Editing History of Norway

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
[[File:1730 Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg|thumb|450px|Homann's map of the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] and [[Fennoscandia]] with their surrounding territories: northern [[Germany]], northern [[Poland]], the [[Baltic region]], [[Livonia]], [[Belarus]], and parts of [[Northwest Russia]]. [[Johann Homann|Johann Baptist Homann]] (1664–1724) was a German geographer and cartographer; map dated around 1730.]]
{{History of Norway}}
{{Scandinavia|History}}

The '''history of Norway''' has been influenced to an extraordinary degree by the terrain and the climate of the region. About 10,000 BC, following the retreat inland of the great ice sheets, the earliest inhabitants migrated north into the territory which is now [[Norway]]. They traveled steadily northwards along the coastal areas, warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]]. They were hunter-gatherers whose diet included seafood and game, particularly [[reindeer]] as staple foods. Between 5,000 BC and 4,000 BC the earliest agricultural settlements appeared around the [[Oslofjord]]. Gradually, between 1,500 BC and 500 BC, agricultural settlements spread to the entire south Norway, while the inhabitants of the regions north of [[Trøndelag]] continued to hunt and fish.

The [[Neolithic]] period started in 4,000 BC. The [[Migration Period]] caused the first [[chieftain]]s to take control and hilltop forts to be constructed. From the 8th century Norwegians started expanding across the seas to the [[British Isles]] and later [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]]. The [[Viking Age]] also saw the [[unification of Norway|unification]] of the country. [[Christianization of Scandinavia|Christianization]] was completed during the 11th century and [[Nidaros]] became an [[archdiocese]]. The population expanded quickly until 1349 (Oslo: 3,000; Bergen: 7,000; Trondheim: 4,000){{citation needed|date=November 2013}} when it was halved by the [[Black Death]] and successive [[wikt:plague|plagues]]. [[Bergen]] became the main trading port, controlled by the [[Hanseatic League]]. Norway entered the [[Kalmar Union]] with Denmark and Sweden in 1397.

After Sweden left the union in 1523, Norway became the junior partner in [[Denmark–Norway]]. The [[Reformation]] was [[Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein|introduced in 1537]] and [[absolute monarch]]y imposed in 1661. In 1814, after being on the losing side of the Napoleonic Wars with Denmark, Norway was ceded to the king of Sweden by the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. Norway declared its independence and adopted a [[Constitution of Norway|constitution]]. However, no foreign powers recognized the Norwegian independence but supported the Swedish demand for Norway to comply with the treaty of Kiel. After a short [[Swedish-Norwegian War (1814)|war with Sweden]], the countries concluded the [[Convention of Moss]], in which Norway accepted a [[union between Sweden and Norway|personal union]] with Sweden, keeping its Constitution, [[Storting]] and separate institutions, except for the foreign service. The union was formally established after the extraordinary Storting adopted the necessary amendments to the Constitution and elected [[Charles XIII of Sweden]] as king of Norway on 4 November 1814.

Industrialization started in the 1840s, and from the 1860s large-scale emigration to North America took place. In 1884 the king appointed Johan Sverdrup as prime minister, thus establishing parliamentarism. The union with Sweden was [[dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905|dissolved]] in 1905. From the 1880s to the 1920s, Norwegians such as [[Fridtjof Nansen]] and [[Roald Amundsen]] carried out important polar expeditions.
Shipping and [[hydroelectricity]] were important sources of income for the country. The following decades saw a fluctuating economy and the rise of the labor movement. [[Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany|Germany occupied Norway]] between 1940 and 1945 during the [[Second World War]], after which Norway joined [[NATO]] and underwent a period of reconstruction under public planning. Oil was discovered in 1969 and by 1995 Norway was the world's second-largest exporter. This resulted in a large increase of wealth. From the 1980s Norway started deregulation in many sectors, and in 1989–1990 experienced a banking crisis.

By the 21st century, Norway became one of the world's most prosperous countries with oil and gas production accounting for 20 percent of its economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/norway |title=Norway Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption |website=www.heritage.org |access-date=25 June 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625104033/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/norway |url-status=unfit }}</ref> By reinvesting its oil revenues, Norway had the world's largest sovereign wealth fund in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/04/lessons-from-norway-the-world-s-most-inclusive-economy/ |title=Lessons from Norway, the world's most inclusive economy |website=World Economic Forum |date=12 April 2017 |access-date=25 June 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625103637/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/04/lessons-from-norway-the-world-s-most-inclusive-economy/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Prehistory==
{{main|Scandinavian prehistory}}
Norway's coastline rose from glaciation with the end of the [[last glacial period]] about 12,000 BC. The first immigration took place during this period as the Norwegian coast offered rich opportunities for [[seal hunting|sealing]], fishing, and hunting.<ref>Stenersen: 7</ref> These early inhabitants were [[nomadic]], and by 9300 BC they were already settled as far north as [[Magerøya]]. Increased ice receding from 8000 BC led to settlement along the entire coastline. The [[Nordic Stone Age|Stone Age]] is evidenced by the [[Komsa culture]] in [[Troms]] and [[Finnmark]] and the [[Fosna culture]] further south. The [[Nøstvet culture]] took over from the Fosna culture ca. 7000 BC,<ref>Stenersen: 8</ref> when a warmer climate led to increased forestation and new species of mammals for hunting. The oldest human skeleton ever discovered in Norway was found in shallow water off Sogne in 1994 and has been carbon dated to 6600 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thornews.com/2013/01/07/sognekvinnen-norways-oldest-human-skeleton/ |title='Søgnekvinnen' – Norway's Oldest Human Skeleton |publisher=Thornews.com |date=7 January 2013 |access-date=21 August 2014 |archive-date=5 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705005146/http://thornews.com/2013/01/07/sognekvinnen-norways-oldest-human-skeleton/ |url-status=live }}</ref> About 4000 BC people in the north started using [[slate]] tools, [[earthenware]], skis, sleds and large skin boats.<ref>Stenersen: 9</ref>

[[File:AltaRockCarvingsFences.jpg|thumb|[[Rock carvings at Alta]]]]
The first farming, and thus the start of the Neolithic period, began ca. 4000 BC around the [[Oslofjord]], with technology from southern Scandinavia.<ref name="s10">Stenersen: 10</ref> The break-through occurred between 2900 and 2500 BC, when [[oats]], [[barley]], pigs, cattle, sheep and goats became common and spread as far north as [[Alta (town)|Alta]]. This period also saw the arrival of the [[Corded Ware culture]], which brought new weapons, tools and an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European dialect]], from which later the [[Norwegian language]] developed.<ref name="Stenersen: 11">Stenersen: 11</ref>

===Nordic Bronze Age (1800–500 BC)===
{{Further|Nordic Bronze Age}}
The Bronze Age began around 1800 BC and involved innovations such as ploughing fields with [[ard (plough)|ards]], permanent farms with houses and yards, especially in the fertile areas around the Oslofjord, [[Trondheimsfjord]], [[Mjøsa]] and [[Jæren]].<ref name="Stenersen: 11" /> Some yields were so high that it allowed farmers to trade furs and skins for luxury items, especially with [[Jutland]].<ref name="s12">Stenersen: 12</ref> About 1000 BC, speakers of [[Uralic languages]] arrived in the north and assimilated with the indigenous population, becoming the [[Sami people]].<ref name="s10" /> According to Ante Aikio<ref>{{citation |last=Aikio |first=Ante |contribution=An essay on substrate studies and the origin of Saami |editor1-last=Hyvärinen |editor1-first=Irma |editor2-last=Kallio |editor2-first=Petri |editor3-last=Korhonen |editor3-first=Jarmo |title=Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen: Festschrift für Jorma Koivulehto zum 70. Geburtstag |series=Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki |volume=63 |publisher=Société Néophilologique |publication-date=2004 |publication-place=Helsinki |pages=5–34}}</ref> the formation of the Sámi language was completed in its southernmost area of usage (central Scandinavia, South Sápmi) by 500 AD.

