Editing History of South America

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[[File:Karta sydamerika 1892.jpg|thumb|upright|right|315px|1892 map of South America]]
[[File:Non-Native American Nations Control over South America 1700 and on.gif|thumb|upright|right|311px|Animation showing geographic evolution of European colonies and breakaway states in [[South America]], 1700 to present]]
[[File:Map of South America.png|thumb|300px|Contemporary political map of South America]]

The '''history of South America''' is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent of [[South America]]. The continent continues to be home to indigenous peoples, some of whom built high civilizations prior to the arrival of Europeans in the late 1400s and early 1500s. South America has a history that has a wide range of human cultures and forms of civilization. The [[Norte Chico civilization]] in [[Peru]] dating back to about 3500 BCE is the oldest civilization in the [[Americas]] and one of the first six independent civilizations in the world; it was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It predated the [[Mesoamerican]] [[Olmec]] by nearly two millennia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Diehl |first=Richard A. |url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9 |title=The Olmecs : America's First Civilization |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2004 |isbn=0-500-28503-9 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9 9–25] |author-link=Richard Diehl}}</ref><ref name="Dating">{{cite journal |last=Haas |first=Jonathan |author2=Winifred Creamer |author3=Alvaro Ruiz |date=23 December 2004 |title=Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru |journal=Nature |volume=432 |issue=7020 |pages=1020–1023 |bibcode=2004Natur.432.1020H |doi=10.1038/nature03146 |pmid=15616561 |s2cid=4426545}}</ref>

Indigenous peoples' thousands of years of independent life were disrupted by European colonization from Spain and Portugal and by demographic collapse. The resulting civilizations, however, were very different from those of their colonizers, both in the mestizos and the indigenous cultures of the continent. Through the trans-Atlantic [[History of slavery|slave trade]], South America (especially Brazil) became the home of millions of people of the [[African diaspora]]. The mixing of ethnic groups led to new social structures.

The tensions between Europeans, indigenous peoples, and African slaves and their descendants shaped South America as a whole, starting in the sixteenth century. Most of Spanish America achieved its independence in the early nineteenth century through hard-fought [[Spanish American wars of independence|wars]], while Portuguese Brazil first became the seat of the Portuguese empire and then an empire independent of Portugal. With the revolution for independence from the Spanish crown achieved during the 19th century, South America underwent yet more social and political changes. These have included [[nation building]] projects, absorbing waves of immigration from Europe in the late 19th and 20th centuries, dealing with increased international trade, colonization of hinterlands, and wars about territory ownership and [[power balance]]. During this period there has also been the reorganization of Indigenous rights and duties, subjugation of Indigenous peoples living in the states' frontiers, that lasted until the early 1900s; liberal-conservative conflicts among the ruling classes, and major demographic and environmental changes accompanying the development of sensitive habitats.

== Prehistory ==
[[File:Amazon CIAT (2).jpg|thumb|right|280px|Aerial view of the Amazon rainforest, near [[Manaus]]]]
{{Main|Settlement of the Americas}}
[[File:Blakey 105Ma - COL.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Paleogeography of northern South America around 105 mya]]
In the [[Paleozoic]] and Early [[Mesozoic]] eras, [[South America]] and [[Africa]] were connected in a landmass called [[Gondwana]], as part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Pangaea]]. In the [[Albian]], around 110 [[mya (unit)|mya]], South America and Africa began to diverge along the southern [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], giving rise to a landmass of [[Antarctica]] and South America. During the late [[Eocene]], around 35 [[mya (unit)|mya]], Antarctica and South America separated and South America became a massive, biologically rich island-continent. During approximately 30 million years, the [[biodiversity]] of South America was isolated from the rest of the world, leading to the evolution of species within the continent.<ref name="Marshall1988">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Larry |title=Land Mammals and the Great American Interchange |journal=American Scientist |date=July–August 1988 |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=380–388|bibcode=1988AmSci..76..380M }}</ref>

The [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|event that caused the mass-extinction of dinosaurs 66 Mya]] gave rise to [[Neotropical realm|neotropical]] [[rainforest]] [[biome]]s like the [[Amazonia]], replacing species composition and structure of local forests<!--and temporarily decreased plant [[biodiversity|diversity]] by ~45% beyond causing extinction of its dinosaur inhabitants/roamers-->. During [[Paleocene|~6 million years of recovery]] to former levels of plant [[biodiversity|diversity]], they evolved from widely spaced [[gymnosperm]]-dominated forests to the forests with thick [[Canopy (biology)|canopies]] which block sunlight, prevalent [[flowering plant]]s and high [[Stratification (vegetation)|vertical layering]] as known today.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dinosaur-killing asteroid strike gave rise to Amazon rainforest |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-56617409 |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=BBC News |date=2 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="10.1126/science.abf1969">{{cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Mónica R. |last2=Jaramillo |first2=Carlos |last3=Parra |first3=Felipe de la |last4=Caballero-Rodríguez |first4=Dayenari |last5=Herrera |first5=Fabiany |last6=Wing |first6=Scott |last7=Turner |first7=Benjamin L. |last8=D'Apolito |first8=Carlos |last9=Romero-Báez |first9=Millerlandy |last10=Narváez |first10=Paula |last11=Martínez |first11=Camila |last12=Gutierrez |first12=Mauricio |last13=Labandeira |first13=Conrad |last14=Bayona |first14=German |last15=Rueda |first15=Milton |last16=Paez-Reyes |first16=Manuel |last17=Cárdenas |first17=Dairon |last18=Duque |first18=Álvaro |last19=Crowley |first19=James L. |last20=Santos |first20=Carlos |last21=Silvestro |first21=Daniele |title=Extinction at the end-Cretaceous and the origin of modern Neotropical rainforests |journal=Science |date=2 April 2021 |volume=372 |issue=6537 |pages=63–68 |doi=10.1126/science.abf1969 |pmid=33795451 |bibcode=2021Sci...372...63C |s2cid=232484243 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350569900 |access-date=9 May 2021 |language=en |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>

Geological evidence suggests that approximately 3 million years ago, South America became connected to North America when the Bolivar Trough marine barrier disappeared and the Panamanian land bridge formed. The joining of these two land masses led to the [[Great American Interchange]], in which biota from both continents expanded their ranges.<ref name="Marshall1988" /> The first species known to have made the northward migration was ''[[Pliometanastes]]'', a fossil [[ground sloth]] roughly the size of a modern [[American black bear|black bear]].<ref name="Marshall1988" /> Migrations to the Southern Hemisphere were undertaken by several [[North America]]n mammalian carnivores. Fewer species migrated in the opposite direction from south to north. The result of the expansion of a North American fauna was a mass extinction in which hundreds of species disappeared in a relatively short time. About 60% of present-day South American mammals have evolved from North American species.<ref name="Marshall1988" /> Some South American species were able to adapt and spread into North America. Apart from ''Pliometanastes'', during the [[Irvingtonian]] stage of the mammal land stages, around 1.9 [[mya (unit)|mya]], species as ''[[Pampatherium]]'', a giant [[armadillo]], ground sloth ''[[Megatherium]]'', giant [[anteater]] ''[[Myrmecophaga]]'', a Neogene [[capybara]] (''[[Hydrochoerus]]''), ''[[Meizonyx]]'', opossum ''[[Didelphis]]'', and ''[[Mixotoxodon]]'' followed the route north.<ref name="Marshall1988" /> The [[terror bird]] ''[[Titanis]]'', the only large carnivore in South American, dispersed into North America.<ref name="Marshall1988" />

==Pre-Columbian era==
{{Main|Pre-Columbian era#South America}}

=== Earliest inhabitants ===
The Americas are thought to have been first inhabited by people from eastern Asia who crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]] to present-day Alaska; the land separated and the continents are divided by the [[Bering Strait]]. Over the course of millennia, three waves of migrants spread to all parts of the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Native Americans migrated to the New World in three waves, Harvard-led DNA analysis shows &#124; Boston.com |url=https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2012/07/11/native-americans-migrated-to-the-new-world-in-three-waves-harvard-led-dna-analysis-shows |website=www.boston.com}}</ref> Genetic and linguistic evidence has shown that the last wave of migrant peoples settled across the northern tier, and did not reach South America.

Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the [[Monte Verde|Monte Verde II]] site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pino |first1=Mario |last2=Dillehay |first2=Tom D. |date=June 2023 |title=Monte Verde II: an assessment of new radiocarbon dates and their sedimentological context |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=97 |issue=393 |pages=524–540 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2023.32 |issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free }}</ref> From around 13,000 years ago, the [[Fishtail projectile point]] style became widespread across South America, with its disppearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's [[megafauna]] as part of the [[Quaternary extinction event]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Prates |first1=Luciano |last2=Perez |first2=S. Ivan |date=2021-04-12 |title=Late Pleistocene South American megafaunal extinctions associated with rise of Fishtail points and human population |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=2175 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22506-4 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=8041891 |pmid=33846353|bibcode=2021NatCo..12.2175P }}</ref>

===Agriculture and domestication of animals===
The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when [[potato]]es, [[Chili pepper|chilies]] and [[bean]]s began to be cultivated for food in the [[Amazon Basin]]. Pottery evidence suggests that [[manioc]], which remains a staple food supply today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25">O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). ''Oxford Atlas of World History''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 25</ref>

South American cultures began domesticating [[llamas]] and [[alpacas]] in the highlands of the [[Andes]] circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat; their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/> [[Guinea pig]]s were also domesticated as a food source at this time.<ref>Diamond, Jared. ''Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: Norton, 1999, p. 100</ref>

By 2000 BCE, many agrarian village communities had developed throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, with fish being the primary source of food for those communities. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of agrarian societies.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/> The food crops were [[quinoa]], [[maize|corn]], [[lima bean]]s, [[common bean]]s, [[peanut]]s, [[manioc]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[potato]]es, [[oxalis tuberosa|oca]] and [[squash (plant)|squashes]].<ref>Diamond, Jared. ''Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: Norton, 1999 (pp. 126–27)</ref> [[Cotton]] was also grown and was particularly important as the only major fiber crop.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/>

Among the earliest permanent settlements, dated to 4700 BCE is the [[Huaca Prieta]] site on the coast of Peru, and at 3500 BCE the [[Valdivia culture]] in Ecuador. Other groups also formed permanent settlements. Among those groups were the [[Muisca people|Muisca]] or "Muysca," and the Tairona, located in present-day Colombia. The [[Cañari]] of Ecuador, [[Quechua people|Quechua]] of Peru, and [[Aymara people|Aymara]] of Bolivia were the three most important Native peoples who developed societies of sedentary agriculture in South America. <!-- In what way important? What does this mean? -->

In the last two thousand years, there may have been contact with the [[Polynesia]]ns who sailed to and from the continent across the South Pacific Ocean. The sweet potato, which originated in South America, [[Sweet potato#Origin, distribution and diversity|spread]] through some areas of the Pacific. There is no genetic legacy of human contact.<ref>Howe, Kerry R., ''The Quest for Origins,'' Penguin Books, 2003, {{ISBN|0-14-301857-4}}, pp. 81, 129</ref>

