen, hunters, but also consumed land snails and there is evidence for some agriculture.<ref>Andrea Manzo (2017): ''Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile Valley'', Archaeopress, {{ISBN|9781784915582}}, 22-27 [http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%7D online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126194148/http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp%3Fid%3D%257B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%257D |date=26 January 2020 }}</ref>
The [[Gash Group]] started around 3000 BC and is another prehistory culture known from several places. These people produced decorated pottery and lived from farming and cattle breeding. [[Mahal Teglinos]] was an important place about 10 hectare large. In the center were excavated mud brick built houses. Seals and seal impressions attest a higher level of administration. Burials in an elite cemetery were marked with rough tomb stones.<ref>Manzo (2017): ''Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile Valley'', 33-42 [http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%7D online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126194148/http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp%3Fid%3D%257B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%257D |date=26 January 2020 }}</ref> In the second millennium followed the [[Jebel Mokram Group]]. They produced pottery with simple incised decoration and lived in simple round huts. Cattle breeding was most likely the economical base.<ref>Manzo (2017): ''Eastern Sudan in its Setting, The archaeology of a region far from the Nile Valley'', 43-48 [http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%7D online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126194148/http://www.archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp%3Fid%3D%257B8051E498-158B-4217-8288-BD6DA9FB5ECC%257D |date=26 January 2020 }}</ref>

==Antiquity==

===Kingdom of Kush===
{{main|Kingdom of Kush|Kushite religion}}
[[File:Su-map.png|thumb|250px|right|Sudan combines the lands of several ancient kingdoms.]]

Northern Sudan's earliest historical record comes from ancient Egyptian sources, which described the land upstream as ''Kush''. For more than two thousand years after the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] ({{circa}} 2700–2180 BC), Egypt had a dominating and significant influence over its southern neighbor, and even afterward, the legacy of Egyptian cultural and religious introductions remained important.<ref name="locearlyhist" />

Over the centuries, trade developed. Egyptian caravans carried grain to Kush and returned to Aswan with [[ivory]], [[incense]], [[hide (skin)|hides]], and [[carnelian]] (a stone prized both as [[jewelry]] and for [[arrowhead]]s) for shipment downriver. Egyptian governors particularly valued [[gold]] in Nubia and soldiers in the [[pharaoh]]'s army. Egyptian military expeditions penetrated Kush periodically during the Old Kingdom. Yet there was no attempt to establish a permanent presence in the area until the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (c. 2100–1720&nbsp;BC), when Egypt constructed a network of forts along the Nile as far south as Samnah in [[Lower Egypt]] to guard the flow of gold from mines in Wawat, the area between the First and Second Cataracts.<ref name="locearlyhist" />
[[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Aerial view of the [[Nubian pyramids]] at [[Meroë]] (2001), capital of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]]]
Around 1720&nbsp;BC, [[Canaan]]ite nomads called the [[Hyksos]] took over Egypt, ended the Middle Kingdom, severed links with Kush, and destroyed the forts along the Nile River. To fill the vacuum left by the Egyptian withdrawal, a culturally distinct indigenous Kushite kingdom emerged at [[Kerma]], near present-day [[Dongola]]. After Egyptian power revived during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (c. 1570–1100&nbsp;BC), the pharaoh [[Ahmose I]] incorporated Kush as an Egyptian ruled province governed by a [[viceroy]]. Although Egypt's administrative control of Kush extended only down to the Fourth Cataract, Egyptian sources list tributary districts reaching to the [[Red Sea]] and upstream to the confluence of the [[Blue Nile]] and [[White Nile]] rivers. Egyptian authorities ensured the loyalty of local chiefs by drafting their children to serve as pages at the pharaoh's court. Egypt also expected tribute in [[gold]] and [[slavery|workers]] from local Kushite chiefs.<ref name="locearlyhist" />

Once Egypt had established political and military mastery over Kush, officials, priests, merchants, and artisans settled in the region. The [[Egyptian language]] became widely used in everyday activities. Many rich Kushites took to worshipping Egyptian gods and built temples for them. The temples remained centres of official religious worship until the coming of [[Christianity]] to the region during the sixth century. When Egyptian influence declined or succumbed to foreign domination, the Kushite elite regarded themselves as central powers and believed themselves as idols of Egyptian culture and religion.<ref name="locearlyhist" />

By the 11th century&nbsp;BC, the authority of the New Kingdom dynasties had diminished, allowing divided rule in Egypt, and ending Egyptian control of Kush. With the withdrawal of the Egyptians, there ceased to be any written record or information from Kush about the region's activities over the next three hundred years. In the early eighth century&nbsp;BC, however, Kush emerged as an independent kingdom ruled from [[Napata]] by an aggressive line of monarchs who slowly extended their influence into Egypt. Around 750&nbsp;BC, a Kushite king called [[Kashta]] conquered [[Upper Egypt]] and became ruler of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] until approximately 740&nbsp;BC. His successor, [[Piye]], subdued the [[Nile Delta]] and conquered Egypt, thus initiating the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth Dynasty]]. Piye founded a line of kings who ruled Kush and Thebes for about a hundred years. The dynasty's interference with [[Assyria]]'s sphere of influence in the Near East caused a confrontation between Egypt and the powerful Assyrian state, which controlled a vast empire comprising much of the [[Middle East]], [[Anatolia]], [[Caucasus]]{{Citation needed|date=January 2015}} and the Eastern [[Mediterranean Basin]] from their homeland in [[Upper Mesopotamia]].

[[Taharqa]] (688–663&nbsp;BC), the last Kushite pharaoh, was defeated and driven out of the Near East by [[Sennacherib]] of Assyria. Sennacherib's successor [[Esarhaddon]] went further, launching a full-scale invasion of Egypt in 674 BC, defeating Taharqa and quickly conquering the land. Taharqa fled back to Nubia, and native Egyptian princes were installed by the Assyrians as vassals of Esarhaddon. However, Taharqa was able to return some years later and wrest back control of a part of Egypt as far as [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] from the Egyptian vassal princes of Assyria. Esarhaddon died in his capital [[Nineveh]] while preparing to return to Egypt and once more eject the Kushites.<ref>Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq</ref>

Esarhaddon's successor [[Ashurbanipal]] sent a general with a small army which again defeated and ejected Taharqa from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later. His successor, [[Tantamani]], attempted to regain Egypt. He successfully defeated [[Necho I]], the puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then sent a powerful army southwards. [[Tantamani]] was heavily routed, and the Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, [[Psamtik I]] was placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, thus ending the Kushite/Nubian Empire.

===Meroë===
{{main|Meroë}}
Egypt's succeeding dynasty failed to reassert full control over Kush. Around 590 BC, however, an Egyptian army sacked [[Napata]], compelling the Kushite court to move to a more secure location further south at [[Meroë]] near the Sixth Cataract. For several centuries thereafter, the Meroitic kingdom developed independently of Egyptian influence and domination, which passed successively under [[Iran]]ian, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], and, finally, [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] domination. During the height of its power in the second and third centuries&nbsp;BC, Meroë extended over a region from the Third Cataract in the north to [[Soba (city)|Soba]], near present-day [[Khartoum]], in the south. An Egyptian-influenced pharaonic tradition persisted among a line of rulers at Meroë, who raised [[stela]]e to record the achievements of their reigns and erected [[Nubian pyramids]] to contain their tombs. These objects and the ruins of palaces, temples, and baths at Meroë attest to a centralized political system that employed [[artisan]]s' skills and commanded the labour of a large work force. A well-managed [[irrigation]] system allowed the area to support a higher population density than was possible during later periods. By the first century&nbsp;BC, the use of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] gave way to a [[Meroitic alphabet]] adapted for the [[Nubian languages|Nubian-related language]] spoken by the region's people.

Meroë's succession system was not necessarily hereditary; the [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]] royal family member deemed most worthy often became king. The [[kandake]] or queen mother's role in the selection process was crucial to a smooth succession. The crown appears to have passed from brother to brother (or sister) and only when no siblings remained from father to son.