A climate shift with colder weather started about 500 BC. The forests, which had previously consisted of [[elm]], [[tilia|lime]], [[fraxinus|ash]] and [[oak]], were replaced with [[birch]], [[pine]] and [[spruce]]. The climate changes also meant that farmers started building more solid structures for shelter. Knowledge of [[Ferrous metallurgy|ironworking]] was introduced from the [[Celts]], resulting in better weapons and tools.<ref name="s12" />

===Nordic Iron Age (500 BC–800 AD)===
{{Further|Iron Age Scandinavia}}
Iron Age tools allowed for more extensive clearing and farming, and thus more areas were cultivated as the population grew with the increased harvests. A new social structure evolved: when sons married, they would remain in the same house; such an extended family was a [[clan]]. They would offer protection from other clans; if conflicts arose, the issue would be decided at a ''[[thing (assembly)|thing]]'', a sacred place where all free men from the surrounding area would assemble and could settle disputes and determine sanctions for crimes, such as paying fines in food.<ref name="s15">Stenersen: 15</ref>

The last century BC saw a widespread cultural development. The Norse adapted letters and created their own alphabet, [[runes]]. Trading with Romans also took place, largely furs and skins in exchange for luxury goods. Some Scandinavians also served as Roman [[mercenaries]].<ref name="s15" /> Some of the most powerful farmers became [[chieftain]]s. They functioned as priests and accepted sacrifices from farmers which were again used to pay soldiers, creating a [[hird]]. Thus they were able to rule an area of several clans and tribes.<ref name="Stenersen: 16">Stenersen: 16</ref>

The chieftains' power increased during the [[Migration Period]] between 400 and 550 as other [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes migrated northwards and local farmers wanted protection. This also resulted in the construction of simple fortifications. A [[wikt:plague|plague]] hit southern Norway in the 6th century, with hundreds of farms being depopulated. Most were repopulated in the 7th century, which also saw the construction of several fishing hamlets and a boom in trade of iron and [[soapstone]] across the [[North Sea]].<ref name="Stenersen: 16" /> Some chieftains were able to control most of the trade and grew in power throughout the 8th century.<ref>Stenersen: 17</ref>

=== Archaeological findings ===
In February 2020, Secrets of the Ice Program researchers discovered a 1,500-year-old Viking arrowhead dating back to the Germanic Iron Age and locked in a glacier in southern [[Norway]] caused by the climate change in the [[Jotunheimen]] Mountains. The arrowhead made of iron was revealed with its cracked wooden shaft and a feather, is 17&nbsp;cm long and weighs just 28 grams.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Stephanie |title=Climate change reveals, and threatens, thawing relics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/26/world/climate-change-threatens-archaeology-intl/index.html |access-date=25 March 2020 |website=CNN |date=26 February 2019 |archive-date=26 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226163545/https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/26/world/climate-change-threatens-archaeology-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramming |first=Audrey |date=6 March 2020 |title=Photo Friday: Norwegian Glacial Ice Preserves Ancient Viking Artifacts |url=https://glacierhub.org/2020/03/06/photo-friday-norwegian-glacial-ice-preserves-ancient-viking-artifacts/ |access-date=25 March 2020 |website=GlacierHub |language=en-US |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325080759/https://glacierhub.org/2020/03/06/photo-friday-norwegian-glacial-ice-preserves-ancient-viking-artifacts/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2020 |title=1,500-Year-Old Viking Arrowhead Found After Glacier Melts in Norway |url=https://curiosmos.com/1500-year-old-viking-arrowhead-found-after-glacier-melts-in-norway/ |access-date=25 March 2020 |website=Curiosmos |language=en-US |archive-date=25 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325043710/https://curiosmos.com/1500-year-old-viking-arrowhead-found-after-glacier-melts-in-norway/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Viking Age ==
{{main|Viking Age}}
[[File:Lofotr 01.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of a [[longhouse]] at [[Lofoten]]]]
The Viking Age was a period of Scandinavian expansion through trade, raids and colonization. One of the first raids was against [[Lindisfarne]] in 793 and is considered the beginning of the Viking Age.<ref>Stenersen: 19</ref> This was possible because of the development of the [[longship]], suitable for travel across the sea, and advanced [[navigation]] techniques.<ref name="s20">Stenersen: 20</ref>

[[Vikings]] were well equipped, had [[chain mail]] armor, and were well trained. In addition to gold and silver, an important purpose from the raids was the capture and trading of [[thrall]]s, which were brought to the Norwegian farms as a slave workforce. Whenever the men were engaged in warfare and voyages, the homestead was run by those remaining at home, supervised by the wife.<ref>Stenersen: 23</ref>

The lack of suitable farming land in [[Western Norway]] caused Norwegians to travel to and colonize sparsely populated areas of [[Shetland]], Orkney, the [[Faroe Islands]] and the [[Hebrides]], the latter of which became the [[Kingdom of the Isles]].<ref name="s20" /> Norwegian [[Vikings]] settled on the east coast of Ireland circa 800 and founded the island's first cities, including [[Dublin]]. Their arrival caused the petty [[Gaelic Ireland|Gaelic]] kings to ally, and by 900 they had driven out the Norwegians.<ref>Stenersen: 24</ref>

[[File:Norwegian petty kingdoms ca. 872.png|thumb|[[Petty kingdoms of Norway]] c. 872]]

The mid-9th century saw the largest chieftains of the [[petty kingdoms of Norway|petty kingdoms]] engaged in major power struggle. [[Harald Fairhair]] began the process of [[unification of Norway|unifying Norway]] when he entered an alliance with the [[Earls of Lade]] and was able to unify the country after the decisive [[Battle of Hafrsfjord]] (circa 870–900).<ref name="s27" /> He set up the basics of a state administration with stewards seated at the most important estates of vanquished or exiled chieftains.

[[Iceland]], then uninhabited, was discovered by Norwegians during the late 9th century. By 930 the island had been divided among 400 Norse chieftains.<ref>Stenersen: 25</ref>

[[Håkon the Good]] – the son of Harald Fairhair, raised in England – assumed the crown in 930 and established two large ''[[thing (government)|things]]'', assemblies in which the king met with the free men to make decisions: [[Gulating]] for Western Norway and [[Frostating]] for [[Trøndelag]]. He also established the leidang, a mobilization army/navy. Haakon made an unsuccessful attempt to introduce Christianity in Norway. After his death in 960, war broke out between the [[Fairhair dynasty]] and the Earls of Lade in alliance with Danish kings.<ref>Stenersen: 28</ref>

Led by [[Erik the Red]], a Norwegian-born man, a group of Icelanders settled on [[Greenland]] in the 980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.snerpa.is/net/snorri/landnama.htm |title=Landnámabók (Sturlubók) |website=www.snerpa.is |access-date=14 September 2017 |archive-date=15 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515182047/http://www.snerpa.is/net/snorri/landnama.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Erik's son, [[Leif Ericson]], came across [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] in ca. 1000, naming it [[Vinland]]. Unlike Greenland, no permanent settlement was established there.<ref name="s27">Stenersen: 27</ref>