[[File:Índios isolados no Acre 5.jpg|thumb|Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the [[Brazil]]ian state of [[Acre (state)|Acre]] in 2009]]
====Caral-Supe / Norte Chico====
[[File:Caral 1.JPG|thumb|220px|[[Caral]]]]
On the north-western coast of present-day [[Peru]], the [[Caral-Supe civilization]], also known as the [[Norte Chico civilization]] emerged as one of six civilizations to develop independently in the world. It was roughly contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It preceded the civilization of [[Mesoamerica]] by two millennia. It is believed to have been the only civilization dependent on fishing rather than agriculture to support its population.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519|title=Dating Caral, a Preceramic Site in the Supe Valley on the Central Coast of Peru|first1=Ruth Shady|last1=Solis|first2=Jonathan|last2=Haas|first3=Winifred|last3=Creamer|date=April 27, 2001|journal=Science|volume=292|issue=5517|pages=723–726|via=science.sciencemag.org|doi=10.1126/science.1059519|pmid=11326098|bibcode=2001Sci...292..723S|s2cid=10172918}}</ref>

The [[Caral|Caral Supe]] complex is one of the larger Norte Chico sites and has been dated to 27th century BCE. It is noteworthy for having absolutely no signs of warfare. It was contemporary with urbanism's rise in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-04/AAft-Oeoc-2604101.php|title=Oldest evidence of city life in the Americas reported in Science, early urban planners emerge as power players|website=EurekAlert!|access-date=2016-03-22|archive-date=2017-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213083019/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-04/AAft-Oeoc-2604101.php}}</ref>

===Cañari===
[[File:Ingapirca Canari structures.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Ingapirca]], [[Ecuador]], Caħari ruins: astronomical stone (left), tomb (right) and reconstructed house (background)]]

The [[Cañari]] were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces of [[Cañar Province|Cañar]] and [[Azuay Province|Azuay]] at the time of European contact. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and religious belief. Most of their remains were either burned or destroyed from attacks by the [[Inca]] and later the Spaniards. Their old city "Guapondelig", was replaced twice, first by the [[Inca Empire|Incan]] city of Tomipamba, and later by the colonial city of [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuenca.com.ec/cuencanew/hist%C3%B3ria-0 |title=Historia |publisher=Fundación Municipal "Turismo Para Cuenca" |access-date=13 August 2015 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517005806/http://www.cuenca.com.ec/cuencanew/hist%C3%B3ria-0 |archive-date=17 May 2015 }}</ref> The city was believed by the Spanish to be the site of [[El Dorado]], the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.

The Cañari were most notable in having repulsed the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. It is said that the Inca strategically married the Cañari princess Paccha to conquer the people. Many of their descendants still reside in [[Cañar Province|Cañar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alisonanddon.com/2014/08/11/the-canari-of-ecuador-and-a-palace-and-a-pig/|title=The Cañari of Ecuador, a 'palace' and a pig.|date=August 12, 2014}}</ref>

=== Chibchan Nations ===
[[File:Chibchan languages distribution.png|thumb|right|250px|Distribution of [[Chibcha language|Chibchan languages]] in southern Central America and northwestern South America, present-day Colombia]]
{{see also|Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations}}
The [[Chibcha language|Chibcha-speaking]] communities were the most numerous, the most extended by territory, and the most socio-economically developed of the Pre-Hispanic Colombian cultures. They were divided into two linguistic subgroups; the Arwako-Chimila languages, with the [[Tairona]], [[Kankuamo people|Kankuamo]], [[Kogi people|Kogi]], [[Arhuaco people|Arhuaco]], [[Chimila people|Chimila]] and [[Chitarero people]] and the Guna-Colombian languages with [[Guna people|Guna]], [[Nutabes people|Nutabe]], [[Motilon people|Motilon]], [[U'wa people|U'wa]], [[Lache people|Lache]], [[Guane people|Guane]], [[Sutagao people|Sutagao]] and [[Muisca people|Muisca]].<ref name=GlottologChibchan>{{cite web|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/core1252|title=Glottolog 2.7 – Core Chibchan|work=glottolog.org}}</ref>

==== Muisca ====
[[File:Muisca Fine Golden Figures - Museo del Oro.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The fine goldworking of the Muisca formed the basis for the expedition from the Caribbean coast into the heart of the Andes, where they developed an advanced civilisation based on [[Muisca agriculture|agriculture]], [[Women in Muisca society|salt production]] and [[Muisca economy#Trade|trade]]]]
{{main|Muisca people|Muisca Confederation}}
Of these indigenous groups, the Muisca were the most advanced and formed one of the four grand civilisations in the Americas.<ref>Ocampo López, 2007, p.26</ref> With the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] in Peru, they constituted the two developed and specialised societies of South America. The Muisca, meaning "people" or "person" in their version of the Chibcha language; ''Muysccubun'',<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://muysca.cubun.org/muysca ''Muysca''] – Muysccubun Dictionary Online</ref> inhabited the [[Altiplano Cundiboyacense]], the high plateau in the [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Eastern Ranges]] of the Colombian [[Andes]] and surrounding valleys, such as the [[Tenza Valley]].<ref name=websiteTenza>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenza-boyaca.gov.co/informacion_general.shtml|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150602152114/http://www.tenza-boyaca.gov.co/informacion_general.shtml|title=Official website Tenza|archive-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref> Commonly set at 800 CE, their history succeeded the [[Herrera Period]].<ref>Kruschek, 2003</ref> The people were organised in a loose confederation of [[Muisca rulers|rulers]], later called the [[Muisca Confederation]].<ref name=Gamboa>Gamboa Mendoza, 2016</ref> At the time of the [[Spanish conquest of the Muisca|Spanish conquest]], their reign spread across the modern departments [[Cundinamarca Department|Cundinamarca]] and [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]] with small parts of southern [[Santander Department|Santander]] with a surface area of approximately {{convert|25000|km2|sqmi}} and a total population of between 300,000 and two million individuals.<ref name=pop>Although sources state "47,000", this cannot be correct as that would be whole Boyacá and Cundinamarca and include Panche, Lache and Muzo</ref><ref>{{in lang|es}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160616184156/https://taller5-histdiseno3b.wikispaces.com/file/view/INFORMACION+DISE%C3%91O+PRECOLOMBINO+MUISCA.pdf Muisca Confederation area almost 47,000 km<sup>2</sup>, page 12]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETh7T9ax6ekC&q=muiscas+2+millones&pg=PA43|title=Colombia: país fragmentado, sociedad dividida: su historia|first1=Marco|last1=Palacios|first2=Frank|last2=Safford|date=March 22, 2002|publisher=Grupo Editorial Norma|isbn=9789580465096|via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Muisca were known as "The Salt People", thanks to their extraction of and trade in [[halite]] from brines in various salt mines of which those in [[Zipaquirá]] and [[Nemocón]] are still the most important. This extraction process was the work of the [[Women in Muisca society|Muisca women]] exclusively and formed the backbone of their highly regarded [[Muisca economy#Trade|trading]] with other Chibcha-, Arawak- and Cariban-speaking neighboring indigenous groups.<ref>Groot, 2014</ref><ref name=Daza_p23>Daza, 2013, p. 23</ref> Trading was performed using salt, small cotton cloths and larger mantles and ceramics as [[barter trade]].<ref name=Francis_p44>Francis, 1993, p. 44</ref> Their economy was agricultural in nature, profiting from the fertile soils of the [[Pleistocene]] [[Lake Humboldt]] that existed on the Bogotá savanna until around 30,000 years BP. Their crops were cultivated using irrigation and drainage on elevated terraces and mounds.<ref name=Daza_p23/><ref>Ocampo López, 2007, p. 207</ref><ref>García, 2012, p. 43</ref> To the Spanish conquistadors they were best known for their advanced [[Muisca economy|gold-working]], as represented in the ''[[tunjo]]s'' (votive offer pieces), spread in [[List of Muisca museum collections|museum collections]] all around the world. The famous [[Muisca raft]], centerpiece in the collection of the [[Gold Museum, Bogotá|Museo del Oro]] in the Colombian capital [[Bogotá]], shows the skilled goldworking of the inhabitants of the Altiplano. The Muisca were the only pre-Columbian civilization known in South America to have used coins (''tejuelos'').<ref>Daza, 2013, p. 26</ref>

The gold and ''[[tumbaga]]'' (a gold-silver-copper alloy elaborated by the Muisca) created the legend of ''[[El Dorado]]''; the "land, city or man of gold". The Spanish conquistadors who landed in the Caribbean city of [[Santa Marta]] were informed of the rich gold culture and led by [[Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]] and his brother [[Hernán Pérez de Quesada|Hernán Pérez]], organised the most strenuous of the Spanish conquests into the heart of the Andes in April 1536. After an expedition of a year, where 80% of the soldiers died due to the harsh climate, carnivores such as caimans and [[jaguar]]s and the frequent attacks of the indigenous peoples found along the route, [[Tisquesusa]], the ''[[zipa]]'' of Bacatá, on the [[Bogotá savanna]], was beaten by the Spanish on April 20, 1537, and died "bathing in his own blood", as prophesied by the [[mohan (legendary)|mohan]] Popón.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://pueblosoriginarios.com/biografias/tisquesusa.html Biography Tisquesusa] – Pueblos Originarios</ref>

===The Amazon===
{{See also|Amazon rainforest#History|Chachapoya culture}}
[[File:Fazenda Colorada.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Geoglyphs on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest]]
For a long time, scholars believed that Amazon forests were occupied by small numbers of hunter-gatherer tribes. Archeologist [[Betty J. Meggers]] was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book ''Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise''. However, recent archeological findings have suggested that the region was densely populated.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Margolis |first=Mac |date=2025-02-06 |title=Lost cities of the Amazon: how science is revealing ancient garden towns hidden in the rainforest |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/feb/06/ancient-garden-cities-amazon-indigenous-technologies-archaeology-lost-civilisations-environment-terra-preta |access-date=2025-03-01 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> From the 1970s, numerous [[geoglyph]]s have been discovered on deforested land dating between 0–1250 CE. Additional finds have led to conclusions that there were highly developed and populous cultures in the forests, organized as [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] civilizations.<ref name="Simon Romero">{{Cite news |last=Romero |first=Simon |date=2012-01-14 |title=Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/americas/land-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The BBC's ''[[Unnatural Histories (TV series)|Unnatural Histories]]'' claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine [[wilderness]], has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as [[forest gardening]].<ref name=bbc>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0122njp|title=Unnatural Histories – Amazon|publisher=BBC Four}}</ref> The discovery of the [[Upano Valley sites]] in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Yuhas |first1=Alan |last2=Jiménez |first2=Jesus |date=2024-01-23 |title=Remnants of Sprawling Ancient Cities Are Found in the Amazon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/23/science/ecuador-amazon-cities-discovery.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The first European to travel the length of the [[Amazon River]] was [[Francisco de Orellana]] in 1542.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=A|title=Explorers of the Amazon|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1994|isbn=978-0-226-76337-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/explorersofamazo00smit}}</ref> The BBC documentary ''Unnatural Histories'' presents evidence that Francisco de Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that an advanced civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that the civilization was later devastated by the spread of infectious diseases from Europe, such as [[smallpox]], to which the natives had no immunity.<ref name=bbc /> Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at [[Marajoara culture|Marajó]], and inland dwellers.<ref name="park">{{cite book|author=Chris C. Park|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WQf6RZAiKcC&pg=PA108|title=Tropical Rainforests|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9780415062398|page=108}}</ref> By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million, and by the early 1980s, it was less than 200,000.<ref name=park />