Although Napata remained Meroë's religious centre, northern Kush eventually fell into disorder as it came under pressure from the [[Blemmyes]], nomads from east of the Nile. However, the Nile continued to give the region access to the Mediterranean world. Additionally, Meroë maintained contact with [[Arabs|Arab]] and [[India]]n traders along the [[Red Sea]] coast and incorporated [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[India]]n cultural influences into its daily life. Inconclusive evidence suggests that metallurgical technology may have been transmitted westward across the [[savanna]] belt to West Africa from Meroë's iron smelteries.

Relations between Meroë and Egypt were not always peaceful. As a response to Meroë's incursions into Upper Egypt, a [[Roman army]] moved south and razed [[Napata]] in 23&nbsp;BC. The Roman commander quickly abandoned the area, deeming it too poor to warrant colonization.

In the second century&nbsp;AD, the [[Nobatia]] occupied the Nile's west bank in northern Kush. They are believed to have been one of several well-armed bands of horse- and camel-borne warriors who sold their skills to Meroë for protection; eventually they intermarried and established themselves among the Meroitic people as a military aristocracy. Until nearly the fifth century, [[ancient Rome|Rome]] subsidized the Nobatia and used Meroë as a buffer between Egypt and the Blemmyes.

Meanwhile, the old Meroitic kingdom contracted because of the expansion of the powerful [[Kingdom of Aksum]] to the east. By 350, King [[Ezana of Axum]] had captured and destroyed the capital of Meroë, ending the kingdom's independent existence and conquering its territory.

==Medieval Nubia (c. 350–1500)==
{{see also|Makuria|Nobatia|Alodia}}
[[File:Christian Nubia.png|thumb|upright=0.9|The three Christian Nubian kingdoms. The northern border of [[Alodia]] is unclear, but it also might have been located further north, between the fourth and fifth [[Cataracts of the Nile|Nile cataract]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=26}}]]

On the turn of the fifth century, the [[Blemmyes]] established a short-lived [[Blemmye kingdom|state]] in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, probably centered around Talmis ([[Kalabsha]]), but before 450 they were already driven out of the Nile Valley by the Nobatians. The latter eventually founded a kingdom on their own, [[Nobatia]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16-22}} By the 6th century there were in total three Nubian kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, which had its capital at Pachoras ([[Faras]]); the central kingdom, [[Makuria]] centred at Tungul ([[Old Dongola]]), about {{convert|13|km|mi|abbr=off|0}} south of modern [[Dongola]]; and [[Alodia]], in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, which had its capital at [[Soba (city)|Soba]] (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum).{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=24&26}} Still in the sixth century they converted to [[Christianity]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=16-17}} In the seventh century, probably at some point between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=77}}

Between 639 and 641 the [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|conquered]] [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Egypt. In [[First Battle of Dongola|641 or 642]] and again in [[Second Battle of Dongola|652]] they invaded Nubia but were repelled, making the Nubians one of the few who managed to defeat the Arabs during the [[Islamic expansion]]. Afterwards the Makurian king and the Arabs agreed on the [[Baqt]], a unique non-aggression pact that also included an annual exchange of gifts, thus acknowledging Makuria's independence.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=68-70}} While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia they began to settle east of the Nile, where they eventually founded several port towns{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=31}} and intermarried with the local [[Beja people|Beja]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=77-78}}
[[File:Bischop of Faras.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.9|Nubian bishop and [[Virgin Mary]] on a wall painting from [[Faras]] (11th century)]]
From the mid 8th-mid 11th century Christian Nubia went through its [[Golden Age]], when its political power and cultural development peaked.{{sfn|Shinnie|1978|p=572}} In 747 Makuria invaded Egypt, which at this time belonged to the declining [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]],{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=84}} and it did so again in the early 960s, when it pushed as far north as [[Akhmim]].{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=101}} Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, perhaps resulting in the temporary unification of the two kingdoms into one state.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=89}} The culture of the Medieval Nubians has been described as "''Afro-Byzantine''",{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=264}} with the significance of the "African" component increasing over time.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=408-409}} Increasing Arab influence has also been noted.{{sfn|Martens-Czarnecka|2015|pp=249-265}} The state organization was extremely centralized,{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=254}} being based on the [[Byzantine bureaucracy]] of the 6th and 7th centuries.{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=237}} Arts flourished in the form of pottery paintings{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=496}} and especially wall paintings.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=482}} The Nubians developed an own alphabet for their language, [[Old Nubian|Old Nobiin]], basing it on the [[Coptic alphabet]], while also utilizing [[Medieval Greek|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and [[Arabic]].{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=236-239}} Women enjoyed high social status: they had access to education, could own, buy and sell land and often used their wealth to endow churches and church paintings.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=344-345}} Even the royal succession was [[matrilineal]], with the son of the king's sister being the rightful heir.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=88}}

Since the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola was in decline, and Alodia's capital declined in the 12th century as well.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=252}} In the 14th (the earliest recorded migration from Egypt to the Sudanese Nile Valley dates to 1324{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=106}}) and 15th century [[Bedouins|Bedouin]] tribes overran most of Sudan,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=176}} migrating to the [[Butana]], the [[Gezira (Sudan)|Gezira]], [[Kordofan]] and [[Darfur]].{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=145}} In 1365 a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to [[Gebel Adda]] in [[Lower Nubia]], while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Afterwards Makuria continued to exist as a [[rump state]].{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=143-145}}
The last known Makurian king was [[Joel of Dotawo|Joel]], who is attested for the years 1463 and 1484 and under whom Makuria probably witnessed a brief renaissance.{{sfn|Lajtar|2011|p=130-131}} After his death the kingdom probably collapsed.{{sfn|Ruffini|2012|p=256}}
To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either the Arabs, commanded by tribal leader Abdallah Jamma, or the [[Funj]], an African people originating from the south.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=255}} Datings range from the [[Hijri year|9th century after the Hijra]] ({{circa}} 1396–1494),{{sfn|Vantini|1975|pp=786–787}} the late 15th century,{{sfn|Hasan|1967|p=133}} 1504{{sfn|Vantini|1975|p=784}} to 1509.{{sfn|Vantini|2006|pp=487–489}} An Alodian rump state might have survived in the form of the [[Kingdom of Fazughli]], lasting until 1685.{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|pp=12-30}}

==Islamic kingdoms (c. 1500–1821)==
{{main|Islamization of the Sudan region|Tunjur kingdom|Funj Sultanate|Sultanate of Darfur}}
[[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|270px|The great mosque of [[Sennar]], built in the 17th century.{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]]

In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the [[Funj Sultanate|kingdom of Sennar]], in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=25-26}} By 1523, when [[Judaism|Jewish]] traveller [[David Reubeni]] visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=26}} Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on the Nile by [[Sufism|Sufi]] holymen who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuries{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=150}} and by David Reubeni's visit king [[Amara Dunqas]], previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=31}} However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship and the consummation of alcohol until the 18th century.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|pp=151-152}} Sudanese [[Folk religion|folk Islam]] preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177-184}}

Soon the Funj came in conflict with the [[Ottoman empire|Ottomans]], who had occupied [[Suakin]] around 1526{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=98}} and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was repelled by the Funj in 1585.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=96-97}} Afterwards, [[Hannik]], located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=35}} The aftermath of the Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation of [[Ajib the Great|Ajib]], a minor king of northern Nubia.<!--He is said to have conquered eastern Sudan http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:586255/FULLTEXT01.pdf p. 17 Paul 77,81-83--><!--In around 1580 he conquered eastern Sudan and northwestern Eritrea, --> While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612, his successors, the [[Abdallab]], were granted the authority to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=36-40}}

<!--Afterwards the Funj state expanded  To compensate this loss and to meet the growing danger posed by the [[Dinka]] and [[Shilluk]] (the latter had founded a [[Shilluk Kingdom|kingdom]] on their own by the early 17th century),
To the south, the Funj gradually expanded southwards the Gezira since the mid 16th century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=58}} In 1685 they conquered the kingdom of Fazughli,{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=21}} and somewhat later, perhaps around 1720, they established themselves in [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region|Bela Shangul]], western [[Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Triulzi|1981|p=74}} Nuba mountains mid 17th century Adams 602 Northern and central Kordofan 1736 p=63 Nuba mountains Adams 602