=== Archaeological findings ===
Several Viking ships in burial mounds have been found and placed in museums, including the [[Oseberg]] and [[Gokstad]] ships. In October 2018, Norwegian archaeologists headed by the archaeologist Lars Gustavsen announced the discovery of a buried 20 m long Gjellestad Viking ship in [[Halden Municipality]]. An ancient well-preserved Viking cemetery for more than 1000 years was discovered using ground-penetrating radar. Archaeologists also revealed at least seven other previously unknown burial mounds and the remnants of five longhouses with the help of the radar survey.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 October 2018 |title=Viking ship burial discovered in Norway just 50cm underground |url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/15/viking-ship-burial-discovered-in-norway-just-50cm-underground |access-date=1 February 2021 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413215958/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/15/viking-ship-burial-discovered-in-norway-just-50cm-underground |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Starr |first=Michelle |title=A Rare Viking Ship Burial Was Just Discovered in Norway, Less Than 2 Feet Underground |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/jellestad-ship-viking-burial-iron-age-jelle-mound-ground-penetrating-radar-norway |access-date=1 February 2021 |website=ScienceAlert |date=15 October 2018 |language=en-gb |archive-date=14 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114205729/https://www.sciencealert.com/jellestad-ship-viking-burial-iron-age-jelle-mound-ground-penetrating-radar-norway |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McGreevy |first=Nora |title=For the First Time in a Century, Norway Will Excavate Viking Ship Burial |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-time-century-norway-will-excavate-viking-ship-burial-180974854/ |access-date=1 February 2021 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206114252/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/first-time-century-norway-will-excavate-viking-ship-burial-180974854/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=miljødepartementet |first=Klima-og |date=12 May 2020 |title=Vil grave fram det første vikingskipet på 100 år |url=https://www.regjeringen.no/nn/aktuelt/gjellestadskipet/id2701917/ |access-date=1 February 2021 |website=Regjeringa.no |language=nn-NO |archive-date=12 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712104418/https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumentarkiv/regjeringen-solberg/aktuelt-regjeringen-solberg/kld/nyheter/2020-nyheter/gjellestadskipet/id2701917/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Middle Ages==
{{See also|Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)}}
[[File:KingdomOfNorway(872-1397).jpg|left|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)|Kingdom of Norway]] about 1265, at its greatest extent]]
[[Christianization of Scandinavia|Christianization]] and the abolition of the traditional paganism reflected in [[Norse mythology]] was first attempted by [[Håkon the Good]], and later by [[Olav Tryggvason]], but he was killed in the [[Battle of Svolder]] in 1000.<ref>Stenersen: 29</ref> [[Olaf II of Norway|Olav Haraldsson]], starting in 1015, made the ''[[Thing (assembly)|things]]'' pass church laws, destroyed [[heathen hofs]], built churches and created an institution of priests. Many chieftains feared that Christianization would rob them of power as ''[[goði|Goðar]]'' in traditional [[Norse paganism]], and had Olaf banished from Norway in 1028. When he tried to return in 1030, he was met by the locals in the [[Battle of Stiklestad]], where Olaf was killed, in accordance with the law.<ref>Stenersen: 31</ref> The church elevated Olaf I to [[sainthood]], and [[Nidaros]] (today [[Trondheim]]) became the Christian centre of Norway.<ref>Stenersen: 33</ref> Within a few years the Danish rule had become sufficiently unpopular that Norway again united under a Norwegian king, Magnus Olavson the Good, in 1035.<ref>Stenersen: 34</ref>

From the 1040s to 1130 the country was at peace.<ref>Stenersen: 36</ref> In 1130, a [[civil war era in Norway|civil war era]] broke out over [[line of succession to the Norwegian throne|succession to the throne]], which allowed all the king's sons to rule jointly by dividing Norway into portions for each to rule. At times there were periods of peace, before a lesser son allied himself with a chieftain and started a new conflict. The [[Archdiocese of Nidaros]] was created in 1152 in an attempt to control the appointment of kings.<ref>Stenersen: 38</ref> The church inevitably took sides in these conflicts, with the church's influence on the king also becoming an issue in the civil wars. The wars ended in 1217 with the appointment of [[Håkon Håkonsson]], who introduced clear succession laws.<ref>Stenersen: 39</ref> He also managed to subject Greenland and Iceland to Norwegian rule; the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]] thus came to an end after the [[Age of the Sturlungs]] civil war resulted in a pro-Norwegian victory.

The population increased from 150,000 in 1000 to 400,000 in 1300, resulting both in more land being cleared and the subdivision of farms. While in the Viking Age all farmers owned their own land, by 1300 seventy percent of the land was owned by the king, the church, or the aristocracy. This was a gradual process where farmers would borrow money in meagre times, often not being able to repay them. However, tenants always remained free men and the large distances and often scattered ownership meant that Norwegian farmers enjoyed much more freedom than continental serfs. In the 13th century about twenty percent of a farmer's yield went to the king, church and landowners.<ref>Stenersen: 37</ref>

===Decline and the Kalmar Union===
[[File:Bergen-Bryggen17.jpg|thumb|[[Bryggen]] in [[Bergen]], once the centre of trade in Norway under the [[Hanseatic League]] trade network, now preserved as a [[World Heritage Site]]]]

The 13th century is described as Norway's [[Golden Age]], with peace and increase in trade, especially with the British islands, although Germany became increasingly important towards the end of the century. Throughout the [[High Middle Ages]] the king established Norway as a sovereign state with a central administration and local representatives.<ref>Stenersen: 41</ref>

In 1349, the [[Black Death in Norway|Black Death]] spread to Norway and within a year killed nearly two-thirds of the population. Later plagues halved the population by 1400. Many communities were entirely wiped out, resulting in an abundance of land, allowing farmers to switch to more [[animal husbandry]]. The reduction in taxes weakened the king's position,<ref>Stenersen: 44</ref> and many aristocrats lost their surplus income, reducing some to mere farmers. High [[tithe]]s made the church more powerful, and the archbishop became a member of the [[Norwegian Council of State|Council of State]].<ref name="s45">Stenersen: 45</ref>
[[File:Kalmar Union ca. 1400.svg|thumb|left|The Kalmar Union, {{circa|1400}}]]
The [[Hanseatic League]] took control of Norwegian trade in the 14th century and established trading posts in most Norwegian port cities, such as [[Oslo]] and [[Bergen]], which had the largest German colony. In 1380, [[Olaf II of Denmark|Olaf Haakonsson]] inherited both the Norwegian and Danish thrones, creating a union between the two countries.<ref name="s45" /> In 1397, under [[Margaret I of Denmark|Margaret I]], the [[Kalmar Union]] was created between the three Scandinavian countries. She waged war against the Hanse, resulting in a trade blockade and higher taxation on Norwegians, which resulted in [[Engelbrekt rebellion|a rebellion]]. However, Norway and its Council of State was too weak to secede from the union.<ref name="s46">Stenersen: 46</ref>

Margaret pursued a centralising policy which inevitably favoured Denmark, because it had a greater population than Norway and Sweden combined.<ref>Derry p.75</ref> Margaret also granted trade privileges to the Hanseatic merchants of [[Lübeck]] in Bergen in return for recognition of her right to rule, and these hurt the Norwegian economy. The Hanseatic merchants formed a state within a state in Bergen for generations.<ref>Derry pp. 77–78</ref> Even worse were the pirates, the "[[Victual Brothers]]", who launched three devastating raids on the port (the last in 1427).<ref>Derry p.77</ref>

Norway slipped ever more into the background under the [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg dynasty]] ([[Treaty of Bergen|established 1450]]). There was a [[Dano-Swedish War (1501–1512)|revolt]] under [[Knut Alvsson]] in 1502.<ref>Derry pp. 81–82</ref> Norwegians had some affection for king [[Christian II of Denmark|Christian II]], who resided in the country for several years. Norway did not take any part in the events which led to [[Swedish War of Liberation|Swedish independence from Denmark in the 1520s]].<ref>Derry pp.83–84</ref>

==Union with Denmark ==
{{See also|Denmark-Norway}}
[[File:Denmark-Norway in 1780.svg|thumb|Map of Denmark–Norway]]
Sweden was able to pull out of the Kalmar Union in 1523, thus creating [[Denmark–Norway]] under the rule of a king in [[Copenhagen]]. King [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] favoured [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Reformation]], but it was not popular in Norway, where the Church was the sole remaining national institution and the country was too poor for the clergy to be very corrupt. Initially, Frederick agreed not to try to introduce Protestantism to Norway but in 1529 he changed his mind. Norwegian resistance was led by [[Olav Engelbrektsson]], [[Archbishop of Trondheim]], who invited the old king Christian II back from his exile in the Netherlands. Christian returned but his army was defeated and he spent the rest of his life in prison.