Researchers have found that the fertile ''[[terra preta]]'' (black earth) is distributed over large areas in the Amazon forest. It is now widely accepted that these soils are a product of indigenous [[soil management]]. The development of this soil enabled [[agriculture]] and [[silviculture]] to be conducted in the previously hostile environment. Large portions of the Amazon rainforest are therefore probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.<ref>The influence of human alteration has been generally underestimated, reports Darna L. Dufour: "Much of what has been considered natural forest in Amazonia is probably the result of hundreds of years of human use and management." "Use of Tropical Rainforests by Native Amazonians", ''BioScience'' 40, no. 9 (October 1990):658. For an example of how such peoples integrated planting into their nomadic lifestyles, see Rival, Laura, 1993. "The Growth of Family Trees: Understanding Huaorani Perceptions of the Forest", ''Man'' 28(4):635–652.</ref> In the region of the [[Xinguanos]] tribe, remains of some of these large, mid-forest Amazon settlements were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the [[University of Florida]]. Among those remains were evidence of constructed roads, bridges and large plazas.<ref>{{Citation
|last1=Heckenberger
|first1=M.J.
|publication-date=2003
|date=19 September 2003
|title= Amazonia 1492: Pristine Forest or Cultural Parkland?
|periodical=Science
|volume=301
|issue=5640
|pages=1710–1714
|doi=10.1126/science.1086112
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===Andean civilizations===

====Chavín====
[[File:World in 500 BCE.png|thumb|220px|Overview map of the world in 500 BC, showing [[Chavín culture|Chavín]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Chorrera culture|Chorrera]] and their neighbors]]
The [[Chavín culture|Chavín]], a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called [[Chavín de Huantar]] in modern [[Peru]] at an elevation of 3,177 meters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.cyark.org/chavn-de-huntar-info |title=Chavín de Huántar Information |access-date=2018-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111161231/http://archive.cyark.org/chavn-de-huntar-info |archive-date=2018-01-11 }}</ref> Chavín civilization spanned 900 to 200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chavin_Civilization/|title=Chavin Civilization|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref>

====Moche====
[[File:Ande centrali, costa del nord, moche, contenitore a forma di testa-ritratto, 200-850 dc ca. 02.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Moche portrait vessel]], c. 200—850 AD]]
The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] thrived on the north coast of Peru between the first and ninth century CE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Moche_Civilization/|title=Moche Civilization|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> The heritage of the Moche comes down to us through their elaborate burials, excavated by former UCLA professor [[Christopher B. Donnan]] in association with the [[National Geographic Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/Rich-Tombs-From-Moche-Culture-Uncovered-2160 |title=Rich Tombs from Moche Culture Uncovered on Peruvian Coast &#124; UCLA |access-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115002416/http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/Rich-Tombs-From-Moche-Culture-Uncovered-2160 |archive-date=2018-01-15 }}</ref>

Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]. Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Moche|title=Moche &#124; ancient South American culture|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AaddAAAAQBAJ&q=moche+fellatio&pg=RA1-SA2-PA56 |title = Sex, Death, and Sacrifice in Moche Religion and Visual Culture|isbn = 9780292783188|last1 = Bourget|first1 = Steve|date = 2010-06-28| publisher=University of Texas Press }}</ref>

====Inca====
Holding their capital at the great puma-shaped city of [[Cuzco]], the [[Inca civilization]] dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as ''Tawantin suyu'', or "the land of the four regions," in [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000-kilometre [[Inca road system|road system]]. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. [[Terrace farming]] was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and successful [[Trepanation in Mesoamerica|skull surgery]] in Inca civilization. The Inca had no written language, but used [[quipu]], a system of knotted strings, to record information.<ref>{{Cite encyclopaedia|entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/quipu|entry=quipu: Incan counting tool|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-10-13|language=en}}</ref> Ongoing Kiphu research suggests that the Inca used a phonetic system as a form of writing in the kiphu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hyland |first=Sabine |title=Writing with Twisted Cords: The Inscriptive Capacity of Andean Khipus |journal=Current Anthropology |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/691682 |date=June 2017 |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=412–419 |doi=10.1086/691682 |issn=0011-3204|hdl=10023/12326 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Arawak and Carib civilizations===
The [[Arawaks|Arawak]] lived along the eastern coast of South America, from present-day [[Guyana]] to as far south as what is now Brazil. Explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] described them at first encounter as a peaceful people, having already dominated other local groups such as the [[Ciboney]]. The Arawak had, however, come under increasing military pressure from the [[Kalina people|Carib]], who are believed to have left the [[Orinoco]] river area to settle on islands and the coast of the Caribbean Sea. Over the century leading up to Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the Carib are believed to have displaced many of the Arawak who previously settled the island chains. The Carib also encroached on Arawak territory in what is modern Guyana.

The Carib were skilled boatbuilders and sailors who owed their dominance in the Caribbean basin to their military skills. The Carib war rituals included [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]]; they had a practice of taking home the limbs of victims as trophies.

It is not known how many [[Indigenous peoples in Venezuela|indigenous peoples]] lived in Venezuela and Colombia before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish Conquest]]; it may have been approximately one million,<ref name=Wunder/> including groups such as the [[Auaké people|Auaké]], [[Caquetio]], [[Mariche]], and [[Timoto-cuicas]].<ref>This is disputed by modern Caribs.</ref> The number of people fell dramatically after the Conquest, mainly due to high mortality rates in epidemics of infectious Eurasian diseases introduced by the explorers, who carried them as an endemic disease.<ref name=Wunder>Wunder, Sven (2003), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=n2nQ0A8BmCYC&pg=PA130 Oil Wealth and the Fate of the Forest: A Comparative Study of Eight Tropical Countries]'', [[Routledge]]. p. 130, {{ISBN|0-203-98667-9}}.</ref> There were two main north–south axes of pre-Columbian population; producing [[maize]] in the west and [[manioc]] in the east.<ref name=Wunder/> Large parts of the [[llanos]] plains were cultivated through a combination of [[slash and burn]] and permanent settled agriculture.<ref name=Wunder/>

==European colonization==
{{Main|Colonial Spanish America|Colonial Brazil}}
[[File:Atawallpa Pizarro tinkuy.jpg|thumb|190px|Spanish conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]] meets with the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] emperor [[Atahualpa]], 1532]]
Before the arrival of Europeans 20–30 million people lived in South America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butzer |first=Karl W. |date=1992 |title=The Americas before and after 1492: An Introduction to Current Geographical Research |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2563350 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=347 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01964.x |jstor=2563350 |issn=0004-5608}}</ref>

Between 1452 and 1493, a series of papal bulls (''[[Dum Diversas]]'', ''[[Romanus Pontifex]]'', and ''[[Inter caetera]]'') paved the way for the [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] and [[Missionary#Catholic missions|Catholic missions]] in the [[New World]]. These authorized the European Christian nations to "take possession" of non-Christian lands and encouraged subduing and converting the non-Christian people of Africa and the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribes - Native Voices |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/171.html |access-date=2024-05-21 |website=www.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Vatican repudiates 'Doctrine of Discovery,' which was used to justify colonialism |website=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/30/1167056438/vatican-doctrine-of-discovery-colonialism-indigenous}}</ref>

In 1494, [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]], the two great maritime powers of that time, signed the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west. Through the treaty, they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive [[duopoly]] between the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of [[Cape Verde Islands]], roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to include most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. Because accurate measurements of [[longitude]] were not possible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese expansion of Brazil]] across the meridian.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |title=Doctrine of Discovery |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Doctrine_of_Discovery/ |access-date=2024-05-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Treaty of Tordesillas |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Tordesillas/ |access-date=2024-05-21 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>

In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, [[Christopher Columbus]] sailed near the [[Orinoco Delta]] and then landed in the [[Gulf of Paria]] (in what is now [[Venezuela]]). Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus stated in his letter to [[Catholic Kings|Isabella I and Ferdinand II]] that he must have reached heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise): {{blockquote|Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zamora |first=Margarita |title=Reading Columbus |publisher=University of California Press|year=1993 |pages=Voyage to Paradise |isbn=978-0-520-08297-7 |url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft009nb0cv&doc.view=content&chunk.id=d0e2655&toc.depth=1&anchor.id=0&brand=eschol|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090548/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft009nb0cv&doc.view=content&chunk.id=d0e2655&toc.depth=1&anchor.id=0&brand=eschol|archive-date=11 May 2011|access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref>}}
[[File: Philip II's realms in 1598.png|300px|thumb|The [[Iberian Union]] in 1598, under [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], King of Spain and Portugal]]
Beginning in 1499, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign [[conquistadors]], first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/10/a-brief-history-of-everyone-who-ever-lived/537942/|title=A New History of the First Peoples in the Americas|last=Rutherford|first=Adam|date=2017-10-03|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref>

European diseases ([[smallpox]], [[influenza]], [[measles]] and [[typhus]]) to which the native populations had no resistance were the overwhelming cause of the depopulation of the Native American population.<ref>Cook, Noble David. ''Born To Die'', p. 13.</ref> Systems of forced labor (such as [[encomienda]]s and mining industries [[Mita (Inca)|mita]]) under Spanish control also contributed to depopulation. Lower bound estimates speak of a decline in the population of around 20–50 percent, whereas the highest estimates reach 90 percent.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=163|isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> Following this, [[Slavery|enslaved]] Africans, who had developed immunity to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2010-05-01 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188, 181 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |issn=0895-3309|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to [[Christianity]] and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful; American groups simply blended [[Catholicism]] with their traditional beliefs. The Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion. In fact, the missionary work of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Nahuatl]], and [[Guarani language|Guarani]] actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a [[Mestizo]] class. Mestizos and the Native Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government (although all subjects paid taxes) and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included a great number of gold and silver sculptures, which were melted down before transport to Europe.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cartwright |first1=Mark |title=The Gold of the Conquistadors |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2045/the-gold-of-the-conquistadors/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |access-date=26 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

==17th and 18th centuries==
In 1616, the Dutch, attracted by the legend of [[El Dorado]], founded a fort in [[Guyana|Guayana]] and established three colonies:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robertson |first1=Ian A. |title=Dutch creole languages in Guayana |journal=Boletín de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe |date=December 1977 |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=61–67 |jstor=25674996}}</ref>

In 1624 France attempted to settle in the area of modern-day [[French Guiana]], but was forced to abandon it in the face of hostility from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who viewed it as a violation of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]. However French settlers returned in 1630 and in 1643 managed to establish a settlement at [[Cayenne]] along with some small-scale plantations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Political and Economic History of French Guiana |url=https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/fguiana.htm |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=www.sjsu.edu}}</ref>

Since the sixteenth century, there were some movements of discontent to the Spanish and Portuguese colonial system. Among these movements, the most famous being that of the [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]], slaves who escaped their masters and in the shelter of the forest communities organized free communities. Attempts to subject them by the royal army were unsuccessful because the Maroons had learned to master the South American jungles. In a royal decree of 1713, the king gave legality to the first free population of the continent: Palenque de San Basilio in Colombia today, led by [[Benkos Bioho]]. Brazil saw the formation of a genuine African kingdom on their soil, with the [[Palmares (quilombo)|Quilombo of Palmares]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-04-28 |title=Quilombo: Brazilian Maroons during slavery {{!}} Cultural Survival |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/quilombo-brazilian-maroons-during-slavery |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.culturalsurvival.org |language=en}}</ref>

Between 1721 and 1735, the [[Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)|Revolt of the Comuneros of Paraguay]] arose, because of clashes between the Paraguayan settlers and the Jesuits, who ran the large and prosperous [[Jesuit Reductions]] and controlled a large number of Christianized Natives.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

Between 1742 and 1756, was the insurrection of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]] in the central jungle of [[Peru]]. In 1780, the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] was met with the insurrection of curaca [[Túpac Amaru II|Joseph Gabriel Condorcanqui]] or [[Tupac Amaru II]], which would be continued by Tupac Katari in [[Upper Peru]].{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

In 1763, the African [[Coffy (person)|Coffy]] led a revolt in Guyana which was bloodily suppressed by the Dutch.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl/trajecten-van-de-reis-en/west-indie-en/grote-slavenopstand-1763/?lang=en|title=Berbice Uprising in 1763|website=Slavenhandel MCC (Provincial Archives of Zeeland)|access-date=7 August 2020}}</ref>
In 1781, the [[Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)]], an insurrection of the villagers in the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]], was a popular revolution that united indigenous people and mestizos. The villagers tried to be the colonial power and despite the capitulation were signed, the Viceroy [[Manuel Antonio Flórez]] did not comply, and instead ran to the main leaders [[José Antonio Galán]].