The 18th century saw the development of the [[Baqqara]] Djuhaina Araber 114
Juhayne east and west of Nile Adams
premise for precolonial Nuba  history
Shaiqiya warrior aristocracy{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=604}} Disdain for Nubian subjects{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=606}}
The Shaiqiya quickly became a dominant military force and raided the Nile Valley from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, but proved incapable of creating a large empire, instead fracturing into four petty, infighting kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}}
Shilluk kingdom Blood memory p 34 Mercer late 17th century p=416
HOLT: https://books.google.de/books?id=BkO14rpfY70C&pg=PA22&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false

Decline The state disintegrated as the in the late 17th century the warlike [[Shaigiya]], who lived around the fourth Nile cataract, declared independence from the Abdallab and established four independent petty kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=606-607}} In the late 18th century the Abdallab,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=608}}, Kordofan and eastern Sudan{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=383}} followed. In this period the Shaiqiya were the dominant military force of the Middle Nile, who, while proving to be uncapable of creating a functional empire, regularily raided the territory from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}} Spaulding 1998 p=54 In the south the Funj state came under the pressure of the [[Shilluk kingdom|Shilluk]] SOURCE and [[Dinka]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=61-63}}

The decline was hastened by economy-->
During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extend,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=601}} but in the following century it began to decline.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=78}} A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=88}} while another one in 1761/1762{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=24-25}} resulted in the [[Hamaj Regency|Hamaj regency]], where the [[Hamaj]] (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their puppets.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=94-95}} Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=98}} by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}
[[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Southern Sudan in {{circa}} 1800]]
The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted the [[Arabization]] of the state.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=152}} In order to legitimize their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate an [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad descend]].{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=210-212}} North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as [[Al Dabbah]], the Nubians would adopt the tribal identity of the Arab [[Ja'alin tribe|Jaalin]].{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=557–558}} Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudan{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=28-29}}{{sfn|Hesse|2002|p=50}} and most of Kordofan.{{sfn|Hesse|2002|pp=21-22}}

<!--
Meanwhile, the sultanate of Darfur was at its peak,{{sfn|Holt|2000|p=35}}-->
West of the Nile, in [[Darfur]], the Islamic period saw at first the rise of the [[Tunjur kingdom]], which replaced the old [[Daju kingdom]] in the 15th century{{sfn|McGregor|2011|loc=Table 1}} and extended as far west as [[Wadai Empire|Wadai]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The [[Tunjur people]] were probably Arabized [[Berbers]] and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.{{sfn|McGregor|2011|p=132}} In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by the [[Fur people|Fur]] [[Sultanate of Darfur|Keira sultanate]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of [[Sulayman Solong]] (r. {{circa}} 1660–1680),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=123}} was initially a small kingdom in northern [[Jebel Marra]],{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=31}} but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th century{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=126}} and eastwards under the rule of [[Muhammad Tayrab of Darfur|Muhammad Tayrab]] (r. 1751–1786),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-day [[Nigeria]],{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} would last until 1821.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}}

== 19th century ==

===Egyptian conquest===
{{main|History of Sudan (1821–1885)}}
[[File:1875 slave merchant Khartoum.jpeg|thumb|200px|A typical slave merchant of Khartoum, 1875]]From 1805, Egypt underwent a period of rapid modernisation under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], who declared himself [[Khedive]] in defiance of his nominal suzerain, the [[Sublime Porte|Ottoman Sultan]]. Within a matter of decades, Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt from a neglected Ottoman province to being virtually independent. Replicating the approach of his Mamluk predecessors in the medieval [[Mamluk Sultanate|Sultanate of Egypt]], Muhammad Ali sought to expand Egypt's frontiers southwards into Sudan, both as a means of guaranteeing Egypt's security, and to gain access to Sudan's natural resources. Between 1820 and 1821, Egyptian forces under the command of Muhammad Ali's son conquered and unified the northern portion of the Sudan. Owing to Egypt's continuing de jure fealty to the Ottoman Sultan, the Egyptian administration was known as the ''[[Turkiyah]].'' Historically, the pestilential swamps of the [[Sudd]] discouraged expansion into the deeper south of the country. Although Egypt claimed all of present-day Sudan during most of the 19th century, and established a province [[Equatoria]] in southern Sudan to further this aim, it was unable to establish effective control over all of the area. In the later years of the Turkiyah, [[United Kingdom|British]] missionaries travelled from modern-day [[Kenya]] into the Sudan to convert the local tribes to Christianity.

===Mahdism and condominium===
{{main|Mahdist State}}
{{see also|Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan|Battle of Omdurman|Battle of Umm Diwaykarat}}
[[File:Muhammad Ahmad.jpg|thumb|Artistic representation of [[Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi]]]]

In 1881, a religious leader named [[Muhammad Ahmad]] proclaimed himself the [[Mahdi]] ("guided one") and began a war to unify the tribes in western and central Sudan. His followers took the name "[[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]]" ("followers") which they continue to use today, in association with the single largest political grouping, the [[National Umma Party Sudan|Umma Party]] (once led by a descendant of the Mahdi, [[Sadiq al Mahdi]]). Taking advantage of conditions resulting from Ottoman-Egyptian exploitation and maladministration, the Mahdi led a nationalist revolt culminating in the fall of [[Khartoum]] on 26 January 1885. The interim governor-general of the Sudan, the British Major-General [[Charles George Gordon]], and many of the fifty thousand inhabitants of Khartoum were massacred.

The Mahdi died in June 1885. He was followed by [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], known as the [[Caliph|Khalifa]], who began an expansion of Sudan's area into Ethiopia.<!--Needs cleanup/confirmation--> Following his victories in eastern Ethiopia, he sent an army to invade Egypt, where it was defeated by the British at Toshky. The British become aware of the weakness of the Sudan.

An Anglo-Egyptian force under [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]] in 1898 was sent to Sudan. Sudan was proclaimed a [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] in 1899 under British-Egyptian administration. The [[Governor-General]] of the Sudan, for example, was appointed by "Khedival Decree", rather than simply by the British Crown, but while maintaining the appearance of joint administration, the British Empire formulated policies, and supplied most of the top administrators.

===British control (1896–1955)===
{{main|History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition}}
[[File:Flag of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] (1899–1956)]]

In 1896, a [[Belgium|Belgian]] expedition claimed portions of southern Sudan that became known as the [[Lado Enclave]]. The Lado Enclave was officially part of the [[Belgian Congo]]. An 1896 agreement between the [[United Kingdom]] and Belgium saw the enclave turned over to the British after the death of [[Leopold II of Belgium|King Leopold II]] in December 1909.

At the same time the [[France|French]] claimed several areas: [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]], and the Western Upper Nile up to [[Fashoda]]. By 1896 they had a firm administrative hold on these areas and they planned on annexing them to [[French West Africa]]. An international conflict known as the [[Fashoda incident]] developed between France and the United Kingdom over these areas. In 1899, France agreed to cede the area to [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]].

From 1898, the United Kingdom and Egypt administered all of present-day Sudan as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, but northern and southern Sudan were administered as separate [[province]]s of the [[History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|condominium]]. In the very early 1920s, the British passed the Closed Districts Ordinances which stipulated that passports were required for travel between the two zones, and permits were required to conduct business from one zone into the other, and totally separate administrations prevailed.

{{citation needed span |text=In 1916, after the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] suspected that the sultan was falling under the influence of the [[Sublime Porte|Ottoman government]], an expedition was launched from Egypt to capture and annex Darfur into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The colonial government directed financial and administrative resources to the tribes of central Sudan near [[Khartoum]] - while the outlying regions such as Darfur remained mostly forgotten and ignored. |date=February 2024}} [[K. D. D. Henderson]] was the last British governor of Darfur.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dally |first=M. W. |title=Darfur's sorrow: the forgotten history of a humanitarian disaster |year=2010 |pages=173}}</ref>

In the south, [[English language|English]], [[Dinka language|Dinka]], [[Bari language|Bari]], [[Nuer language|Nuer]], [[Latuko]], [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]], [[Azande people|Azande]] and Pari (Lafon) were official languages, while in the north, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and English were used as official languages. Islam was discouraged by the British in the south, where Christian missionaries were permitted to work. Condominium governors of south Sudan attended colonial conferences in East Africa, not in Khartoum, and the British hoped to add south Sudan to their East African colonies.