=== The Puppet State era (''lydriketiden'') ===
When Frederick died and a three-way [[Count's Feud|war of succession]] broke out between the supporters of his eldest son [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian]] (III), his younger Catholic brother Hans and the followers of Christian II. Olaf Engelbrektsson again tried to lead a Catholic Norwegian resistance movement. Christian III triumphed and Engelbrektsson went into exile and, in 1537, Christian demoted Norway from an independent kingdom to a [[puppet state]], dissolving the Norwegian Council of State.<ref>Derry pp.84–89</ref> The Reformation was also [[Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein|imposed in 1537]],<ref name="s45" /> strengthening the king's power. All church valuables were sent to Copenhagen and the forty percent of the land which was owned by the church came under the control of the king. [[Danish language|Danish]] was introduced as a written language, although [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] retained distinct dialects. Professional administration was now needed and power shifted from the pincial nobility to the royal administration: district stipendiary magistrates were appointed as judges and the [[lensmann|sheriffs]] became employees of the crown rather than of the local nobility. In 1572 (or 1556), a [[Governor-general of Norway|viceroy]] was appointed for Norway with a seat at [[Akershus Fortress]] in Oslo. In 1628 the [[Norwegian Army]] was founded, and professional military officers were employed.<ref>Stenersen: 50</ref><ref name="DBL">{{cite book |last1=Bricka |first1=Carl Frederik |title=Dansk biografisk Lexikon, vol. 11 |date=1897 |publisher=Gyldendalske Boghandels Forlag |location=Copenhagen |page=514 |url=https://runeberg.org/dbl/11/0516.html |access-date=1 June 2018 |archive-date=4 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155031/http://runeberg.org/dbl/11/0516.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Norwegian economy improved with the introduction of the water-driven saw in the early 16th century. Norway had huge resources of timber but did not have the means to exploit much of it in the Middle Ages as only hand-tools were available. The new saw mills which sprang up in the fjords changed this. In 1544 a deal was struck with the Netherlands (then part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]) and the Dutch controlled the export of Norwegian timber for the next 150 years. [[Amsterdam]] was built on piles from Norway. Tree-felling was done in the winter when farm-work was impossible and it was easy to get the felled trees across the snow to the rivers. In the spring, the logs floated down the rivers to the saw mills by the sea.<ref>Derry pp.91–92</ref> By the mid-16th century the power of the Hanseatic League in Bergen was broken; though German craftsmen remained, they had to accept Danish-Norwegian rule.<ref>Derry pp.92–93</ref>

The 17th century saw a series of wars between Denmark–Norway and Sweden. The [[Kalmar War]] between 1611 and 1613 saw 8,000 Norwegian peasants conscripted. Despite lack of training, Denmark–Norway won and Sweden abandoned its claims to the land between [[Tysfjorden]] and [[Varangerfjord]]. With the Danish participation in the [[Thirty Years' War]] in 1618–48, a new conscription system was created in which the country was subdivided into 6,000 ''legd'', each required to support one soldier.<ref>Stenersen: 53</ref> Denmark–Norway lost the war and was forced to cede [[Jämtland]] and [[Härjedalen]] to Sweden. The [[Second Northern War]] in 1657 to 1660 resulted in [[Bohuslän]] being ceded to Sweden.

=== The Absolute Monarchy era (''enevoldstiden'') ===
King [[Frederick III of Denmark|Frederick III]] elevated himself to [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] and [[Hereditary monarchy|hereditary]] king of Denmark and Norway in 1661, eliminating the power of the nobles.<ref>Derry p. 100</ref> A new administrative system was introduced. Departments organized by portfolio were established in Copenhagen, while Norway was divided into [[counties of Norway|counties]], each led by a district governor, and further subdivided into bailiwicks. About 1,600 government officials were appointed throughout the country.<ref name="s56">Stenersen: 56</ref> [[Ulrik Fredrik Gyldenløve]] was the most famous viceroy of Norway (1664–1699).<ref>Derry p.102</ref>

[[File:Gunboat battle near Alvøen Norway.jpg|thumb|left|[[Battle of Alvøen]] between the frigate {{HMS|Tartar|1801|6}} and Norwegian gunboats near [[Bergen]] in 1808]]
The population of Norway increased from 150,000 in 1500 to 900,000 in 1800.<ref name="s56" /> By 1500 most [[deserted farm]]s were repossessed. The period under absolutism increased the ratio of self-owning farmers from twenty to fifty percent, largely through sales of crown land to finance the lost wars. [[Croft (land)|Crofts]] became common in the absolutism period, especially in [[Eastern Norway]] and Trøndelag, with the [[smallholding|smallholder]] living at the mercy of the farmer.<ref>Stenersen: 57</ref> There were 48,000 smallholders in 1800. Compared to Denmark, taxes were very low in Norway, typically at four to ten percent of the harvest, although the number of farms per ''legd'' decreased from four to two in the 1670s. [[Confirmation]] was introduced in 1736; as it required people to read, elementary education was introduced.<ref>Stenersen: 58</ref> 

The entire period saw [[mercantilism]] as the basis for commerce, which involved import regulations and [[tariff]]s, monopolies and privileges throughout the county granted to burghers. The lumber industry became important in the 17th century through exports especially to England.<ref>Stenersen: 59</ref> To avoid deforestation, a royal decree closed a large number of sawmills in 1688; because this mostly affected farmers with small mills, by the mid 18th century only a handful of merchants controlled the entire lumber industry.<ref>Stenersen: 60</ref> Mining increased in the 17th century, the largest being the silver mines in [[Kongsberg (town)|Kongsberg]] and the copper mines in [[Røros (town)|Røros]]. Fishing continued to be an important income for farmers along the coast, but from the 18th century [[dried cod]] started being salted, which required fishermen to buy salt from merchants. The first important period of Norwegian shipping was between 1690 and 1710, but the advantage was lost with Denmark–Norway entering the [[Great Northern War]] in 1709. However, Norwegian shipping regained its strength towards the end of the century.<ref>Stenersen: 61</ref> Many Norwegians earned a living as sailors in foreign ships, especially Dutch ones. The crews in both sides of the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] contained Norwegians.<ref>Derry pp.104–105</ref> Norway benefitted from the many European wars of the 18th century. As a neutral power it was able to expand its share of the shipping market. It also supplied timber to foreign navies.<ref>Derry p.114</ref>

Throughout the period, Bergen was the largest town in the country; its population of 14,000 in the mid 18th century was twice the size of Christiania (later Oslo) and Trondheim combined. Eight townships with privileges existed in 1660—by 1800 this had increased to twenty-three. During this period up to two-thirds of the country's audited national income was transferred to Copenhagen.<ref>Stenersen: 62</ref> In the last decades of the century, [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]] started the [[Haugean]] movement, which demanded the right to preach the word of God freely.<ref>Stenersen: 64</ref> The [[University of Oslo]] was established in 1811.<ref>Thuesen: 177</ref>