In 1796, the Dutch colony of [[Essequibo (colony)|Essequibo]] was captured by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoonhout |first1=Bram |last2=Mareite |first2=Thomas |date=2019-01-02 |title=Freedom at the fringes? Slave flight and empire-building in the early modern Spanish borderlands of Essequibo–Venezuela and Louisiana–Texas |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=61–86 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2018.1447806 |s2cid=148984945 |issn=0144-039X|doi-access=free |hdl=1887/60431 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

During the eighteenth century, the figure of the priest, mathematician and botanist [[José Celestino Mutis]] (1732–1808), was delegated by the Viceroy [[Antonio Caballero y Gongora]] to conduct an inventory of the nature of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|Nueva Granada]], which became known as the Botanical Expedition, which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of [[Santa Fé de Bogotá]].{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}

On August 15, 1801, the Prussian scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] reached Fontibón where Mutis had begun his expedition to [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]], Quito. The meeting between the two scholars is considered the brightest spot of the botanical expedition.
Humboldt also visited Venezuela, [[Mexico]], [[United States]], Chile, and [[Peru]].
Through his observations of temperature differences between the Pacific Ocean between Chile and Peru in different periods of the year, he discovered cold currents moving from south to north up the coast of Peru, which was named the Humboldt Current in his honor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nichols |first1=Sandra |title=Why Was Humboldt Forgotten in the United States? |journal=Geographical Review |date=July 2006 |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=399–415 |doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2006.tb00258.x |jstor=30034515 |bibcode=2006GeoRv..96..399N |s2cid=162201932}}</ref>

Between 1806 and 1807, British military forces [[British invasions of the River Plate|tried to invade the area]] of the Rio de la Plata, at the command of [[Home Riggs Popham]] and [[William Carr Beresford]], and [[John Whitelocke]]. The invasions were repelled, but powerfully affected the Spanish authority.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The British invasions of Rio de la Plata {{!}} John Carter Brown Library |url=https://jcblibrary.org/news/british-invasions-rio-de-la-plata |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=jcblibrary.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Making of Warriors: The Militarization of the Rio de la Plata, 1806-1807 |url=https://statebglat.upf.edu/spip2wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/The_Making_of_Warriors_Printed_Version.pdf}}</ref>

==Independence and 19th century==
[[File: Latin American independence countries.PNG|thumb|220px|Countries in the Americas by date of independence]]
The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the [[Spanish American wars of independence]]. [[Simón Bolívar]] ([[Greater Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]]), [[José de San Martín]] ([[United Provinces of the River Plate]], [[Chile]], and [[Peru]]), and [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] ([[Chile]]) led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another.

Unlike the Spanish colonies, the Brazilian independence came as an indirect consequence of the Napoleonic Invasions to Portugal – French invasion under General Junot led to the capture of [[Lisbon]] on 8 December 1807. In order not to lose its sovereignty, the Portuguese Court moved the capital from [[Lisbon]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]], which was the [[Portuguese Empire]]'s capital between 1808 and 1821 and rose the relevance of [[Brazil]] within the [[Portuguese Empire]]'s framework. Following the Portuguese [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]], and after several battles and skirmishes were fought in Pará and in Bahia, the [[heir apparent]] [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro]], son of King [[John VI of Portugal]], proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first [[emperor]] (He later also reigned as Pedro IV of Portugal). This was one of the most peaceful colonial independences ever seen in human history.
[[File:SouthAmerica1865 ChinchaIslandsWar.png|thumb|left|160px|Territorial disputes in South America in the 19th century]]
A struggle for power emerged among the new nations, and several further wars were soon fought thereafter.

The first few wars were fought for supremacy in the northern and southern parts of the continent. The [[Gran Colombia – Peru War]] of the north and the [[Cisplatine War]] (between the [[Empire of Brazil]] and the [[United Provinces of the River Plate]]) ended in stalemate, although the latter resulted in the independence of [[Uruguay]] (1828). A few years later, after the break-up of Gran Colombia in 1831, the balance of power shifted in favor of the newly formed [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]] (1836–1839). Nonetheless, this power structure proved temporary and shifted once more as a result of the Northern Peruvian State's victory over the Southern Peruvian State-Bolivia [[War of the Confederation]] (1836–1839), and the [[Argentine Confederation]]'s defeat in the [[Uruguayan Civil War|Guerra Grande]] (1839–1852).

Later conflicts between the South American nations continued to define their borders and power status. In the Pacific coast, Chile and Peru continued to exhibit their increasing domination, defeating Spain in the [[Chincha Islands War]]. Finally, after precariously defeating Peru during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–1883), Chile emerged as the dominant power of the Pacific Coast of South America. In the Atlantic side, [[Paraguay]] attempted to gain a more dominant status in the region, but an alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay (in the resulting 1864–1870 [[War of the Triple Alliance]]) ended Paraguayan ambitions. Thereupon, the [[Southern Cone]] nations of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile entered the 20th century as the [[ABC nations|major continental powers]].

A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
* [[Panama]], from [[Colombia]], in 1903
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]], from the United Kingdom, in 1962
* [[Guyana]], from the United Kingdom, in 1966
* [[Suriname]], from the [[Netherlands]], in 1975

[[French Guiana]] remains an overseas [[Departments of France|department]] of France.

== 20th century ==
[[File:SQM GE 289A Boxcab Quillagua - Barriles.jpg|thumb|upright|right|250px|[[GE 289A Boxcab|SQM GE 289A "Boxcabs" 603 and 607]] hauling empty nitrate hoppers from Tocopilla to Barriles, Chile.]]

===1900–1920===

By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated in [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s [[Big Stick ideology|Big Stick Doctrine]], which modified the old [[Monroe Doctrine]], which had simply aimed to deter European intervention in the hemisphere.

===1930–1960===

{{See also|Latin America during World War II}}

The [[Great Depression]] posed a challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of South America.[[File: Brazilian battleship Minas Geraes firing a broadside.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The Brazilian [[Minas Geraes-class battleship|''Minas Geraes'' class]] kindled an [[South American dreadnought race|Argentine–Brazilian–Chilean naval arms race]]]] Intellectuals and government leaders in South America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned toward [[import substitution industrialization]]. The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the ups and downs of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt administration]] (1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented a [[Good Neighbor policy|good neighbor policy]] and allowed the nationalization of some American companies in South America. The [[World War II|Second World War]] also brought the United States and most Latin American nations together.

The history of South America during World War II is important because of the significant economic, political, and military changes that occurred throughout much of the region as a result of the war. In order to better protect the [[Panama Canal]], combat [[Axis powers|Axis]] influence, and optimize the production of goods for the war effort, the [[United States]] through [[Lend-Lease]] and similar programs greatly expanded its interests in [[Latin America]], resulting in large-scale modernization and a major economic boost for the countries that participated.<ref name="Leonard, pg. 115-119">{{cite book | last=Leonard| first=Thomas M.|author2=John F. Bratzel |title=Latin America during World War II| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield| year=2007| isbn=978-0-7425-3741-5}}</ref>

Strategically, [[Brazil]] was of great importance because of its having the closest point in the [[Americas]] to [[Africa]] where the Allies were actively engaged in fighting the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italians]]. For the Axis, the [[Southern Cone]] nations of [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] were where they found most of their South American support, and they utilised it to the fullest by interfering with internal affairs, conducting [[espionage]], and distributing [[propaganda]].<ref name="Leonard, pg. 115-119"/><ref name="nsa.gov">{{cite web| title=Cryptologic Aspects of German Intelligence Activities in South America during World War II| work=David P. Mowry| url=http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/cryptologic_aspects_of_gi.pdf| access-date=August 9, 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918014218/http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/cryptologic_aspects_of_gi.pdf| archive-date=2013-09-18}}</ref><ref name="navy.mil">{{cite web|title=German Espionage and Sabotage Against the United States in World War II |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm#anchor639253 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011205033841/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq114-1.htm |archive-date=December 5, 2001 |access-date=August 9, 2013 }}</ref>

Brazil was the only country to send an [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|Expeditionary force]] to the [[Military history of Italy during World War II|European theatre]]; however, several countries had skirmishes with German U-boats and cruisers in the [[Battle of the Caribbean|Caribbean]] and [[Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I|South Atlantic]]. Mexico sent a [[Squadron (aviation)|fighter squadron]] of 300 volunteers to the Pacific, the ''Escuadrón 201'' were known as the [[201st Fighter Squadron (Mexico)|Aztec Eagles]] (''Aguilas Aztecas'').

The Brazilian active participation on the battle field in Europe was divined after the [[Casablanca Conference]]. The President of the U.S., [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on his way back from Morocco met the President of Brazil, [[Getúlio Vargas|Getulio Vargas]], in [[Natal, Rio Grande do Norte]], this meeting is known as the [[The Potenji River Conference|Potenji River Conference]], and defined the creation of the [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force]].

===Economics===

According to author Thomas M. Leonard, [[World War II]] had a major impact on Latin American economies. Following the December 7, 1941 [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], most of Latin America either severed relations with the Axis powers or declared war on them. As a result, many nations (including all of [[Central America]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], [[Peru]], [[Argentina]], and [[Venezuela]]) suddenly found that they were now dependent on the United States for trade. The United States' high demand for particular products and commodities during the war further distorted trade. For example, the United States wanted all of the platinum produced in [[Colombia]], all the silver of Chile, and all of cotton, gold and copper of Peru. The parties agreed upon set prices, often with a high premium, but the various nations lost their ability to bargain and trade in the open market.