Most of the British focus was on developing the economy and infrastructure of the north. Southern political arrangements were left largely as they had been prior to the arrival of the British. Until the 1920s, the British had limited authority in the south.

In order to establish their authority in the north, the British promoted the power of Sayyid [[Ali al-Mirghani]], head of the [[Khatmiyya]] sect and Sayyid [[Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi]], head of the [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]] sect. The Ansar sect essentially became the Umma party, and Khatmiyya became the [[Democratic Unionist Party (Sudan)|Democratic Unionist Party]].

In 1943, the British began preparing the north for self-government, establishing a North Sudan Advisory Council to advise on the governance of the six north Sudanese provinces: [[Khartoum State|Khartoum]], [[Kordofan]], [[Darfur]], and the Eastern, [[Northern State, Sudan|Northern]], and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] provinces. Then, in 1946, the British administration reversed its policy and decided to integrate north and south Sudan under one government. The south Sudanese authorities were informed at the [[Juba Conference]] of 1947 that they would in future be governed by a common administrative authority with the north. From 1948, 13 delegates, nominated by the British authorities, represented the south on the Sudan Legislative Assembly.

Many southerners felt betrayed by the British, because they were largely excluded from the new government. The language of the new government was Arabic, but the bureaucrats and politicians from southern Sudan had, for the most part, been trained in English. Of the eight hundred new governmental positions vacated by the British in 1953, only four were given to southerners.

Also, the political structure in the south was not as organized in the north, so political groupings and parties from the south were not represented at the various conferences and talks that established the modern state of Sudan. As a result, many southerners did not consider Sudan to be a legitimate state.

==Independent Sudan (1956 to present)==

===Independence and the First Civil War===
<!--NOTE: Double check authenthicity.-->
[[File: Sudan independence 2.png|200px|thumb|Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony by the Prime Minister [[Isma'il al-Azhari]] and opposition leader [[Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub|Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub]] on 1 January 1956]]
{{main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|First Sudanese Civil War|Ansar–Khatmiyya rivalry}}

On 12 February 1953, the [[United Kingdom]] and Egypt concluded an agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and self-determination.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Sudan/The-Sudan-under-the-Anglo-Egyptian-Condominium The Sudan under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium]</ref> The transitional period toward independence began with the inauguration of the first parliament in 1954. On 18 August 1955 an army revolt in the southern Sudanese city of [[Torit]] broke out,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-celebrates-Torit,28325 | title=South Sudan celebrates Torit "revolution" day of 1955 - Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan | access-date=6 May 2012 | archive-date=13 July 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713213344/http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-celebrates-Torit,28325 | url-status=live }}</ref> which although quickly suppressed, led to a low level guerrilla insurgency by former southern rebels, and marked the beginning of the [[First Sudanese Civil War]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/08/22/80778473.pdf | work=The New York Times | title=Egypt Bids Britain Act In Sudan Revolt | date=22 August 1955 | access-date=15 June 2018 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173341/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/08/22/80778473.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 December 1955 the Premier of Sudan [[Ismail al-Azhari]] announced that Sudan would unilaterally declare independence in four days' time.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F60F1EFD3555127B93C4A81789D95F418585F9 | work=The New York Times | first=London | last=Dispatch | title=SUDAN 'FREEDOM' SET FOR MONDAY; Premier Vows to Declare End to British-Egyptian Rule -- Step Is Called Illegal | date=16 December 1955 | access-date=8 February 2017 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173536/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/12/16/81883805.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> On 19 December 1955 the Sudanese parliament, unilaterally and unanimously, declared Sudan's independence.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F20712F93C54127B93C2AB1789D95F418585F9 | work=The New York Times | first=London | last=Dispatch | title=Sudan Lower House Votes Independence Declaration; FREEDOM ASKED BY SUDAN HOUSE | date=20 December 1955 | access-date=8 February 2017 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173531/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/12/20/81917481.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> The British and Egyptian governments recognized the independence of Sudan on 1 January 1956.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Guy Arnold |title=Africa: A Modern History |date=3 November 2016 |publisher=Atlantic Books |isbn=9781786490377 |pages=The Sudan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1E-DAAAQBAJ&dq=The+British+and+Egyptian+governments+recognized+the+independence+of+Sudan+on+1+January+1956.&pg=PT97 |access-date=20 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512151134/https://books.google.com/books?id=w1E-DAAAQBAJ&dq=The+British+and+Egyptian+governments+recognized+the+independence+of+Sudan+on+1+January+1956.&pg=PT97 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[United States]] was among the first foreign powers to recognize the new state. However, the [[Arab]]-led Khartoum government ignored their promises to southerners to create a [[Federal republic|federal]] system, which led to a mutiny by southern army officers that sparked seventeen years of civil war (1955–1972). In the early period of the war, hundreds of northern bureaucrats, teachers, and other officials, serving in the south were massacred.

The [[National Unionist Party]] (NUP), under Prime Minister [[Ismail al-Azhari]], dominated the first cabinet, which was soon replaced by a coalition of conservative political forces. In 1958, following a period of economic difficulties and political manoeuvring that paralysed public administration, Chief of Staff Major General [[Ibrahim Abboud]] overthrew the parliamentary government in a bloodless [[1958 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]].<ref name="Dict">{{cite book |last1=Voll |first1=John Obert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAs7lGNkVBkC&q=Abdallah+Khalil&pg=PA347 |title=Historical dictionary of the Sudan |last2=Fluehr-Lobban |first2=Carolyn |last3=Lobban |first3=Richard |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780810825475 |page=245 |access-date=20 October 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020181650/https://books.google.com/books?id=WAs7lGNkVBkC&q=Abdallah+Khalil&pg=PA347#v=snippet&q=Abdallah%20Khalil&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gen. Abboud did not carry out his promises to return Sudan to civilian government, however, and popular resentment against army rule led to a wave of riots and strikes in late [[October 1964 Revolution|October 1964]] that forced the military to relinquish power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SudanTribune |date=2 January 2013 |title=New Year's Day raids kill 4 in Jonglei |url=https://sudantribune.com/article44274/ |access-date=20 October 2023 |website=Sudan Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Abboud regime was followed by a provisional government until parliamentary elections in April 1965 led to a coalition government of the Umma and National Unionist Parties under Prime Minister [[Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub]]. Between 1966 and 1969, Sudan had a series of governments that proved unable either to agree on a permanent constitution or to cope with problems of [[Political faction|factionalism]], economic stagnation, and ethnic dissidence. The succession of early post-independence governments were dominated by [[Arab Muslims]] who viewed Sudan as a Muslim Arab state. Indeed, the Umma/NUP proposed [[1968 Sudanese constitution|1968 constitution]] was arguably Sudan's first Islamic-oriented constitution.

====The Nimeiry Era====
{{main|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}}
Dissatisfaction culminated in a [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état on 25 May 1969]]. The coup leader, Col. [[Gaafar Nimeiry]], became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties.<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Sudan |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-8108-4100-2 |edition=3rd |page=xlviii}}</ref> Disputes between [[Marxist]] and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in [[1971 Sudanese coup d'état|a briefly successful coup in July 1971]], led by the [[Sudanese Communist Party]]. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power.<ref name="Korn 87">{{cite book |last=Korn |first=David A. |title=Assassination in Khartoum |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1993 |page=87}}</ref>

In 1972, the [[Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)|Addis Ababa Agreement]] led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten years hiatus in the civil war.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://riftvalley.net/publication/we-have-lived-too-long-be-deceived |title=We Have Lived Too Long to Be Deceived: South Sudanese discuss the lessons of historic peace agreements |date=2015 |publisher=Rift Valley Institute |editor-last=Juba University |editor-first=Rift Valley Institute |location=London, UK |access-date=20 October 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408234111/https://riftvalley.net/publication/we-have-lived-too-long-be-deceived |url-status=live }}</ref>

Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the Sudanese government became more pro-Western, and made plans to export food and [[cash crop]]s. However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) negotiated a [[Structural Adjustment Program]] with the government. This further promoted the mechanized export agriculture sector. This caused great economic problems for the pastoralists of Sudan.