==Union with Sweden==
{{See also|Kingdom of Norway (1814)|Sweden-Norway}}
[[File:Eidsvoll riksraad 1814.jpeg|thumb|The Constituent Assembly which approved the [[Constitution of Norway]]]]
Denmark–Norway entered the [[Napoleonic Wars]] on France's side in 1807. This had a devastating effect on the Norwegian economy as the [[Royal Navy]] hindered export by ship and import of food. [[Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809|Sweden invaded Norway]] the following year, but after several Norwegian victories a cease-fire was signed in 1809.<ref>Stenersen: 68</ref> After pressure from Norwegian merchants license trade was permitted with corn from Denmark to Eastern Norway in exchange for Norwegian timber export to Great Britain.<ref>Stenersen: 69</ref> Following the [[Battle of Leipzig]] in 1813, the [[Treaty of Kiel]] signed on 14 January 1814 ceded Norway to the king of Sweden.<ref name="s71">Stenersen: 71</ref>
[[File:Norway-Sweden 1905.svg|thumb|left|Map of Sweden–Norway]]
[[Christian Frederik]], heir to the Danish and Norwegian crowns, had since 1813 been viceroy of Norway.<ref name="s71" /> He spearheaded the Norwegian resistance against the Kiel Treaty and planned to claim the throne as the legitimate heir. He traveled to [[Trondheim (city)|Trondheim]] to gain support for his person, and then assembled twenty-one prominent citizens at [[Eidsvoll Manor]] on 16 February 1814 to discuss his plans. They rejected a new absolute monarchy and advised him instead to convoke a constituent assembly to draw up a liberal constitution and decide the form of government. Representatives from the entire country were elected to meet at Eidsvoll Manor.<ref>Stenersen: 72</ref> The 112 members of the [[Norwegian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] gathered and, after six weeks of discussion, concluded the work on the [[Constitution of Norway]] on 17 May 1814. Power would be split between the king – a position to which Christian Frederik was appointed – and the [[Parliament of Norway]].<ref>Stenersen: 74</ref> The Swedish army under Crown prince [[Carl Johan]] of Sweden [[Swedish-Norwegian War (1814)|invaded Norway]] in late July; at the armistice [[Convention of Moss]] on 14 August Norway accepted to enter a [[Union between Sweden and Norway|personal union]] with Sweden on equal terms, while Sweden accepted the Norwegian Constitution and separate institutions in both states. King Christian Frederik agreed to convoke an extraordinary parliament to revise the Constitution accordingly, and then abdicate. The parliament was convened in [[Oslo|Christiania]] on 7 October, and the necessary amendments were resolved on 4 November 1814. On the same day, king [[Charles XIII]] of Sweden was elected king of Norway, thereby establishing the Union.<ref>Stenersen: 75</ref>

=== The State of the Officials (''embedsmannsstaten'') ===
[[File:Havreskjering Fossheim Lindahl.jpeg|thumb|left|Harvesting [[oat]]s at Fossum in [[Jølster]] during the 1880s]]
The Napoleonic Wars sent Norway into an economic crisis, as nearly all the merchants had gone bankrupt during the blockade. Recovery was difficult because of export tariffs and the country experienced high inflation. The [[Norwegian speciedaler]] was established as a currency by the [[Norges Bank|Bank of Norway]] when it was established in 1816, financed through a silver tax which lasted until 1842.<ref>Stenersen: 77</ref> Under threat of a coup d'état by Carl Johan, Norway reluctantly paid the debt stated in the Treaty of Kiel, despite never having [[ratified]] it. [[Norwegian Constitution Day|Constitution Day]] on 17 May became an important political rally every year;<ref>Stenersen: 78</ref> in 1829 the Swedish governor-general [[Baltzar von Platen (1766–1829)|Baltzar von Platen]] resigned after he used force against demonstrators in the [[Battle of the Square]].<ref>Stenersen: 79</ref> The first half of the century was dominated by the ca. 2,000 officials,<ref>Stenersen: 80</ref> as there were few bourgeois and no aristocracy following an 1821 decision to abolish nobility. From the [[1832 Norwegian parliamentary election|1832 election]], farmers became more conscious of electing themselves, resulting in a majority of farmers in Parliament. This resulted in rural tax cuts and higher import tariffs, shifting the tax burden to the cities.<ref>Stenersen: 81</ref> They also passed the [[Formannskapsdistrikt|Local Committees Act]], which established elected [[Municipal council (Norway)|municipal councils]] from 1838.<ref name="s82">Stenersen: 82</ref> Cultural expression from the 1840s to the 1870s was dominated by the [[Norwegian romantic nationalism|romantic nationalism]], which emphasized the uniqueness of Norway.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

[[File:Kjerkgata sett nedenfra 1869 Foto Elen Schomragh.jpg|thumb|[[Røros (town)|Røros]], a major copper mining town, in 1869]]
The textile industry started in the 1840s, which was followed up with mechanical workshops to build new machinery as the British [[embargo]] hindered import of textile machinery.<ref>Stenersen: 84</ref> An economic crisis hit the country from 1848, resulting in [[Marcus Thrane]] establishing the first trade unions and demanding that equality before the law be independent of social class. Parliament passed a series of laws abandoning economic privileges and easing domestic trade during the 1840s and 1850s.<ref>Stenersen: 85</ref> Population increase forced the clearing of new land, although some of the growth came in the cities. The population of Christiania reached 40,000 in 1855.<ref name="s83">Stenersen: 83</ref> By 1865 the population reached 1.7&nbsp;million; the large increase was largely caused by better nutrition from herring and potatoes, a sharp decrease of infant mortality and increased hygiene.<ref name="s82" /> Emigration to North America started in 1825, with the first mass emigration commencing in the 1860s. By 1930, 800,000 people had emigrated, the majority settling in the [[Midwestern United States]].<ref name="s83" />

[[File:Adolph Tidemand & Hans Gude - Bridal Procession on the Hardangerfjord - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Bridal Journey in [[Hardanger]]'' (1848) by [[Adolph Tidemand]] and [[Hans Gude]], an example of [[Norwegian romantic nationalism|romantic nationalism]]]]
The population decrease resulted in a labor shortage in the agriculture, which again resulted in [[The Great Transformation (Norway)|increased use of machinery]] and thus capital. The government stimulated the process through the creation of the [[Norges Hypotekbank|Mortgage Bank]] in 1851 and the [[Norwegian University of Life Sciences|State Agricultural College]] eight years later.<ref>Stenersen: 89</ref> The 19th century saw a large increase of road construction and [[steamship]] services commenced along the coast. The first railway, the [[Trunk Line]] between Christiania and Eidsvoll opened in 1854, followed a year later by the first telegraph line. Export industry commenced with steam-powered sawmills in the 1860s, followed by canned herring, [[wood pulp]] and [[cellulose]]. From 1850 to 1880 the Norwegian shipping industry enjoyed a large boom, stimulated by the abolishing of the British [[Navigation Acts]]. By 1880 there were 60,000 Norwegian seamen and the country had the world's third-largest [[merchant marine]].<ref>Stenersen: 86</ref> As the first coast-to-coast railway, the [[Røros Line]] connected the capital to Trondheim in 1877.<ref name="railway">{{cite web |title=Railway Statistics 2008 |url=http://www.jernbaneverket.no/no/dokumenter/Om-oss/Jernbanestatistikk/Jernbanestatistikk-2008/ |access-date=28 August 2010 |publisher=[[Jernbaneverket]] |format=PDF |pages=44–45 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122071524/http://www.jernbaneverket.no/PageFiles/7894/Jernbanestatistikk%202008_22%20juni_web.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2010 |language=no |url-status=dead}}</ref> Norway joined the [[Scandinavian Monetary Union]] in 1875 and introduced the [[Norwegian krone]] with a [[gold standard]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norges-bank.no/en/about/history/norges-banks-history/ |title=Norges Bank's history |publisher=[[Norges Bank]] |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=1 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701035420/http://www.norges-bank.no/en/about/history/norges-banks-history/ |url-status=live}}</ref> along with the [[metric system]] being introduced.<ref name="Thuesen: 224">Thuesen: 224</ref>