===Cold War===

Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with [[Chaco War|Bolivia-Paraguay]] and [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War|Peru-Ecuador]] fighting the last inter-state wars.
Early in the 20th century, the [[ABC nations|three wealthiest South American countries]] engaged in [[South American dreadnought race|a vastly expensive naval arms race]] which was catalyzed by the introduction of a new warship type, the "[[dreadnought]]". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.<ref>Richard Hough, ''The Big Battleship'' (London: Michael Joseph, 1966), 19. {{oclc|8898108}}.</ref><ref>Robert Scheina, ''Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987'' (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987), 86. {{ISBN|0-87021-295-8}}. {{oclc|15696006}}.</ref>

The continent became a battlefield of the [[Cold War]] in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of [[political prisoner]]s, many of whom were tortured and/or killed on [[Operation Condor|inter-state collaboration]]. Economically, they began a transition to [[neoliberal]] economic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from [[Internal conflict in Peru|an internal conflict]]. South America, like many other continents, became a battlefield for the [[superpower]]s during the [[Cold War]] in the late 20th century. In the postwar period, the expansion of [[communism]] became the greatest political issue for both the United States and governments in the region. The start of the [[Cold War]] forced governments to choose between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]].

===Late 20th century military regimes and revolutions===

[[File:Presidentes unasur (cropped).jpg|thumb|240px|Presidents of [[UNASUR]] member states at the Second Summit on 23 May 2008.]]
By the 1970s, leftists had acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of each individual country's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarisation. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by [[military dictatorship]]s that were supported by the United States of America.

Also around the 1970s, the regimes of the [[Southern Cone]] collaborated in [[Operation Condor]] killing many [[leftist]] dissidents, including some [[urban guerrilla]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.el-universal.com.mx/editoriales/34023.html |author=[[Víctor Flores Olea]] |title=Editoriales&nbsp;– El Universal&nbsp;– 10 de abril 2006: Operacion Condor |publisher=[[El Universal (Mexico)]] |access-date=2009-03-24 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628021303/http://www.el-universal.com.mx/editoriales/34023.html |archive-date=2007-06-28 }}</ref>
However, by the early 1990s all countries had restored their democracies.

Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] ([[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC-EP]]) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens.
[[File:Chavez Kirch Lula141597.jpg|thumb|240px|Presidents [[Hugo Chávez]], [[Néstor Kirchner]], and [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] met on January 19, 2006, in [[Granja do Torto]]]] [[File:Flag of UNASUR.svg|thumb|240px|Flag of the [[Union of South American Nations]]]]
Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after [[World War II]], but since the 1980s, a wave of democratisation came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.<ref>"The Cambridge History of Latin America", edited by Leslie Bethell, Cambridge University Press (1995) {{ISBN|0-521-39525-9}}</ref> Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned [[military dictatorship]]s. These detained tens of thousands of [[political prisoner]]s, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see [[Operation Condor]]). Economically, they began a transition to [[neoliberal]] economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. [[Cold War]] doctrine of
"National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, [[Peru]] suffered from an [[Internal conflict in Peru|internal conflict]] (see [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] and [[Shining Path]]). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is now widespread. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. [[Debt of developing countries|International indebtedness]] became a recurrent problem, with examples like the [[Latin American debt crisis|1980s debt crisis]], the mid-1990s [[Mexican peso crisis]] and [[Argentina]]'s [[1998–2002 Argentine great depression|2001 default]].

===Washington Consensus===

[[File: Unasul 29.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Left-leaning leaders of Bolivia, Brazil and Chile at the [[Union of South American Nations]] summit in 2008]]
{{Main|Washington Consensus}}
The set of specific economic policy prescriptions that were considered the "standard" reform package were promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC–based institutions such as the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[World Bank]], and the [[US Treasury Department]] during the 1980s and '90s.

==21st century==

===A turn to the left===

According to the BBC, a "common element of the 'pink tide' is a clean break with what was known at the outset of the 1990s as the '[[Washington consensus]]', the mixture of [[open market]]s and [[privatisation]] pushed by the United States".<ref name="bbc4"/> According to [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]], a [[pink tide]] president herself, [[Hugo Chávez]] of Venezuela (inaugurated 1999), [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of Brazil (inaugurated 2003) and [[Evo Morales]] of Bolivia (inaugurated 2006) were "the three musketeers" of the left in South America.<ref name=VICEtideTURN>{{cite news|last1=Noel|first1=Andrea|title=The Year the 'Pink Tide' Turned: Latin America in 2015 |url= https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-year-the-pink-tide-turned-latin-america-in-2015/|access-date=30 December 2015|work=[[Vice News|VICE News]]|date=29 December 2015|language=en-US}}</ref> By 2005, the [[BBC]] reported that out of 350 million people in South America, three out of four of them lived in countries ruled by "left-leaning [[President (government title)|presidents]]" elected during the preceding six years.<ref name="bbc4"/>

Despite the presence of a number of Latin American governments which profess to embrace a leftist ideology, it is difficult to categorize Latin American states "according to dominant political tendencies, like a [[Red states and blue states|red-blue post-electoral map of the United States]]."<ref name="ips">{{cite web|url=http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/3806 |title=Foreign Policy in Focus &#124; Latin America's Pink Tide? |access-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910093646/http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/3806 |archive-date=September 10, 2009 }} Institute for Policy Studies: Latin America's Pink Tide?</ref> According to the [[Institute for Policy Studies]], a [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] [[think-tank]] based in Washington, D.C.: "a deeper analysis of elections in Ecuador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Mexico indicates that the "pink tide" interpretation—that a diluted trend leftward is sweeping the continent—may be insufficient to understand the complexity of what's really taking place in each country and the region as a whole".<ref name="ips"/>

While this political shift is difficult to quantify, its effects are widely noticed. According to the Institute for Policy Studies, 2006 meetings of the South American Summit of Nations and the Social Forum for the Integration of Peoples demonstrated that certain discussions that "used to take place on the margins of the dominant discourse of [[neoliberalism]], (have) now moved to the centre of [[Public sphere|public debate]]."<ref name="ips"/>

=== Pink tide ===
[[File:Banco del Sur.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rafael Correa]], [[Evo Morales]], [[Néstor Kirchner]], [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]], [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]], [[Nicanor Duarte]], and [[Hugo Chávez]] at the signing of the founding charter of the [[Bank of the South]]]]

The term 'pink tide' ({{langx|es|link=no|marea rosa}}, {{langx|pt|onda rosa}}) or 'turn to the Left' (Sp.: ''vuelta hacia la izquierda'', Pt.: ''Guinada à Esquerda'') are phrases which are used in contemporary 21st century [[Political science|political analysis]] in the media and elsewhere to describe the perception that [[leftism|leftist]] ideology in general, and [[left-wing politics]] in particular, were increasingly becoming influential in Latin America.<ref name="bbc4">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4311957.stm|title=South America's leftward sweep|author=BBC News Americas |work=bbc.co.uk|date=2 March 2005}}</ref><ref name="pitts">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_310062.html|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516065906/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_310062.html|archive-date=2016-05-16|title=Arquivo.pt|website=arquivo.pt|access-date=2016-03-24}}</ref><ref name="boston">{{cite web|url=https://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/01/14/the_many_stripes_of_anti_americanism/|title=The many stripes of anti-Americanism – The Boston Globe|work=boston.com}}</ref>

Since the 2000s or 1990s in some countries, left-wing political parties have risen to power. [[Hugo Chávez]] in Venezuela, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] and [[Dilma Rousseff]] in Brazil, [[Fernando Lugo]] in Paraguay, [[Néstor Kirchner|Néstor]] and [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] in Argentina, [[Tabaré Vázquez]] and [[José Mujica]] in Uruguay, the [[Ricardo Lagos|Lagos]] and [[Michelle Bachelet|Bachelet]] governments in Chile, [[Evo Morales]] in Bolivia, and [[Rafael Correa]] of Ecuador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who also often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists or [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialists]].
[[File:Dilma Rousseff - foto oficial 2011-01-09.jpg|thumb|right|upright|240px|[[Excellency|Her Excellency]] Dilma Rousseff, [[List of Presidents of Brazil|36th]] [[President of Brazil]]]]