In 1976, the Ansar mounted a bloody but [[1976 Sudanese coup attempt|unsuccessful coup attempt]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Al-Shaqlini |first=Abdullah |date=27 July 2018 |title=نظرة جهاز الأمن لحركة 2 يوليو 1976 .. بقلم: عبدالله الشقليني |trans-title=The Security Apparatus' View of the July 2, 1976 Movement |url=https://sudanile.com/%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%ac%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%b2-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%85%d9%86-%d9%84%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%83%d8%a9-2-%d9%8a%d9%88%d9%84%d9%8a%d9%88-1976-%d8%a8%d9%82%d9%84%d9%85-%d8%b9%d8%a8%d8%af%d8%a7/ |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=سودانايل |language=ar |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725194615/https://sudanile.com/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9-2-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88-1976-%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 1977, President Nimeiry met with Ansar leader [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]], opening the way for [[National Reconciliation (Sudan)|reconciliation]]. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all opponents of Nimeiry's government.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Sudan - National Reconciliation |url=https://countrystudies.us/sudan/26.htm |access-date=28 August 2023 |website=countrystudies.us |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529153009/https://countrystudies.us/sudan/26.htm |url-status=live }}{{PD-notice}}</ref>

====Arms suppliers====
Sudan relied on a variety of countries for its arms supplies. Since independence the army had been trained and supplied by the British, but relations were cut off after the Arab-Israel [[Six-Day War]] in 1967. At this time relations with the US and [[West Germany]] were also cut off. From 1968 to 1971, the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Eastern Bloc]] nations sold large numbers of weapons and provided technical assistance and training to Sudan. At this time the army grew in manpower from 18,000 to roughly 60,000 men. Large numbers of [[tank]]s, [[aircraft]], and [[artillery]] were acquired at this time, and they dominated the army until the late 1980s. Relations cooled between the two sides after the coup in 1971, and the Khartoum government sought to diversify its suppliers. Egypt was the most important military partner in the 1970s, providing [[missile]]s, personnel carriers, and other military hardware.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Western countries began supplying Sudan again in the mid-1970s. The United States began selling Sudan a great deal of equipment around 1976. Military sales peaked in 1982 at US$101 million. The alliance with the United States was strengthened under the administration of [[Ronald Reagan]]. American aid increased from $5 million in 1979 to $200 million in 1983 and then to $254 million in 1985, mainly for military programs. Sudan thus became the second largest recipient of US aid to Africa (after Egypt). The construction of four air bases to house Rapid Deployment Force units and a powerful listening station for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] near [[Port Sudan]] was decided.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gresh |first=Alain |date=1 October 1985 |title=Le Soudan après la dictature |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833 |access-date=20 April 2022 |website=Le Monde diplomatique |language=fr |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016013821/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Second Civil War===
{{main|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)|Second Sudanese Civil War|War in Darfur}}

In 1983, the civil war in the south was reignited following the government's [[September 1983 Laws|Islamification policy]] which would have instituted [[Sharia|Islamic law]], among other things. After several years of fighting, the government compromised with southern groups. In 1984 and 1985; after a period of drought, several million people were threatened by famine, particularly in western Sudan. The situation was worsened by the new Government of Sudan attempting to hide the situation internationally.<ref name=mod>{{Cite web|url = https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833|title = Le Soudan après la dictature|date = October 1985|access-date = 13 May 2019|archive-date = 16 October 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191016013821/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833|url-status = live}}</ref>

In March 1985, the announcement of the increase in the prices of basic necessities, at the request of the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] with which the regime was negotiating, triggered the first demonstrations. On 2 April, eight unions called for mobilization and a "general political strike until the abolition of the current regime". On the 3rd, massive demonstrations shook Khartoum, but also the country's main cities; the strike paralysed institutions and the economy. On 6 April 1985, a group of military officers, led by Lieutenant General [[Abd ar Rahman Siwar adh Dhahab]], [[1985 Sudanese coup d'état|overthrew Nimeiri]], who took refuge in Egypt. Three days later, Dhahab authorized the creation of a fifteen-man [[Transitional Military Council (1985)|Transitional Military Council]] (TMC) to rule Sudan.<ref name=mod />

In June 1986, [[Sadiq al Mahdi]] formed a coalition government with [[National Umma Party Sudan|Umma Party]], the [[Democratic Unionist Party (Sudan)|Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP), the [[National Islamic Front]] (NIF), and four southern parties. Unfortunately, however, Sadiq proved to be a weak leader and incapable of governing Sudan. Party factionalism, corruption, personal rivalries, scandals, and political instability characterized the Sadiq regime. After less than a year in office, Sadiq al Mahdi dismissed the government because it had failed to draft a new penal code to replace the sharia, reach an agreement with the IMF, end the civil war in the south, or devise a scheme to attract remittances from Sudanese expatriates. To retain the support of the DUP and the southern political parties, Sadiq formed another ineffective coalition government.

In 1989, the government and southern rebels began to negotiate an end to the war, but a [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]] brought a military junta into power which was not interested in compromise. The leader of the junta, [[Omar al-Bashir]], consolidated his power over the next few years, declaring himself president.<ref name="NYT">{{cite web |date=1 July 1989 |title=Military Coup in Sudan Ousts Civilian Regime |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/01/world/military-coup-in-sudan-ousts-civilian-regime.html |access-date=18 March 2019 |work=The New York Times |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626050448/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/01/world/military-coup-in-sudan-ousts-civilian-regime.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The civil war has displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far north as Khartoum and even into Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, and other neighbouring countries. These people were unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted as well in what international humanitarian organizations call a "lost generation" who lack educational opportunities, access to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive employment in the small and weak economies of the south or the north.

In early 2003 a [[Darfur conflict|new rebellion]] of [[Sudan Liberation Movement/Army]] (SLM/A) and [[Justice and Equality Movement]] (JEM) groups in the western region of [[Darfur]] began. The rebels accused the central government of neglecting the Darfur region, although there is uncertainty regarding the objectives of the rebels and whether they merely seek an improved position for Darfur within Sudan or outright secession. Both the government and the rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war, although most of the blame has fallen on Arab militias ([[Janjaweed]]) allied with the government. The rebels have alleged that these militias have been engaging in [[ethnic cleansing]] in Darfur, and the fighting has displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighbouring [[Chad]]. There are various estimates on [[Darfur genocide#Mortality figures|the number of human casualties]], ranging from under twenty thousand to several hundred thousand dead, from either direct combat or starvation and disease inflicted by the conflict.

In 2004 Chad brokered negotiations in [[N'Djamena]], leading to the [[April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement]] between the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA.  However, the conflict continued despite the ceasefire, and the [[African Union]] (AU) formed a [[Ceasefire Commission]] (CFC) to monitor its observance. In August 2004, the African Union sent 150 [[Rwanda]]n troops in to protect the ceasefire monitors. It, however, soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, so they were joined by 150 [[Nigeria]]n troops.

On 18 September 2004 [[United Nations Security Council]] issued [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1564|Resolution 1564]] declaring that the government of Sudan had not met its commitments, expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by the [[Janjaweed]] militia against villages in Darfur. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission in Darfur and urged all member states to support such efforts. During 2005 the [[African Union Mission in Sudan]] force was increased to about 7,000.

The [[Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)|Chadian-Sudanese conflict]] officially started on 23 December 2004, when the [[government of Chad]] declared a [[Declaration of war|state of war]] with [[Sudan]] and called for the citizens of [[Chad]] to mobilize themselves against [[Rally for Democracy and Liberty]] (RDL) militants (Chadian rebels backed by the [[Sudan]]ese government) and Sudanese militiamen who attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south have reportedly continued. The two sides have agreed that, following a final peace treaty, southern Sudan will enjoy autonomy for six years, and after the expiration of that period, the people of southern Sudan will be able to vote in a referendum on independence. Furthermore, oil revenues will be divided equally between the government and rebels during the six-year interim period. The ability or willingness of the government to fulfil these promises has been questioned by some observers, however, and the status of three central and eastern provinces was a point of contention in the negotiations. Some observers wondered whether hard line elements in the north would allow the treaty to proceed.