=== The last decades of the Union ===
[[File:Pihl holtaalen 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Røros Line]] through [[Holtålen Municipality]] in 1877]]
Annual parliamentary sessions were introduced from 1869 and in 1872 ministers were, through a constitutional amendment, required to meet in Parliament to defend their policies. The king, despite having no constitutional right to do so, vetoed the amendment in three successive parliaments. The [[1882 Norwegian parliamentary election|1882 election]] saw the first two parties, the [[Liberal Party (Norway)|Liberals]] and [[Conservative Party (Norway)|Conservatives]], run for election, and subsequently the majority succeeded at [[impeachment (Norway)|impeaching]] the cabinet.<ref>Stenersen: 90</ref> In 1884, King [[Oscar II]] appointed majority leader [[Johan Sverdrup]] as [[Prime Minister of Norway|prime minister]], thus establishing [[parliamentarism]] as the first European country.<ref>Stenersen: 91</ref> The Liberal Party introduced a series of legal reforms, such as increasing the voting rights to about half of all men, settling the [[Norwegian language conflict|language conflict]] by establishing two official written standards, [[Bokmål|Riksmål]] and [[Nynorsk|Landsmål]], introduced [[jury|juries]], seven years of [[compulsory education]] and,<ref name="s92">Stenersen: 92</ref> as the first European country, [[universal suffrage]] for men in 1889.<ref name="s95">Stenersen: 95</ref>

The 1880s and 1890s saw the rise of the labor movement and trade unions became common; the [[Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions]] was established in 1899 and the [[Norwegian Employers' Confederation]] the following year.<ref name="s92" /> The [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labor Party]] had its first parliamentary members elected in 1903. The women's issue became increasingly dominant through the 1880s and they were gradually permitted to take secondary and tertiary education.<ref name="s93">Stenersen: 93</ref> Norwegian support of the union decreased towards the end of the 1890s, especially following the 1897 Swedish abolition of the free trade agreement and the lack of a Norwegian foreign minister. Negotiations of independence commenced, but were not effective because of shifting governments and the Swedish threat of war.<ref name="s95" />

==Independence==
{{See|Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden| The Neutral Ally}}
[[File:Kjelsaas brug 1912 Wilse.jpg|thumb|Industry along [[Akerselva]] in Oslo in 1912]]
With the four-party [[Michelsen's Cabinet]] appointed in 1905, Parliament voted to establish a Norwegian consular service. This was rejected by the king and on 7 June Parliament unanimously approved the [[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden|dissolution of the union]]. In the following [[1905 Norwegian union dissolution referendum|dissolution referendum]], only 184 people voted in favor of a union. The government offered the Norwegian crown to Denmark's Prince Carl, who after [[Norwegian monarchy plebiscite, 1905|a plebiscite]] became [[Haakon VII]].<ref>Stenersen: 97</ref> The following ten years, Parliament passed a series of social reforms, such as [[sick pay]], factory inspection, a ten-hour working day and worker protection laws. Waterfalls for [[hydroelectricity]] became an important resource in this period and the government secured laws to hinder foreigners from controlling waterfalls, mines and forests.<ref>Stenersen: 100</ref> Large industrial companies established in these years were [[Elkem]],<ref>Thuesen: 248</ref> [[Norsk Hydro]] and [[Sydvaranger]].<ref>Thuesen: 252</ref> The [[Bergen Line]] was completed in 1909,<ref name="railway" /> the [[Norwegian Institute of Technology]] was established the following year<ref>Thuesen: 258</ref> and [[women's suffrage]] was introduced in 1913—as the second country in the world.<ref name="s93" /> From the 1880s to the 1920s, Norwegians carried out a series of polar expeditions. The most important explorers were [[Fridtjof Nansen]], [[Roald Amundsen]] and [[Otto Sverdrup]]. [[Amundsen's South Pole expedition|Amundsen's expedition]] in 1911 became the first to reach the South Pole.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.frammuseum.no/Polar-Expedition.aspx |title=Polar Expeditions |publisher=[[Fram Museum]] |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=29 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029022134/http://www.frammuseum.no/Polar-Expedition.aspx |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:At the South Pole, December 1911.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roald Amundsen]], [[Helmer Hanssen]], [[Sverre Hassel]] and [[Oscar Wisting]] (l–r) at [[Polheim]], the tent erected at the South Pole on 16 December 1911 as [[Amundsen's South Pole expedition|the first expedition]]]]
{{Anchor|World War I}}Norway adopted a policy of [[neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]] from 1905; during [[World War I]] the Norwegian merchant marine was largely used in support of the British, resulting in Norway being classified as [[The Neutral Ally]]. Half the Norwegian fleet was sunk and 2,000 seamen were killed by the German [[Atlantic U-boat Campaign (World War I)|Atlantic U-boat Campaign]]. Some merchants made huge profits from trade and shipping during the war,<ref>Stenersen: 101</ref> resulting in an increased division between the classes.<ref>Stenersen: 102</ref> The [[interwar period]] was dominated by economic instability caused among other by strikes, lock-outs and the monetary policy causing [[deflation]] to compensate for too much money having been issued during the war and thus hindering investments.<ref>Stenersen: 103</ref> Especially fishermen were hit hard in the period, while farmers retained market prices through organizing regulations. Unemployment peaked at ten percent between 1931 and 1933.<ref>Stenersen: 104</ref> Although industrial production increased by eighty percent from 1915 to 1939, the number of jobs remained stable.<ref>Stenersen: 106</ref> The [[Norwegian School of Economics]] was established in 1936.<ref>Thuesen: 300</ref>

Norway had nine governments between 1918 and 1935, nearly all minority and lasting an average eighteen months. The [[Centre Party (Norway)|Agrarian Party]] was established in 1920, although this period saw a rise of support for the Conservatives.<ref>Stenersen: 107</ref> The Labor Party split in 1921, with the left wing establishing the [[Communist Party of Norway|Communist Party]].<ref>Stenersen: 110</ref> Although strong during the 1920s, they were marginalized through the 1930s. A short-lived Labor Government reigned in 1928,<ref>Stenersen: 111</ref> but did not establish a sound parliamentary support until the 1935 [[Nygaardsvold's Cabinet]], based on an alliance with the Agrarian Party.<ref>Stenersen: 113</ref> During the 1920s and 1930s, Norway established [[dependencies of Norway|three dependencies]], [[Bouvetøya]], [[Peter I Island]] and [[Queen Maud Land]], annexed [[Jan Mayen]] and secured sovereignty of [[Svalbard]] through the [[Svalbard Treaty]].<ref>Stenersen: 116</ref> Norway's first civil airport, [[Stavanger Airport, Sola|Stavanger]], opened in 1937.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.avinor.no/lufthavn/stavanger/omoss/70_Historikk |title=Historikk – Stavanger lufthavn, Sola |publisher=Avinor.no |access-date=21 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528014107/http://www.avinor.no/lufthavn/stavanger/omoss/70_Historikk |archive-date=28 May 2014}}</ref>

==World War II==
{{further|German occupation of Norway|Quisling regime|Norwegian Campaign}}
[[File:Battle of Norway.jpg|thumb|Scenes from the [[Norwegian Campaign]] in 1940]]
From the start of [[World War II]] in 1939, Norway maintained a strict neutrality.<ref>Stenersen: 117</ref> Both Britain and Germany realized the strategic location; both made plans to invade Norway, regardless of Norwegian opposition. The Germans struck first and invaded Norway on 9 April 1940 in the so called [[Operation Weserübung|operation "Weserübung"]]. After furious battles with Norwegian and British forces, Germany prevailed and controlled the country until the end of the war. The German goal was to use Norway to control access to the North Sea and the Atlantic, and to station air and naval forces to stop convoys from Britain to the USSR.