;The list of leftist South American presidents is, by date of election, the following:
<!-- PLEASE LEAVE {{flagicons}} and {{flags}} AS THEY ARE. THEY WORK HERE -->
* 1998: {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Hugo Chávez]], Venezuela<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela|last1 = McCoy|first1 = Jennifer L|publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press|year = 2006|isbn =978-0-8018-8428-3|location = Baltimore, Maryland|page = 310|last2 = Myers|first2 = David J.|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rtJVhJZF6WgC}}</ref>
* 1999: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Ricardo Lagos]], Chile<ref>{{cite book |last1=Góngora |first1=Álvaro |last2=de la Taille |first2=Alexandrine|last3=Vial |first3=Gonzalo |author-link3=Gonzalo Vial Correa |title=Jaime Eyzaguirre en su tiempo |language=es |publisher=Zig-Zag |pages=173–174 }}</ref><ref name=Brown>{{cite web|url=http://www.watsoninstitute.org/contacts_detail.cfm?id=761 |title=Watson Institute for International Studies |publisher=[[Brown University]] |year=2009 |access-date=2009-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818205635/http://www.watsoninstitute.org/contacts_detail.cfm?id=761 |archive-date=August 18, 2009 }}</ref>
* 2002: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]], Brazil<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12097490 |title=Lula leaves office as Brazil's 'most popular' president |publisher=BBC |date=31 December 2010 |access-date=4 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2009/09/21/the-most-popular-politician-on-earth.html |title=The Most Popular Politician on Earth |newspaper=Newsweek |date=31 December 2010 |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229032256/http://www.newsweek.com/2009/09/21/the-most-popular-politician-on-earth.html |archive-date=29 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12891019 |title=Lula's last lap |newspaper=The Economist |date=8 January 2009 |access-date=4 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11414276|title=Lula's legacy for Brazil's next president| first=Elizabeth 'Liz' |last=Throssell |date=30 September 2010 |work=BBC News|access-date=29 March 2012}}</ref>
* 2002: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Lucio Gutiérrez]], Ecuador<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4453153.stm | work=[[BBC News]] | title=Ecuador lifts state of emergency | date=April 17, 2005 | access-date=May 11, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Perfil de Lucio Gutiérrez | work =hoy.com.ec | publisher =Explored | date =November 25, 2002 | language= es | url =http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/perfil-de-lucio-gutierrez-132043.html | archive-url =https://archive.today/20130803080035/http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/perfil-de-lucio-gutierrez-132043.html | archive-date =August 3, 2013 | access-date = September 19, 2013}}</ref>
* 2003: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Néstor Kirchner]], Argentina<ref>{{cite web|url=http://upsidedownworld.org/main/argentina-archives-32/964-elections-in-argentina-cristinas-low-income-voter-support-base |title=Elections in Argentina: Cristina's Low-Income Voter Support Base |publisher=Upsidedownworld.org |date=24 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1425&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=481319 |title=Latin American Program |publisher=Wilson Center |access-date=2016-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101103234/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1425&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=481319 |archive-date=2009-01-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Levitsky | first1=Steven | last2=Murillo | first2=María Victoria | title=Argentina: From Kirchner to Kirchner | journal=Journal of Democracy | volume=19 | issue=2 | date=2008 | issn=1086-3214 | doi=10.1353/jod.2008.0030 | pages=16–30 | url=http://www.columbia.edu/~mm2140/Publications%20in%20English_files/JOD08.pdf | access-date=October 30, 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624155618/http://www.columbia.edu/~mm2140/Publications%20in%20English_files/JOD08.pdf | archive-date=June 24, 2010 }}</ref>
* 2004: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Tabaré Vázquez]], Uruguay<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/social-democracy-lives-in-latin-america?barrier=true|title=Social democracy lives in Latin America|work=Project Syndicate|date=10 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/IPCPolicyResearchBrief29.pdf|title=The Expansion of Non-Contributory Transfers in Uruguay in Recent Years|author=Verónica Amarante and Andrea Vigorito|publisher=[[International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth]]|date=August 2012|access-date=2016-03-22|archive-date=2016-04-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404010932/http://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/IPCPolicyResearchBrief29.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=48320 |title=Uruguay: A Chance to Leave Poverty Behind |work=IPS News |date=3 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107010927/http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=48320 |archive-date=November 7, 2009}}</ref>
* 2005: {{flagicon|BOL}} [[Evo Morales]], Bolivia{{sfnm|1a1=Harten|1y=2011|1p=35|2a1=Webber|2y=2011|2p=62}}{{efn|Morales is described as the first indigenous president of Bolivia in academic studies of his presidency, such as those of [[Betilde Muñoz-Pogossian|Muñoz-Pogossian]],{{sfn|Muñoz-Pogossian|2008|p=180}} Webber,{{sfn|Webber|2011|p=1}} Philip and Panizza,{{sfn|Philip|Panizza|2011|p=57}} and Farthing and Kohl,{{sfn|Farthing|Kohl|2014|p=1}} as well as in press reports, such as those of [[BBC News]].<ref name="BBC bio">{{cite news |title=Profile: Bolivia's President Evo Morales |date=13 October 2014 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12166905}}</ref> However, there have been challenges to this claim by critics who have asserted that Morales probably has some European ancestry, and thus on genetic grounds is technically ''[[mestizo]]'' rather than solely indigenous.{{sfn|Harten|2011|p=7}} Harten asserted that this argument was "misguided[,] wrong[... and] above all irrelevant" because regardless of his genetic makeup, the majority of Bolivians perceive Morales as being the first indigenous president.{{sfn|Harten|2011|p=7}} In Bolivian society, indigeneity is a fluid concept rooted in cultural identity;{{sfn|Harten|2011|p=7}} for instance, many indigenous individuals that have settled in urban areas and abandoned their traditional rural customs have come to identify as ''mestizo''.{{sfn|Farthing|Kohl|2014|p=22}}{{sfnm|1a1=Sivak|1y=2010|1p=82–83|2a1=Harten|2y=2011|2pp=112–118|3a1=Farthing|3a2=Kohl|3y=2014|3p=11}} }}<ref name="Evo Morales">{{cite news |title=Evo Morales wins landslide victory in Bolivian presidential elections |last=Carroll |first=Rory |author-link=Rory Carroll |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/07/morales-presidential-victory |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=7 December 2009 |access-date=20 August 2011}}</ref>
* 2006: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Michelle Bachelet]], Chile<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biobiochile.cl/2013/12/16/bachelet-primera-mujer-presidenta-y-primer-presidente-reelecto-desde-1932.shtml|title=Michelle Bachelet: primera mujer presidenta y primer presidente reelecto desde 1932|work=www.facebook.com/RadioBioBio|date=16 December 2013|access-date=11 March 2016|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012821/http://biobiochile.cl/2013/12/16/bachelet-primera-mujer-presidenta-y-primer-presidente-reelecto-desde-1932.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="agnostic">{{cite news |url=http://www.emol.com/noticias/nacional/2005/12/30/206367/bachelet-critica-a-la-derecha-por-descalificarla-por-ser-agnostica.html |title=Bachelet critica a la derecha por descalificarla por ser agnóstica |newspaper=El Mercurio |trans-title=Bachelet criticises the political right for discounting her because of her agnosticism |date=30 December 2005 |access-date=25 November 2014 |language=es |archive-date=25 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225151905/http://www.emol.com/noticias/nacional/2005/12/30/206367/bachelet-critica-a-la-derecha-por-descalificarla-por-ser-agnostica.html }}</ref>
* 2006: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Rafael Correa]], Ecuador<ref name="TRN2009Win">''[https://archive.today/20120715050859/http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=3622 "Avenger against oligarchy" wins in Ecuador]'' [[The Real News]], 27 April 2009.</ref><ref name="drug smuggling">{{cite news | last=Soto | first=Alonso | title=Ecuador's Correa admits father was drug smuggler | url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKN1423713820070414 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114045440/http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKN1423713820070414 | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 14, 2011 | agency=Reuters UK| access-date=14 Apr 2007 | date=14 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="OpenDemocracy">{{cite web |author=Guy Hedgecoe |title=Rafael Correa: An Ecuadorian Journey |date=29 April 2009 |website=openDemocracy |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/article/rafael-correa-an-ecuadorian-journey |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054104/https://www.opendemocracy.net/article/rafael-correa-an-ecuadorian-journey |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geneall.net/H/per_page.php?id=633442 |title=Rafael Correa Icaza |publisher=GeneAll.net |date=23 March 1934 |access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>
* 2007: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]], Argentina<ref name="CFK back at Olivos presidential residency after CELAC summit">{{cite news|title=CFK back at Olivos presidential residency after CELAC summit |url=http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/150849/cfk-back-at-olivos-presidential-residency-after-celac-summit |newspaper=[[Buenos Aires Herald]] |date=29 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202104503/http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/150849/cfk-back-at-olivos-presidential-residency-after-celac-summit |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref><ref name="CFK to Harvard students: there is no 'dollar clamp'; don't repeat monochord questions">{{cite news|title= CFK to Harvard students: there is no 'dollar clamp'; don't repeat monochord questions|work=MercoPress|date=28 September 2012|url=http://en.mercopress.com/2012/09/28/cfk-to-harvard-students-there-is-no-dollar-clamp-don-t-repeat-monochord-questions}}</ref>{{efn|She is variously known as Cristina Fernández,<ref name="CFK to Harvard students: there is no 'dollar clamp'; don't repeat monochord questions" /><ref name="Profile: Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner">{{cite news|title=Profile: Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner|work=BBC News|date=8 October 2013|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12284208}}</ref> Cristina K, or Cristina.<ref name="Profile: Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner"/><ref name="Aerolineas takeover shadows Cristina K visit to Spain">{{cite news|title= Aerolineas takeover shadows Cristina K visit to Spain|work= MercoPress|date= 9 February 2009|url= http://en.mercopress.com/2009/02/09/aerolineas-takeover-shadows-cristina-k-visit-to-spain|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140628214529/http://en.mercopress.com/2009/02/09/aerolineas-takeover-shadows-cristina-k-visit-to-spain|archive-date= 28 June 2014 }}</ref>|group="note"}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Latin America's crony capitalism. (Alvaro Vargas Llosa)(Interview)|url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-137406528|publisher=Reason |via=|url-access=|date=28 January 2013}}{{dead link|date=July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Cronyism and Corruption are Killing Economic Freedom in Argentina|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-224552730.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514122803/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-224552730.html|archive-date=14 May 2013|work=[[The Heritage Foundation|Heritage Foundation]]|publisher=[[HighBeam Research]]|date=22 April 2010|first=James M.|last=Roberts|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443404004577577013392087338|title=Pierpaolo Barbieri: A Lesson in Crony Capitalism|work=WSJ|first=Pierpaolo|last=Barbieri|date=8 August 2012|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Don't lie to me, Argentina">{{cite news|title=Don't lie to me, Argentina|newspaper=The Economist|date=25 February 2012|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21548242|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307233906/http://www.economist.com/node/21548242|archive-date=7 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="The price of cooking the books">{{cite news|title=The price of cooking the books|newspaper=The Economist|date=25 February 2012|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21548229|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214015122/http://www.economist.com/node/21548229|archive-date=14 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="Knock, knock">{{cite news|title=Knock, knock|newspaper=The Economist|date=21 June 2012|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21559384|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305232553/http://www.economist.com/node/21559384|archive-date=5 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="fpt-ataca-macri">{{cite news |url=http://www.clarin.com/capital_federal/subte-traspaso-Buenos_Aires-Gobierno_Nacional-spot_publicitario_0_753524919.html?commentsPage=4|title=El Gobierno usó a Fútbol para Todos para atacar a Macri |date=August 11, 2012|work=Clarín}}</ref><ref name="lanacion-subte-macri">{{cite news|url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1498512-el-gobierno-difundio-un-comercial-sobre-el-subte-en-el-futbol-para-todos|title=El Gobierno difundió un aviso polémico aviso sobre el subte|date=August 11, 2012|work=La Nación|access-date=March 22, 2016|archive-date=January 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110175455/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1498512-el-gobierno-difundio-un-comercial-sobre-el-subte-en-el-futbol-para-todos|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 2008: {{flagicon|PAR}} [[Fernando Lugo]], Paraguay<ref name="csmonitor1">{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2012/0624/Does-Paraguay-risk-pariah-status-with-president-s-ouster|title=Does Paraguay risk pariah status with president's ouster?|first=Peter|last=Orsi|agency=Associated Press|date=2012-06-24}}</ref><ref name="frenteguasu1">{{cite web|url=http://frenteguasu.org.py/el-fg-no-defraudara-la-confianza-del-pueblo-afirma-lugo |title=Frente Guasu |work=frenteguasu.org.py |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503223008/http://frenteguasu.org.py/el-fg-no-defraudara-la-confianza-del-pueblo-afirma-lugo |archive-date=May 3, 2013}}</ref>
* 2010: {{flagicon|URU}} [[José Mujica]], Uruguay<ref name=vlad>{{cite news |last = Hernandez |first = Vladimir |title = Jose Mujica: The World's 'Poorest' President |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-20243493 |newspaper = BBC News Magazine |date = 14 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>Jonathan Watts (13 December 2013). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/13/uruguay-president-jose-mujica?CMP=fb_gu Uruguay's president José Mujica: no palace, no motorcade, no frills]. ''[[The Guardian]].'' Retrieved 15 December 2013.</ref><ref>[http://diariolarepublica.net/de-paseo-por-muxika/ Mujica paseará por Muxika, la tierra de sus antepasados] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328124648/http://diariolarepublica.net/de-paseo-por-muxika/ |date=2016-03-28 }}, Diario La República</ref><ref>[http://diariolarepublica.net/mujica-recibio-las-llaves-de-la-ciudad-de-muxika/ Mujica recibió las llaves de la ciudad de Muxika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328013510/http://diariolarepublica.net/mujica-recibio-las-llaves-de-la-ciudad-de-muxika/ |date=2016-03-28 }}, Diario La República</ref>
* 2010: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Dilma Rousseff]], Brazil<ref name="EFE">EFE. [http://noticias.bol.uol.com.br/internacional/2010/10/31/dilma-1-mulher-presidente-e-unica-economista-em-121-anos-de-republica.jhtm "Dilma, 1ª mulher presidente e única economista em 121 anos de República"]. BOL. 31 October 2010.</ref><ref name="AgBr">Bennett, Allen [http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/thenewsinenglish;jsessionid=6FAF164D075F0F93B2F71B6909FCC5F4?p_p_id=56&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_count=1&_56_groupId=19523&_56_articleId=1016406 "Dilma Rousseff biography"] {{dead link|date=March 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, [[Agência Brasil]], 9 August 2010</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|author=Daniel Schwartz|date=31 October 2010|title=Dilma Rousseff|work=CBC News [[CBC.ca]]|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/dilma-rousseff-1.876366|access-date=27 October 2014}}</ref>
* 2011: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Ollanta Humala]], Peru<ref name=":1">''[[The Guardian]]'', April 11, 2011, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/11/peru-elections-fujimori-hamala-runoff Peru elections: Fujimori and Humala set for runoff vote]</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite news|last1=Leahy|first1=Joe|title=Peru president rejects link to Petrobras scandal|publisher=FT.com|agency=Financial Times|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/87349398-da88-11e5-9ba8-3abc1e7247e4.html#axzz42VcVN2wQ|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210211257/https://www.ft.com/content/87349398-da88-11e5-9ba8-3abc1e7247e4#axzz42VcVN2wQ|archive-date=2022-12-10|url-access=subscription|access-date=24 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite web|last1=Post|first1=Colin|title=Peru: Ollanta Humala implicated in Brazil's Carwash scandal|url=http://perureports.com/2016/02/23/peru-ollanta-humala-implicated-in-brazils-carwash-scandal/|access-date=23 February 2016|website=www.perureports.com|date=23 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="hoy">''[[Hoy (Peruvian newspaper)|Diario Hoy]]'', October 31, 2000, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130817191443/http://www.explored.com.ec/noticias-ecuador/peru-coronelazo-no-cuaja-50268-50268.html PERU, CORONELAZO NO CUAJA]</ref><ref name=":4">{{in lang|es}} BBC, January 4, 2005, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_4144000/4144497.stm Perú: insurgentes se rinden]</ref>
* 2013: {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Nicolás Maduro]], Venezuela<ref name="sworn">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22220526 "Nicolas Maduro sworn in as new Venezuelan president"]. BBC News. 19 April 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013</ref><ref name="elmundo2012">{{cite news|date=27 December 2012|title=Perfil &#124; ¿Quién es Nicolás Maduro?|language=es|newspaper=El Mundo|url=http://www.elmundo.com.ve/noticias/actualidad/politica/perfil---nicolas-maduro-cruzo-la-calle.aspx|access-date=9 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002135115/http://www.elmundo.com.ve/noticias/actualidad/politica/perfil---nicolas-maduro-cruzo-la-calle.aspx|archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera">{{cite web|date=March 2013|title=Profile: Nicolas Maduro – Americas|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2013/03/2013397107588721.html|access-date=9 March 2013|publisher=Al Jazeera English}}</ref><ref name="GUARD2013">{{cite news|last1=Lopez|first1=Virginia|last2=Watts|first2=Jonathan|date=15 April 2013|title=Who is Nicolás Maduro? Profile of Venezuela's new president|agency=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/15/nicolas-maduro-profile-venezuela-president|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref>
* 2014: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Michelle Bachelet]], Chile <ref>{{cite news |title=Ex-president Michelle Bachelet wins Chile poll run-off |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-25387340 |work=BBC News |date=15 December 2013}}</ref>
* 2015: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Tabaré Vázquez]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Tabare Vazquez wins Uruguay's run-off election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30268862 |work=BBC News |date=30 November 2014}}</ref>
* 2017: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Lenín Moreno]], Ecuador<ref name=":5">{{cite web|author=Santiago Piedra Silva|date=2017-05-24|title=New leftist Ecuador president takes office|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/leftist-ecuador-president-takes-office-160731947.html|access-date=2017-07-16|publisher=Yahoo.com}}</ref>
* 2019: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Alberto Fernández]], Argentina
* 2020: {{flagicon|BOL}} [[Luis Arce]], Bolivia
* 2021: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Pedro Castillo]], Peru<ref name="DW.COM">{{cite news |title=Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president |url=https://www.dw.com/en/peru-pedro-castillo-sworn-in-as-president/a-58672989 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=28 July 2021}}</ref>
* 2022: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Gabriel Boric|Gabriel Boric Font]], Chile <ref name="the Guardian">{{cite news |title=Gabriel Boric, 36, sworn in as president to herald new era for Chile |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/11/gabriel-boric-chile-president-new-era |work=the Guardian |date=11 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2022: {{flagicon|COL}} [[Gustavo Petro]], Colombia <ref name="www.aljazeera.com">{{cite news |title=Ex-rebel takes oath as Colombia's first left-wing president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/8/gustavo-petro-ex-rebel-fighter-sworn-in-as-colombias-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>
* 2023: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]], Brazil <ref>{{cite news |title=Lula sworn in as Brazil president as predecessor Bolsonaro flies to US |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-64138739 |work=BBC News |date=1 January 2023}}</ref>
* 2025: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Yamandu Orsi]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Uruguay's new leftist president takes office |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/uruguay-s-new-leftist-president-takes-office/7994077.html |work=Voice of America |date=2 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