A final peace treaty was signed on 9 January 2005 in [[Nairobi]]. The terms of the peace treaty were that the south would have autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum on secession, and both sides of the conflict would merge their armed forces into a 39,000-strong force after six years if the secession referendum should turn out negative. Income from oilfields was to be shared evenly between north and south; jobs were to be split according to varying ratios (central administration: 70 to 30, [[Abyei]]/[[Blue Nile State]]/[[Nuba Mountains]]: 55 to 45, both in favour of the government), and Islamic law was to remain in the north, while continued use of the sharia in the south was to be decided by the elected assembly.

====Islamisation====
{{Main article|Islamism in Sudan}}

The decade of the 1990s also experienced a tendency to impose strict [[Sharia]]-based Islamic laws and practices under the [[National Islamic Front]] and [[Hassan al-Turabi]]. Education was overhauled to focus on the importance of [[Arab culture|Arab]] and [[Islamic culture]], for example by memorizing the Quran in religious institutions; school uniforms were replaced with combat fatigues and students engaged in paramilitary drills. Religious police ensured that women were veiled, especially in government offices and universities. The former, more tolerant political culture became much harsher, with human rights groups alleging a proliferation of torture chambers known as "ghost houses" used by security agencies. The war against the non-Muslim south was declared a [[jihad]].<ref name=Packer-NYer>{{cite magazine|last1=Packer|first1=George|title=The Moderate Martyr|magazine=The New Yorker|date=11 September 2006|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/09/11/the-moderate-martyr|access-date=29 April 2015|archive-date=15 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115045158/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/09/11/the-moderate-martyr|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=kepel-184>{{cite book|last1=Kepel|first1=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|date=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=183–4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA179|isbn=9781845112578|access-date=30 April 2015|archive-date=20 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173551/https://books.google.com/books?id=OLvTNk75hUoC&pg=PA179|url-status=live}}</ref> On state television, actors simulated "weddings" between jihad martyrs and heavenly virgins ([[houri]]s).<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=هدهود |first=محمود |date=15 April 2019 |title=تاريخ الحركة الإسلامية في السودان |url=https://www.ida2at.com/history-islamic-movement-sudan/ |access-date=30 August 2023 |website=إضاءات |language=ar |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828194009/https://www.ida2at.com/history-islamic-movement-sudan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Turabi also gave asylum and assistance to non-Sudanese Islamists, including [[Osama bin Laden]] and other [[Al Qaeda]] members.<ref name=Packer-NYer/><ref name=":02" />

== Recent history ==
{{further|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)}}

On 31 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council approved [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1706|Resolution 1706]] to send a new peacekeeping force of 17,300 to Darfur. In the following months, however, [[UNMIS]] was not able to deploy to Darfur due to the Government of the Sudan's steadfast opposition to a peacekeeping operation undertaken solely by the United Nations. The UN then embarked on an alternative, innovative approach to try to begin stabilize the region through the phased strengthening of AMIS, before transfer of authority to a joint African Union/United Nations peacekeeping operation. Following prolonged and intensive negotiations with the Government of the Sudan and significant international pressure, it finally accepted the peacekeeping operation in Darfur.

In 2009 the [[International Criminal Court]] issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir, accusing him of crimes against humanity and war crimes. In 2009 and 2010 a [[Sudanese nomadic conflicts|series of conflicts between rival nomadic tribes]] in [[South Kordofan]] caused a large number of casualties and displaced thousands.[[File:The coming vote - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|[[South Sudan]]ese independence referendum, 2011]]

An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war between them.<ref>{{cite book|title=World Report 2011: Chad|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=6 June 2011|date=24 January 2011|archive-date=28 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828072906/http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement ending the Darfur conflict in February 2010.

In January 2011, a [[Southern Sudanese independence referendum, 2011|referendum on independence for Southern Sudan]] was held, and the South voted overwhelmingly to secede later that year as the [[Republic of South Sudan]], with its capital at [[Juba, Southern Sudan|Juba]] and [[Kiir Mayardit]] as its first president. Al-Bashir announced that he accepted the result, but violence soon erupted in the disputed region of [[Abyei]], claimed by both the North and the South.

On 6 June 2011 [[South Kordofan conflict|armed conflict]] broke out in [[South Kordofan]] between the forces of Northern and [[South Sudan|Southern Sudan]], ahead of the scheduled independence of the South on 9 July.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Two Sudans: The Separation of Africa's Largest Country and the Road Ahead |url=https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/news-information/frontlines/sudan-south-sudaneducation/two-sudans-separation-africa%E2%80%99s-largest |access-date=19 October 2023 |website=[[USAID]] |language=en |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919231859/https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/news-information/frontlines/sudan-south-sudaneducation/two-sudans-separation-africa%E2%80%99s-largest |url-status=dead }}</ref> This was followed by an agreement for both sides to withdraw from [[Abyei]]. On 20 June, the parties agreed to demilitarize the contested area of Abyei, where [[Ethiopia]]n peacekeepers would be deployed.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sudantribune.com/TEXT-North-and-South-Sudan-agree,39282| title = North and South Sudan agree to demilitarize Abyei| access-date = 24 June 2011| archive-date = 16 November 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121116034417/http://www.sudantribune.com/TEXT-North-and-South-Sudan-agree,39282| url-status = live}}</ref> On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent country.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14089843 |title = BBC News - South Sudan becomes an independent nation |first = Peter |last = Martell |work = BBC |year = 2011 |access-date = 9 July 2011 |archive-date = 9 July 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110709112842/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14089843 |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== After Omar al-Bashir (2019–present) ===
{{See also|Sudanese transition to democracy}}

In April 2019, after [[2018–19 Sudanese protests|several months of sustained street protests]] Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|was ousted]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 April 2019|title=Omar al-Bashir ousted: How Sudan got here|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47892742|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418110346/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47892742|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the fall of his government, the country has been ruled by the [[Sovereignty Council of Sudan]], made up of both military  and civilian representatives as the highest power in the transitional period. Until the [[Next Sudanese general election|next Sudanese General Elections]], planned for 2022, the country is to be jointly led by the Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council, [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], and Prime Minister [[Abdalla Hamdok|Abdallah Hamdok]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voaafrica.com/a/africa_sudan-prime-minister-hamdok-names-new-cabinet/6201826.html|title=Sudan Prime Minister Hamdok Names New Cabinet &#124; Voice of America - English|date=9 February 2021 |access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421225939/https://www.voanews.com/africa/sudan-prime-minister-hamdok-names-new-cabinet|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following al-Bashir's removal from power, street protests organised by the [[Sudanese Professionals Association]] and democratic opposition groups continued, calling on the ruling [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|Transitional Military Council]] (TMC) to "immediately and unconditionally" step aside in favour of a civilian-led [[transitional government]], and urging other reforms in Sudan.<ref>Samy Magdy, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudis-uae-express-support-for-sudan-military-council/2019/04/14/03b82da0-5e87-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html New ruling Sudan military council promises civilian Cabinet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419213212/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudis-uae-express-support-for-sudan-military-council/2019/04/14/03b82da0-5e87-11e9-98d4-844088d135f2_story.html |date=19 April 2019 }}, Associated Press (14 April 2019).</ref> Negotiations between the TMC and the civilian opposition to form a joint transition government took place during late April and in May, but stopped when the [[Rapid Support Forces (Sudan)|Rapid Support Forces]] and other TMC security forces killed 128 people in the [[Khartoum massacre]] on 3 June 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title="Chaos and Fire" - An Analysis of Sudan's June 3, 2019 Khartoum Massacre - Sudan |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/chaos-and-fire-analysis-sudan-s-june-3-2019-khartoum-massacre |website=ReliefWeb |date=5 March 2020 |language=en |access-date=16 December 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216054645/https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/chaos-and-fire-analysis-sudan-s-june-3-2019-khartoum-massacre |url-status=live }}</ref>