===Government in exile===
{{further|Diplomatic history of World War II}}
The government in exile, including the royal family, escaped to London. Politics were suspended and the government coordinated action with the Allies, retained control of a worldwide diplomatic and consular service, and operated the huge Norwegian merchant marine. It organized and supervised the resistance within Norway. One long-term impact was the abandonment of a traditional Scandinavian policy of neutrality; Norway became a founding member of NATO in 1949.<ref>Erik J. Friis, "The Norwegian Government-In-Exile, 1940–45" in ''Scandinavian Studies. Essays Presented to Dr. [[Henry Goddard Leach]] on the Occasion of his Eighty-fifth Birthday'' (1965), p422-444.</ref> Norway at the start of the war had the world's fourth largest merchant fleet, at 4.8&nbsp;million tons, including a fifth of the world's oil tankers. The Germans captured about 20% of the fleet but the remainder, about 1000 ships, were taken over by the government. Although half the ships were sunk, the earnings paid the expenses of the government.<ref>I.C.B Dear and M.R.D. Foot, ''Oxford Companion to World War II'' (1995) pp&nbsp;818–23</ref><ref>Johs Andenaes, ''Norway and the Second World War'' (1966)</ref>

===Quisling regime===
[[Vidkun Quisling]] proclaimed himself prime minister and appointed a government with members from the [[Nasjonal Samling|National Unity Party]].<ref>Stenersen: 121</ref> He was quickly set aside and replaced by [[Josef Terboven]], but reinstated in 1942. The [[Norwegian Campaign]] continued in Northern Norway and the government fled to London on 7 June.<ref>Stenersen: 122</ref> The [[Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany|German occupation]] resulted in a brutalization of society and 30,000 people were imprisoned.<ref>Stenersen: 124</ref> 55,000 people joined the National Unity Party, which became the only legal party. But the nazification process failed after the [[Supreme Court of Norway|Supreme Court]] resigned and both organized sports and bishops boycotted the new regime.<ref>Stenersen: 125</ref> A [[Norwegian resistance movement|resistance movement]] was established and was coordinated from London from 1943.<ref>Stenersen: 127</ref> Stokker reports that hostile humour against the Germans helped maintain morale and build a wall against collaboration. Jokes made the rounds dripping with contempt for the oppressors, ridicule of Nazi ideology, stressing the cruelty of the Nazis and mocking their inflated self-image. People on the street asked, "Do you know the difference between the Nazis and a bucket of manure? The bucket." In Post Office lines they explained, "It's rumored that we're getting new stamps bearing Quisling's likeness, but distribution has been delayed because no one knows which side to spit on." The jokes worked to educate Norwegians about the occupation, and encourage a sense of solidarity.<ref>Kathleen Stokker, "Heil Hitler; God Save the King: Jokes and the Norwegian Resistance 1940–1945," ''Western Folklore'' (1991) 50#2 pp. 171–190 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1500046 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712104456/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1500046 |date=12 July 2023 }}</ref> At the time of [[End of World War II in Europe|German surrender]] on 8 May 1945, there were 360,000 German soldiers in the country.<ref name="s130">Stenersen: 130</ref>

==Postwar==
===1945–1950===
A [[legal purge in Norway after World War II|legal purge took place in Norway after WWII]] in which 53,000 people were sentenced for [[treason]] and 25 were executed.<ref name="s130" /> The post-war years saw an increased interest in [[Scandinavism]], resulting in [[Scandinavian Airlines System]] in 1946, the [[Nordic Council]] in 1952<ref name="s143">Stenersen: 143</ref> and the [[Nordic Passport Union]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.org/en/about-nordic-co-operation/agreements/treaties-and-agreements/passport-issues-citizenship-and-national-registration |title=Passport Issues, Citizenship and National Registration |publisher=[[Nordic Council]] |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=18 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318061342/http://www.norden.org/en/about-nordic-co-operation/agreements/treaties-and-agreements/passport-issues-citizenship-and-national-registration |url-status=dead}}</ref> along with the [[metric system]] being introduced.<ref name="Thuesen: 224" /> Reconstruction after the war gave Norway the highest economic growth in Europe until 1950, partly created through [[rationing]] private consumption allowing for higher industrial investments. The Labor Party retained power throughout the period and maintained a policy of public planning.<ref name="s134">Stenersen: 134</ref> The [[University of Bergen]] was created in 1946.<ref>Thuesen: 335</ref> The 1950s saw a boom in construction of hydroelectricity<ref>Stenersen: 137</ref> and the state built the steel mill [[Norsk Jernverk]] and [[Årdal og Sunndal Verk|two aluminum works]].<ref>Stenersen: 135</ref> State banks such as the [[Norwegian State Housing Bank|State Housing Bank]], the [[Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund|State Educational Loan Fund]] and [[Postbanken]] allowed for governmental control over private debt. Oslo hosted the [[1952 Winter Olympics]].<ref name="s138">Stenersen: 138</ref>

Norway retained its neutrality policy until 1947, focusing on its membership in the United Nations,<ref name="s140">Stenersen: 140</ref> where [[Trygve Lie]] had become the first [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|secretary-general]].<ref>Thuesen: 334</ref> However, there was no enthusiasm for the UN at the time.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/09592290903455741 |title=The Absent-Minded Founder: Norway and the Establishment of the United Nations |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=619–637 |year=2009 |last1=Götz |first1=Norbert |s2cid=153680303}}</ref> Anti-communism grew with a Soviet proposal for joint control over Svalbard and especially after the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état]], after which the Communist Party lost all influence.<ref name="s140" /> Norway started negotiations for the creation of a [[Scandinavian defense union]], but instead opted to become a founding member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO). However, Norway never allowed permanently stationed foreign troops or nuclear weapons on Norwegian soil to avoid agitating the Soviet Union, with which Norway from 1944 [[Norway–Russia border|shared a land border]].<ref>Stenersen: 141</ref> NATO financed large parts of the Norwegian military investments, which ultimately resulted in numerous airports being built during the 1950s and 1960s.<ref>Malmø: 66</ref>

===Marshall Plan===
Norway joined the [[Marshall Plan]] ("ERP") in 1947, receiving US$400&nbsp;million in American support.<ref name="s134" /> Given the business background of the Marshall Plan's American leaders, their readiness to work with the Norwegian Labor government's ERP Council disappointed the conservative Norwegian business community. It was represented by the major business organizations, the Norges Industriforbund and the Norsk Arbeidsgiverforening. While reluctant to work with the government, Norwegian business leaders also recognized the dangers of appearing to obstruct the implementation of the Marshall Plan. American acceptance of a role for government in economic planning reflected their [[New Deal]] reformist orientation. The opportunities for mediation between conservative Norwegian business interests and the government that arose in the course of administering the Marshall Plan helped establish a base for the emergence of Norwegian corporatism in the 1950s.<ref>Kai R. Pedersen, "Norwegian Business and the Marshall Plan, 1947–1952." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1996 21(4): 285–301. ISSN 0346-8755</ref>

=== 1950 to 1972 ===
[[File:Old trondheim early morning.jpg|thumb|left|[[Trondheim]] in 1965]]
The sale of cars was deregulated in October 1960, and in the same year the [[Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation]] introduced Norway's first television broadcasts.<ref name="s145">Stenersen: 145</ref> Norway feared competition from Swedish industry and Danish agriculture and chose not to join any free trade organizations until 1960, when it joined the [[European Free Trade Association]].<ref>Stenersen: 142</ref> Throughout the post-war period both fishing and agriculture became more mechanized, the agricultural subsidies rose to the third-highest in the world and the number of small-scale farms and fishermen fell dramatically.<ref>Stenersen: 148</ref> The [[Socialist People's Party (Norway)|Socialist People's Party]] was created in 1961 by former Labor politicians who disagreed with the Labor Party's NATO, nuclear and European policies.<ref name="s143" /> Following the [[Kings Bay Affair]] the Conservative [[Lyng's Cabinet]] ruled for a month.<ref>Stenersen: 146</ref> The Conservative coalition [[Borten's Cabinet]] won the [[1965 Norwegian parliamentary election|1965 election]], sat for six years and started a trend of shifting Labor and Conservative governments.<ref>Stenersen: 147</ref> Norwegianization of Samis halted after the war and Sami rights became an increasing issue, with a council being established in 1964.<ref>Stenersen: 163</ref>