{{clear}}

===Politics===
{{update section|date=January 2021}}
During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments move to the political left, with leftist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. Most South American countries are making an increasing use of protectionist policies, undermining a greater global integration but helping local development.

In 2008, the [[Union of South American Nations]] (USAN) was founded, which aimed to merge the two existing customs unions, [[Mercosur]] and the [[Andean Community]], thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/integrate/2008/1029newconsensus.htm |title=Globalpolicy.org |publisher=Globalpolicy.org |date=2008-10-29 |access-date=2010-10-24 }}</ref> The organization is planning for political integration in the [[European Union]] style, seeking to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of [[tariff]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} According to [[Noam Chomsky]], USAN represents that "for the first time since the European conquest, Latin America began to move towards integration".<ref>{{in lang|pt}} Giovana Sanchez. [http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Mundo/0,,MUL1322738-5602,00-NOAM+CHOMSKY+CRITICA+OS+EUA+E+ELOGIA+O+PAPEL+DO+BRASIL+NA+CRISE+DE+HONDURAS.html "Noam Chomsky critica os EUA e elogia o papel do Brasil na crise de Honduras"]. G1. September 30, 2009,</ref><ref>The phrase has been used in the past for this same purpose. It has never been officially proposed or used. Collazo, Ariel B. ''La Federación de Estados: Única solución para el drama de América Latina.'' n/d, circa 1950–1960. {{OCLC| 25422930}}</ref><ref>[[Eduardo Duhalde|Duhalde, Eduardo]] (13 July 2004). [https://archive.today/20121230074732/http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=618111 "Hacia los Estados Unidos de Sudamérica."] ''La Nación''.</ref><ref>Grorjovsky, Nestor (14 July 2004). [http://lists.econ.utah.edu/pipermail/reconquista-popular/2004-July/017886.html "Duhalde señaló que el Mercosur es un paso para la Unión Sudamericana"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205161947/http://lists.econ.utah.edu/pipermail/reconquista-popular/2004-July/017886.html |date=2012-02-05 }} Reconquista-Popular.</ref><ref>Collazo, Ariel (15 July 2004). [http://www.larepublica.com.uy/editorial/147648-los-estados-unidos-de-sudamerica "Los Estados Unidos de Sudamérica"] ''La República''.</ref><ref>[http://fox.presidencia.gob.mx/actividades/?contenido=8747 29 July 2004,interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405120124/http://fox.presidencia.gob.mx/actividades/?contenido=8747 |date=5 April 2016 }} with Mexican President [[Vicente Fox]] by [[Andrés Oppenheimer]]. Mexico:Presidencia de la República</ref><ref>[http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/herejiasysilencios.php/2005/11/22/estados_unidos_de_sudamerica "Estados Unidos de Sudamérica"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103190457/http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/herejiasysilencios.php/2005/11/22/estados_unidos_de_sudamerica |date=2015-01-03 }} Herejías y silencios. (22 November 2005).</ref><ref>Duhalde, Eduardo (6 December 2004). [http://www.clarin.com/diario/2004/12/06/opinion/o-02301.htm "Sudamérica y un viejo sueño."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013151155/http://www.clarin.com/diario/2004/12/06/opinion/o-02301.htm |date=2008-10-13 }} ''Clarín''</ref>