In October 2020, Sudan concluded an [[Israel-Sudan normalization agreement|agreement]] to normalize diplomatic relations with [[Israel]], which was part of the agreement with the United States to remove Sudan from the U.S. [[List of state sponsors of terrorism|list of State Sponsors of Terrorism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/sudan-formally-recognizes-israel-u-s-brokered-deal-n1240839|title = Sudan formally recognizes Israel in U.S.-brokered deal|website = [[NBC News]]| date=23 October 2020 |access-date = 21 April 2021|archive-date = 15 February 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210215182858/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/sudan-formally-recognizes-israel-u-s-brokered-deal-n1240839|url-status = live}}</ref>

==== 2020–2021 Ethiopian wars ====
During the 2020–2021 [[Tigray War]], Sudan also became collaterally involved. On 18 December 2020, Sudanese military would have been advancing towards the disputed [[Ethiopia]]-Sudan border area. An [[EEPA]] report stated that the Sudanese Commander-in-Chief, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, visited the area. Egypt condemned the border attack by Ethiopia on Sudan, and said that it stands in full solidarity with Sudan and called for all measures to ensure that such events do not reoccur.<ref name="eepa30">[https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-30-19-December.docx.pdf Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 30 – 19 December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121054612/https://www.eepa.be/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-30-19-December.docx.pdf |date=21 January 2021 }} Europe External Programme with Africa</ref> An [[EEPA]] report stated that on 18 December 2020, the Sudanese government has accused the Ethiopian government of using artillery against Sudanese troops conducting operations in the border area. Tensions have been rising between the two countries in recent weeks after Sudan reoccupied land that it said was occupied by Ethiopian farmers. The government of Ethiopia has so far not commented on the matter.<ref name="eepa30"/> On 18 December 2020, Sudanese authorities were instructing recently arrived Tigrayan refugees in [[Hamdayet]] camp to dismantle and go to the mainland of Sudan in fear of potential war between Ethiopia and Sudan.<ref name="eepa30"/> On 19 December 2020, tension between Ethiopia and Sudan was increasing. Sudan has sent more troops, including Rapid Support Forces, and equipment to the border area. Support from the [[Beni Amer]] and al-Habb tribes in the states of [[Kassala]] and [[Gedaref]],  including food supplies and finances. Talks with Ethiopia have stopped.<ref name="eepa31"/> An [[EEPA]] report stated that on 19 December 2020, Sudan had captured Eritrean soldiers dressed in [[Amhara Region|Amhara]] militia uniforms fighting along the Sudan border alongside Amhara special forces.<ref
name="eepa31">[https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-31-20-December.docx.pdf Situation Report EEPA HORN No. 31 – 20 December] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112132719/https://www.eepa.be//wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Situation-Report-EEPA-Horn-No.-31-20-December.docx.pdf |date=12 January 2021 }} Europe External Programme with Africa</ref> On 20 December 2020, the Sudanese army had regained control of Jabal Abu Tayyur, in the disputed land on the Ethiopia-Sudan border. Heavy fighting broke out between the Sudanese military and the Ethiopian National Defense Forces (ENDF) and Amhara militia in Metemma near the Ethiopian-Sudanese border.<ref>[https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article70244 Sudan deploys troops in two additional border areas with Ethiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201220002018/https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article70244 |date=20 December 2020 }} Sudan Tribune, 20 December 2020</ref>

==== 2021 coup ====
{{main|2021 Sudanese coup d'état}}

On 25 October 2021, the [[Sudanese Armed Forces|Sudanese military]], led by General [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], took control of the government in a military coup. At least five senior government figures were initially detained.<ref name="guard1">{{citation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/25/sudan-coup-fears-amid-claims-military-have-arrested-senior-government-officials |title=Sudan's PM and other leaders detained in apparent coup attempt |date=25 October 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=Sudan |access-date=25 October 2021 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025061119/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/25/sudan-coup-fears-amid-claims-military-have-arrested-senior-government-officials |url-status=live }}</ref> Civilian [[Prime Minister of Sudan|Prime Minister]] [[Abdalla Hamdok]] refused to declare support for the coup and on 25 October called for popular resistance; he was moved to [[house arrest]] on 26 October.

Key civilian groups including the [[Sudanese Professionals Association]] and [[Forces of Freedom and Change]] called for [[civil disobedience]] and refusal to cooperate with the coup organisers.

Faced with internal and international resistance, al-Burhan declared his willingness to restore the Hamdok Cabinet on 28 October, although the deposed Prime Minister declined this initial offer, making any further dialogue conditional on the full restoration of the pre-coup system.<ref name="reuters291021">{{cite web| url = https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/sudan-coup-leader-says-technocrat-will-lead-new-government-ousted-pm-could-2021-10-29/| title = Sudan's ousted PM wants coup reversed before talks, sources say| work = Reuters| date = 29 October 2021| access-date = 30 October 2021| archive-date = 24 November 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211124034002/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/sudan-coup-leader-says-technocrat-will-lead-new-government-ousted-pm-could-2021-10-29/| url-status = live}}</ref> On 21 November 2021, Hamdok and al-Burhan signed a 14-point deal that reinstated Hamdok as prime minister and stated that all political prisoners would be freed. Civilian groups including [[Forces for Freedom and Change]] and the [[Sudanese Professionals Association]] rejected the deal, refusing continued power-sharing with the military.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sudan's Hamdok reinstated as PM after political agreement signed|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/21/sudans-hamdok-reinstated-as-pm-after-political-agreement-signed|access-date=21 November 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=21 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121130707/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/21/sudans-hamdok-reinstated-as-pm-after-political-agreement-signed|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== War in Sudan (2023-present)====
{{main|War in Sudan (2023-present)}}

A war between the [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF) and the paramilitary [[Rapid Support Forces]] (RSF), rival factions of the military government of [[Sudan]], began on 15 April 2023, with the fighting concentrated around the capital city of [[Khartoum]] and the [[Darfur]] region.<ref>{{cite news |date=24 July 2023 |title=100 days of conflict in Sudan: A timeline |language=en |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/24/100-days-of-conflict-in-sudan-a-timeline |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928122030/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/24/100-days-of-conflict-in-sudan-a-timeline |archive-date=28 September 2023}}</ref> As of 15 August 2023, between 4,000 and 10,000 people had been killed and 6,000 to 12,000 others injured,<ref name="dabanga5k">{{Cite news |date=20 June 2023 |title=More than 5,000 reportedly killed in El Geneina 'genocide' |work=[[Radio Dabanga]] |url=https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/more-than-5000-reportedly-killed-in-el-geneina-genocide |url-status=live |access-date=23 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621093528/https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/more-than-5000-reportedly-killed-in-el-geneina-genocide |archive-date=21 June 2023}}</ref> while as of 12 September 2023, over 4.1&nbsp;million were internally displaced and more than 1.1&nbsp;million others had fled the country as refugees.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Alhenawi |first1=Ruba |last2=Hamdi |first2=Alkhshali |last3=Haq |first3=Sana Noor |date=16 August 2023 |title=Sudan civil war 'spiraling out of control,' UN says, as more than 1 million flee |language=en |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/16/africa/sudan-one-million-flee-un-intl/index.html |access-date=28 September 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901095517/https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/16/africa/sudan-one-million-flee-un-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The war began with attacks by the RSF on government sites as airstrikes, artillery, and gunfire were reported across Sudan. Throughout the conflict, RSF leader [[Hemedti|Mohamed Hamdan "Hemedti" Dagalo]] and Sudan's ''de facto'' leader and army chief [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] have disputed control of government sites in Khartoum, including the general military headquarters, the [[Republican Palace, Khartoum|Presidential Palace]], [[Khartoum International Airport]], Burhan's official residence, and the [[Sudan TV|SNBC]] headquarters, as well as states and towns in Darfur and Kordofan. The two sides were then joined by rebel groups who had previously fought against the two sides. Starting in June, the SPLM-N (al-Hilu) attacked army positions in the south of the country.<ref name="SPLMN">{{Cite news |date=23 June 2023 |title=South Kordofan residents flee as Sudan war escalates |language=en |work=[[al-Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/06/23/South-Kordofan-residents-flee-as-Sudan-war-escalates |url-status=live |access-date=23 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630183037/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/06/23/South-Kordofan-residents-flee-as-Sudan-war-escalates |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="reserve">{{Cite news |date=26 June 2023 |title=Battle For Key Police Base Kills At Least 14 Sudan Civilians |language=en |work=[[Barron's]] |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/sudan-civilians-killed-in-battle-for-khartoum-police-hq-585abefb |url-status=live |access-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627044335/https://www.barrons.com/news/sudan-civilians-killed-in-battle-for-khartoum-police-hq-585abefb |archive-date=27 June 2023}}</ref> In July, a faction of the [[Sudan Liberation Movement]] led by [[Mustafa Tambour]] (SLM-T) officially joined the war in support of the SAF, while in August, the rebel [[Tamazuj]] movement based in Darfur and Kordofan joined forces with the RSF.<ref name="tamazuj">{{Cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Tamazuj group aligns with RSF in Sudan's ongoing war |url=https://sudantribune.com/article276260/ |access-date=18 August 2023 |website=Sudan Tribune |language=en-GB |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020174407/https://sudantribune.com/article276260/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also ==
* [[Islamism in Sudan]]
* [[National Reconciliation (Sudan)|National Reconciliation]]
* [[List of governors of pre-independence Sudan]]
* [[List of heads of government of Sudan]]
* [[List of heads of state of Sudan]]
* [[Politics of Sudan]]
* [[Coups d'état in Sudan]]
* Khartoum [[Khartoum#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Khartoum|timeline]]
* [[2019–2024 Sudanese transition to democracy]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=William Y. |title=Nubia. Corridor to Africa |year=1977 |publisher=Princeton University |isbn=978-0691093703 }}
* {{cite book |last=Edwards |first=David |title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415369879 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Yusuf Fadl| title=The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century |year=1967 |publisher=Edinburgh University |oclc=33206034 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hesse |first=Gerhard |title=Die Jallaba und die Nuba Nordkordofans. Händler, Soziale Distinktion und Sudanisierung |year=2002 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3825858902 |language=de}}
*{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=P. M. |last2=Daly |first2=M. W. |title=History of the Sudan: From the coming of Islam to the present Day |year=2000 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0582368866 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780582368866 }}
*{{cite book |last=Lajtar |first=Adam |chapter=Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225) |title=Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5857688 }}
* {{cite book |last=Loimeier |first=Roman |title=Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology |year=2013 |publisher=Indiana University |isbn=9780253007889 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Martens-Czarnecka |first=Malgorzata |year=2015 |title=The Christian Nubia and the Arabs |url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_18404 |journal=Studia Ceranea |volume=5 |pages=249–265 |issn=2084-140X |doi=10.18778/2084-140X.05.08 |doi-access=free|hdl=11089/18404 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=McGregor |first=Andrew |journal=Sudan&Nubia |volume=15 |year=2011 |title=Palaces in the Mountains: An Introduction to the Archaeological Heritage of the Sultanate of Darfur |url=https://issuu.com/sudarchrs/docs/s_n15_mcgregor |pages=129–141 }}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R.S. |last2=Spaulding |first2=Jay L. |title=Kingdoms of the Sudan |year=1974 |publisher=Methuen Young Books |isbn=978-0416774504 }}
*{{cite web |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R. S. |last2=Tubiana |first2=Jérôme |year=2007 |title=Darfur. Historical and Contemporary Aspects |url=https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228022400/https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |last=Peacock |first=A.C.S. |title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries |year=2012 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=75| issue = 1 |pages=87–11 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X11000838 }}
*{{cite book |last=Shinnie |first=P.L. |title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2 |chapter=Christian Nubia. |editor=J.D. Fage |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University |year=1978 |pages=556–588 |isbn=978-0-521-21592-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Ruffini|first=Giovanni R. |year=2012 |title=Medieval Nubia. A Social and Economic History |publisher=Oxford University }}
* {{cite journal |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Fate of Alodia |journal=Meroitic Newsletter |volume=15 |year=1974 |url=http://www.meroiticnewsletter.org/MeroNews15.pdf#page=13&zoom=125(0,0) |pages=12–30 |issn=1266-1635 }}
* {{cite book |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Heroic Age in Sennar |year=1985 |publisher=Red Sea |isbn=978-1569022603 }}
* {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Oriental Sources concerning Nubia |year=1975 |publisher=Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=http://www.medievalnubia.info/dev/index.php/Giovanni_Vantini%27s_Oriental_Sources_Concerning_Nubia |oclc=174917032 }}
* {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Acta Nubica. Proceedings of the X International Conference of Nubian Studies Rome 9–14 September 2002 |editor= Alessandro Roccati and Isabella Caneva |year=2006 |chapter=Some new light on the end of Soba |pages=487–491 |publisher=Libreria Dello Stato |isbn=978-88-240-1314-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|year=2002 |publisher=British Museum |place=London |isbn=978-0714119472 }}
* {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |year=2013 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12196-7 |language=de}}

==Further reading==
* Abbas, Mekki.  ''The Sudan question: the dispute over the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, 1884–1951'' (1952)
* Duncan, J.S.R. ''The Sudan: a record of achievement'' (1952), from the British perspective
*{{cite book | title=Piece work/peace work : working together for peace and Sudan : mission study for children and teacher's guide | publisher=Women's Division, General Board of Global Ministries, United Methodist Church | author=Gee, Martha Bettis | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-933663-34-0}}
* Holt, P.M., and M.W. Daly. ''History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day'' (6th es. 2011)
* Köndgen, Olaf. ''The Codification of Islamic Criminal Law in the Sudan. Penal Codes and Supreme Court Case Law under Numayri and al-Bashir'' (Leiden: Brill 2017)
*Kramer, Robert S. ed. '' Historical Dictionary of the Sudan'' (2nd ed. 2013) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Africa-ebook/dp/B00BMLMVBC/  excerpt and text search]
* {{cite book |last1=Peel |first1=Sidney|author-link=Sidney Peel |title=The Empire and the century |date=1905 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |pages=800–08 |chapter=[[s:The Empire and the century/British Rule in the Sudan|British Rule in the Sudan]]}}
* Vezzadini, Elena, Seri-Hersch, I., Revilla, L., Poussier, A. and Abdul Jalil, M. (2023). ''Ordinary Sudan, 1504–2019: From Social History to Politics from Below: Volume 1: Towards a New Social History of Sudan. Volume 2: Power from Below – Ordinary doing and undoing of the Establishment''. Berlin: De Gruyter.
* Warburg, Gabriel. ''Sudan Under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1916)'' (1971)
* Woodward, Peter. ''Sudan 1898–1989 the Unstable State'' (1990)
* Woodward, Peter, ed. ''Sudan After Nimeiri'' (2013); since 1984 [https://www.amazon.com/Nimeiri-Routledge-Studies-Middle-ebook/dp/B00CDUUPU0/  excerpt and text search]

==External links==
{{commons category|History of Sudan}}
* [http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/main.html Photographs from the Sudan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508054845/http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/main.html |date=8 May 2017 }}
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/54131/life-visits-sudan-in-1947#index/0 LIFE Visits Sudan in 1947 ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116224705/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/54131/life-visits-sudan-in-1947#index/0 |date=16 January 2011 }} – slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
* [https://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/gdcwebcasts.140227ame1200 Retrospective & Prospective: Sudan & South Sudan]
* [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Hornet/sd_machar.html South Sudan: A History of Political Domination – A Case of Self-Determination, (Riek Machar)]
* [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Articles_Gen/cvlw_env_sdn.html Civil War in Sudan: The Impact of Ecological Degradation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041115155906/http://www.detroitfocus.org/Issues/0410/CryForCompassion/index.html Multimedia Presentation on Darfur]
* [http://histclo.com/Country/afr/sud/hist/sh-ind.html History of independent Sudan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305180423/http://histclo.com/Country/afr/sud/hist/sh-ind.html |date=5 March 2016 }}

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{{History of Africa}}

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