{{South America government from 1990}}

=== Most recent heads of state in South America ===
* 2010: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Dilma Rousseff]], Brazil<ref name="EFE" /><ref name="AgBr" /><ref name=":0" />
* 2010: {{flagicon|URU}} [[José Mujica]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Ex-rebel inaugurated in Uruguay |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8544503.stm |date=1 March 2010}}</ref>
* 2010: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Sebastián Piñera]], Chile <ref>{{cite news |title=Billionaire sworn in as Chilean president - CNN.com |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/03/11/chile.pinera/index.html |work=www.cnn.com |date=11 March 2010 |language=en |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215230721/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/03/11/chile.pinera/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2010: {{flagicon|COL}} [[Juan Manuel Santos]]<ref>{{cite news |title=New Colombian president sworn in |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-10904788 |work=BBC News |date=8 August 2010}}</ref>
* 2011: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Ollanta Humala]], Peru<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name="hoy" /><ref name=":4" />
* 2013: {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Nicolás Maduro]], Venezuela<ref name="sworn" /><ref name="elmundo2012" /><ref name="aljazeera" /><ref name="GUARD2013" />
* 2013: {{flagicon|PAR}} [[Horacio Cartes|Horacio Cartés]], Paraguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Ecuador did not attend the assumption of the President of Paraguay |url=https://www.ecuadortimes.net/ecuador-did-not-attend-the-assumption-of-the-president-of-paraguay/ |work=Ecuador Times |date=15 August 2013}}</ref>
* 2014: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Michelle Bachelet]], Chile <ref>{{cite news |title=Michelle Bachelet sworn in as Chile's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-26528923 |work=BBC News |date=11 March 2014}}</ref>
* 2015: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Mauricio Macri]], Argentina <ref>{{cite news |title=Argentine President Mauricio Macri sworn in |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20151210-macri-argentina-president-inaugurattion-assumes-power-promises-change |work=France 24 |date=10 December 2015 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2015: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Tabaré Vázquez]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Vazquez sworn in as Uruguay's president |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20150302-uruguay-vazquez-sworn-president-mujica-leaves-office-marijuana-abortion |work=France 24 |date=2 March 2015 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2015: {{flagicon|GUY}} [[David A. Granger|David Granger]], Guyana <ref>{{cite news |title=Granger sworn in as President |url=https://www.stabroeknews.com/2015/05/16/news/guyana/granger-sworn-in-as-president/ |work=Stabroek News |date=16 May 2015}}</ref>
* 2016: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Michel Temer]], Brazil <ref>{{cite news |title=Temer officially sworn in as Brazilian president |url=https://www.euronews.com/2016/08/31/temer-officially-sworn-in-as-brazilian-president |work=euronews |date=31 August 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2016: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Pedro Pablo Kuczynski|Pedro Pablo Kuczynski Godard]], Peru
* 2017: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Lenín Moreno]], Ecuador<ref name=":5" />
* 2018: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Sebastián Piñera]], Chile <ref>{{cite news |title=Sebastian Piñera sworn in as Chile's president |url=https://www.efe.com/efe/english/world/sebastian-pinera-sworn-in-as-chile-s-president/50000262-3549580 |work=www.efe.com |date=11 March 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2018: {{flagicon|COL}} [[Iván Duque Márquez]], Colombia <ref>{{cite news |title=Iván Duque: Colombia's new president sworn into office |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45107063 |work=BBC News |date=8 August 2018}}</ref>
* 2018: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Martín Vizcarra]], Peru <ref>{{cite news |title=Martin Vizcarra sworn in as Peru's president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/3/23/martin-vizcarra-sworn-in-as-perus-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>
* 2018: {{flagicon|PAR}} [[Mario Abdo Benítez|Mario Abdo]], Paraguay <ref>{{cite news |title=New Paraguayan President Abdo Benítez sworn in |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45200965 |work=BBC News |date=15 August 2018}}</ref>
* 2019: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Jair Bolsonaro]], Brazil <ref>{{cite news |title=Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro sworn in as new president |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/brazils-jair-bolsonaro-sworn-in-as-new-president/ |work=www.timesofisrael.com |date=1 January 2019}}</ref>
* 2019: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Alberto Fernández]], Argentina <ref>{{cite news |agency=Reuters |title='We're back': Alberto Fernández sworn in as Argentina shifts to the left |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/10/argentina-alberto-fernandez-inauguration |work=the Guardian |date=10 December 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Luis Lacalle Pou|Luis Lacalle]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Uruguay's new center-right president sworn in |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200301-uruguay-s-new-center-right-president-sworn-in |work=France 24 |date=1 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|BOL}} [[Luis Arce]], Bolivia <ref>{{cite news |title=Luis Arce sworn in as Bolivia's president |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/luis-arce-sworn-in-as-bolivia-s-president/2036718 |work=www.aa.com.tr |date=9 November 2020}}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Manuel Merino|Manuel Merino de Lama]], Peru <ref>{{Cite news |last=Collyns |first=Dan |date=2020-11-10 |title=Peru's new president accused of coup after ousting of predecessor |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/10/peru-coup-accusations-head-of-congress-made-president-predecessor-ousted |access-date=2023-12-29 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|SUR}} [[Chan Santokhi|Chandrikapersad "Chan" Santokhi]], Suriname <ref>{{cite news |title=Chan Santokhi sworn is as new president of Suriname |url=https://caricom.org/suriname-chan-santokhi-sworn-is-as-new-president-of-suriname/ |work=CARICOM |date=16 July 2020 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215224656/https://caricom.org/suriname-chan-santokhi-sworn-is-as-new-president-of-suriname/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|GUY}} [[Irfaan Ali]], Guyana <ref>{{cite news |title=Guyana swears in Irfaan Ali as president after long stand-off |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-53637085 |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2020}}</ref>
* 2020: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Francisco Sagasti]], Peru <ref>{{cite news |title=Peru's new president Sagasti sworn in – DW – 11/17/2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/peru-swears-in-third-president-in-a-week-amid-political-upheaval/a-55641457 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>
* 2021: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Guillermo Lasso]], Ecuador<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservative Guillermo Lasso sworn in as Ecuador's new president |url=https://www.riotimesonline.com/brazil-news/mercosur/ecuador/conservative-guillermo-lasso-sworn-in-as-ecuadors-new-president/ |newspaper=The Río Times |date=24 May 2021}}</ref>
* 2021: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Pedro Castillo]], Peru<ref name="DW.COM"/>
* 2022: {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Gabriel Boric|Gabriel Boric Font]], Chile <ref name="the Guardian"/>
* 2022: {{flagicon|COL}} [[Gustavo Petro]], Colombia <ref name="www.aljazeera.com"/>
* 2022: {{flagicon|PER}} [[Dina Boluarte]], Peru <ref>{{cite news |title=Peru's President Pedro Castillo replaced by Dina Boluarte after impeachment |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63895505 |work=BBC News |date=7 December 2022}}</ref>
* 2023: {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]], Brazil <ref>{{cite news |title=Lula sworn in as Brazil president as predecessor Bolsonaro flies to US |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-64138739 |work=BBC News |date=1 January 2023}}</ref>
* 2023: {{flagicon|PAR}} [[Santiago Peña]], Paraguay <ref>{{cite news |last1=Desantis |first1=Daniela |last2=Elliott |first2=Lucinda |last3=Elliott |first3=Lucinda |title=Paraguay's President Pena sworn in, Taiwan VP in attendance |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/new-paraguayan-president-santiago-pena-sworn-2023-08-15/ |work=Reuters |date=16 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
* 2023: {{flagicon|ECU}} [[Daniel Noboa]], Ecuador<ref>{{cite news |title=Business heir Daniel Noboa sworn in as Ecuador president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/23/millionaire-daniel-noboa-sworn-in-as-ecuador-president |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
* 2023: {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Javier Milei]], Argentina <ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-10 |title=In inaugural speech, Argentina's Javier Milei prepares nation for painful shock adjustment |url=https://apnews.com/article/argentina-milei-inauguration-president-46b73d6a705e1c4652303022a37dbbb0 |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>
* 2025: {{flagicon|URU}} [[Yamandu Orsi]], Uruguay <ref>{{cite news |title=Uruguay's new leftist president takes office |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/uruguay-s-new-leftist-president-takes-office/7994077.html |work=Voice of America |date=2 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Inca Empire]]
* [[Gran Colombia]]
* [[History of Latin America]]
* [[Military history of South America]]
* [[Peru–Bolivian Confederation]]
* [[Simón Bolívar]]
* [[José de San Martín]]
* [[Francisco Pizarro]]
* [[Spanish American wars of independence]]
* [[Peopling of the Americas]]
* [[European colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Decolonization of the Americas]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Historiography===
<!-- PLEASE KEEP IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER-->
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* ''Deforestation.'' ''World Geography.'' Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill/Glencoe, 2000. 202–204
* {{cite book|title=Evo's Bolivia: Continuity and Change|last1=Farthing|first1=Linda C.|last2=Kohl|first2=Benjamin H.|year=2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin|isbn=978-0-292-75868-1}}
* {{cite book|title=The Rise of Evo Morales and the MAS|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XjvRwAACAAJ&q=The+Rise+of+Evo+Morales+and+the+MAS|last=Harten|first=Sven|year=2011|publisher=Zed Books|location=London and New York|isbn=978-1-84813-523-9}}
* Hensel, Silke. "Was There an Age of Revolution in Latin America?: New Literature on Latin American Independence." ''Latin American Research Review'' (2003) 38#3 pp.&nbsp;237–249. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lar/summary/v038/38.3hensel.html online]
* {{cite book |last=Muñoz-Pogossian|first=Betilde|author-link=Betilde Muñoz-Pogossian|title=Electoral Rules and the Transformation of Bolivian Politics: The Rise of Evo Morales |year=2008 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=978-0-230-60819-1}}
* {{cite book|title=The Triumph of Politics: The Return of the Left in Venezuela, Bolivia and Ecuador|last1=Philip|first1=George|last2=Panizza|first2=Francisco|year=2011|publisher=Polity Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-7456-4749-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofpolitic0000phil}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sheil |first=D. |author2=Wunder, S. |year=2002 |title=The value of tropical forest to local communities: complications, caveats, and cautions |journal=Conservation Ecology |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=9 |doi=10.5751/ES-00458-060209 |hdl=10535/2768 |url=http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/2768/30.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite book|title=Evo Morales: The Extraordinary Rise of the First Indigenous President of Bolivia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5ZFs6vTlKwC&q=Evo+Morales:+The+Extraordinary+Rise+of+the+First+Indigenous+President+of+Bolivia|last=Sivak|first=Martín|author-link=Martín Sivak|year=2010|publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|location= New York|isbn=978-0-230-62305-7}}
* Uribe, Victor M. "The Enigma of Latin American Independence: Analyses of the Last Ten Years," ''Latin American Research Review'' (1997) 32#1 pp.&nbsp;236–255 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504056 in JSTOR]
* Wade, Lizzie. (2015). "[https://www.science.org/content/article/drones-and-satellites-spot-lost-civilizations-unlikely-places Drones and satellites spot lost civilizations in unlikely places]." ''[[American Association for the Advancement of Science|Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science)]],'' {{doi|10.1126/science.aaa7864}}
* {{cite book|title=From Rebellion to Reform in Bolivia: Class Struggle, Indigenous Liberation, and the Politics of Evo Morales|last=Webber|first=Jeffrey R.|year=2011|publisher=Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-60846-106-6}}
{{refend}}

== Bibliography ==

=== Prehistory ===
* {{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Larry G. |year=1988 |title=Land Mammals and the Great American Interchange |url=http://ckwri.tamuk.edu/fileadmin/user_upload/PHOTOS/Deer-Research_Program/Class_files/Land_mammals_and_the_Great_American_Interchange_AmSci_Marshall.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827091213/http://ckwri.tamuk.edu/fileadmin/user_upload/PHOTOS/Deer-Research_Program/Class_files/Land_mammals_and_the_Great_American_Interchange_AmSci_Marshall.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-27 |pages=380–388 |journal=American Scientist |volume=76 |issue=4 |access-date=2016-08-26 |bibcode=1988AmSci..76..380M }}

=== Muisca ===
* {{cite thesis |last=Daza |first=Blanca Ysabel |degree=PhD |year=2013 |title=Historia del proceso de mestizaje alimentario entre Colombia y España – History of the integration process of foods between Colombia and Spain |location=Barcelona, Spain | publisher=[[Universitat de Barcelona]] |language=es}}
* {{cite thesis |author1-link=J. Michael Francis |last=Francis |first=John Michael |degree=Masters |year=1993 |title="Muchas hipas, no minas" The Muiscas, a merchant society: Spanish misconceptions and demographic change |publisher=[[University of Alberta]]}}
* {{cite AV media |author1-link=Jorge Gamboa Mendoza |last=Gamboa Mendoza |first=Jorge |year=2016 |title=Los muiscas, grupos indígenas del Nuevo Reino de Granada. Una nueva propuesta sobre su organizacíon socio-política y su evolucíon en el siglo XVI – The Muisca, indigenous groups of the New Kingdom of Granada. A new proposal on their social-political organization and their evolution in the 16th century |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NAJ-EM5h4N0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103143458/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NAJ-EM5h4N0&gl=US&hl=en |archive-date=2019-11-03 |url-status=live |publisher=Banrepcultural |language=es |access-date=2016-07-08 |via=YouTube }}
* {{cite thesis |last=García |first=Jorge Luis |degree=Masters |title=The Foods and crops of the Muisca: a dietary reconstruction of the intermediate chiefdoms of Bogotá (Bacatá) and Tunja (Hunza), Colombia |url=http://www.caracol.org/include/files/chase/GarciaMA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503090004/http://www.caracol.org/include/files/chase/GarciaMA.pdf |archive-date=2014-05-03 |year=2012 |publisher=[[University of Central Florida]] |access-date=2016-07-08 }}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Ana María Groot |last=Groot de Mahecha |first=Ana María |year=2008 |title=Sal y poder en el altiplano de Bogotá, 1537–1640 |publisher=[[National University of Colombia|Universidad Nacional de Colombia]] |isbn=978-958-719-046-5 |language=es}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Kruschek |first=Michael H. |degree=PhD |year=2003 |title=The evolution of the Bogotá chiefdom: A household view |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/7735/1/kruschek2003.pdf |access-date=2016-07-08}}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Javier Ocampo López |last=Ocampo López |first=Javier |year=2007 |title=Grandes culturas indígenas de América – Great indigenous cultures of the Americas |location=Bogotá |publisher=Plaza & Janes Editores Colombia S.A. |isbn=978-958-14-0368-4 |language=es}}

== Further reading ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Robert |year=2000 |title=Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830 |publisher=John Murray, London |isbn=0-7195-5566-3}}

{{History of South America}}
{{South America topics}}
{{History by continent}}
{{Americas topic|History of}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of South America}}
[[Category:History of South America| ]]