The completion of the [[Nordland Line]] to [[Bodø (town)|Bodø]] in 1962 concluded the construction of new railway routes,<ref name="railway" /> while the first part of the [[Oslo Metro]] opened in 1966.<ref>Thuesen: 370</ref> A social security net was gradually introduced after the war, with child allowances introduced in 1946 and the Social Care Act introduced in 1964.<ref name="s138" /> The 1960s saw good times for heavy industry and Norway became Europe's largest exporter of aluminum and the world's largest exporter of [[ferroalloy]]s.<ref name="s145" /> The [[University of Trondheim]] and the [[University of Tromsø]] both opened in 1968, one year before a network of regional colleges started being opened. Influenced by American culture and similar actions abroad, youth and students started to rebel against cultural norms.<ref>Stenersen: 149</ref> The 1960s saw an increased focus on environmentalism, especially through activism, based on ever-more conversion of waterfalls to hydro stations, pollution and the dilapidation of herring stocks. [[Rondane National Park]] was created as the country's first in 1962 and the [[Ministry of the Environment (Norway)|Ministry of the Environment]] was the first in the world when it was established in 1972.<ref>Stenersen: 151</ref> A network of regional airports were built in Western and Northern Norway in the late 1960s and early 1970s.<ref>Malmø: 67</ref> Membership in the [[European Economic Community]] was rejected in a [[1972 Norwegian European Communities membership referendum|1972 referendum]].<ref>Stenersen: 152</ref>

==Oil Age==
[[File:StatfjordA(Jarvin1982).jpg|thumb|[[Statfjord]] oil platform]]
Prospecting in the [[North Sea]] started in 1966 and in 1969 [[Phillips Petroleum]] found oil in the [[Ekofisk]] field—which proved to be among the ten largest fields in the world. Operations of the fields was split between foreign operators, the state-owned [[Statoil]], the partially state-owned Norsk Hydro and [[Saga Petroleum]]. Ekofisk experienced a major [[blowout (well drilling)|blowout]] in 1977 and 123 people were killed when the [[Alexander L. Kielland (platform)|Alexander Kielland]] accommodation rig capsized in 1980;<ref>Stenersen: 155</ref> these incidents led to a strengthening of petroleum safety regulations. The oil industry not only created jobs in production, but a large number of supply and technology companies were established. [[Stavanger]] became the center of this industry. [[Taxation in Norway|High petroleum taxes]] and dividends from Statoil gave high income from the oil industry to the government.<ref name="s156">Stenersen: 156</ref>

Norway established its [[exclusive economic zone]] in the 1970s, receiving an area of {{convert|2000000|km2|sp=us}}.<ref name="s156" /> A series of border disputes followed; agreements were reached with Denmark and Iceland in the 1990s,<ref name="s158">Stenersen: 158</ref> but the border in the [[Barents Sea]] was not agreed upon until 2010.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE63Q14D20100427?type=marketsNews |title=Russia and Norway strike Arctic sea border deal |first1=Denis |last1=Dyomkin |first2=Gwladys |last2=Fouche |date=27 April 2010 |work=Reuters |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-date=30 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930042411/http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/04/27/norway-russia-barents-idUSLDE63Q14D20100427?type=marketsNews |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 1973 and 1981 the country was ruled by the Labor Party, who carried out a series of reforms such as new school system. Farmers received increased subsidies and from 1974 women were permitted to inherit farms.<ref name="s158" /> [[Abortion in Norway|Abortion on demand]] was legalized in 1978.<ref>Stenersen: 159</ref> Loans guaranteed in future oil income allowed Norway to avoid a recession during the mid-1970s. But by 1977 high wages had made Norwegian industry uncompetitive and a soaring forced cut-backs in public and private spending.<ref name="s162">Stenersen: 162</ref> [[Fish farming]] became a new, profitable industry along the coast.<ref>Stenersen: 173</ref>

[[File:Alta-damm.jpg|thumb|left|[[Alta Power Station]], built despite [[Alta controversy|massive protests]]]]
An immigration surplus was established in the late 1960s, largely from Western Europe and the United States—from the 1970s increasingly expertise in oil. The period also saw an increased immigration of unskilled labor from developing countries, especially [[Pakistani Norwegians|Pakistan]], and Oslo became the center-point of immigration, although regulations from 1975 slowed this significantly.<ref name="s162" /> The [[Alta controversy]] started in the 1970s when [[Statkraft]] planned to dam the [[Alta River]]. The case united the environmental and Sami interest groups; although [[Alta Power Station]] was built, the issue shifted the political climate and made large-scale hydroelectricity project difficult to built. The [[Sami Parliament of Norway|Sami Parliament]] was established in 1989.<ref>Stenersen: 164</ref>

The Conservative Party won the [[1981 Norwegian parliamentary election|1981 elections]] and carried out a large [[deregulation]] reform: taxes were cut, local private radio stations were permitted, cable television was established by private companies, regulations on borrowing money were removed and foreigners were permitted to buy securities. An economic crisis hit in 1986 when foreigners started selling Norwegian krone, which ultimately forced an increase in taxes and Prime Minister [[Kåre Willoch]] was forced to resign.<ref>Stenersen: 165</ref> The [[Progress Party (Norway)|Progress Party]], located to the right of the Conservatives, had its break-through in the late 1980s.<ref>Stenersen: 167</ref> The high wages in the oil industry made low-skill manufacturing industries uncompetitive and the Labor Party closed a number of public industrial companies which were receiving large subsidies.<ref>Stenersen: 168</ref> The 1980s saw a trebling of people on disability, largely amongst the oldest in the workforce, and the [[crime rate]] rose.<ref>Stenersen: 171</ref>

The subsea [[Vardø Tunnel]] opened in 1982<ref>Thuesen: 394</ref> and since the country has [[List of subsea tunnels in Norway|built subsea tunnels]] to connect island communities to the mainland. From the 1980s, the largest cities introduced [[toll road|toll rings]] to finance new road projects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ieromonachou |first1=P. |last2=Potter |first2=S. |last3=Warren |first3=J. P. |date=1 September 2006 |title=Norway's urban toll rings: Evolving towards congestion charging? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X06000047 |journal=Transport Policy |language=en |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=367–378 |doi=10.1016/j.tranpol.2006.01.003 |issn=0967-070X |access-date=27 October 2022 |archive-date=17 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017115634/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X06000047 |url-status=live }}</ref> A banking crisis hit Norway in the late 1980s, causing the largest banks, such as [[Den norske Bank]], [[Christiania Bank]] and [[Fokus Bank]], to be [[nationalized]].<ref name="dereg">{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/regreform/32682052.pdf |title=Regulatyr Reform in Norway |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] |year=2003 |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=9 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309052245/http://www.oecd.org/regreform/32682052.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Norsk Data]], a manufacturer of [[minicomputers]], became Norway's second largest company by 1985,<ref>Steine: 16</ref> just to go bankrupt by 1993.<ref>{{cite news |title=Landet rundt TBK overtar Dolphin |work=[[Aftenposten]] |date=24 December 1993 |page=11 |language=no}}</ref> Unemployment reached record-high levels in the early 1990s.<ref name="s174">Stenersen: 174</ref>

By 1990, Norway was Europe's largest oil producer and by 1995 it was the world's second-largest oil exporter.<ref name="s156" /> Membership in the [[European Union]] was rejected in a [[1994 Norwegian European Union membership referendum|1994 referendum]], with Norway instead joining the [[European Economic Area]]<ref>Stenersen: 172</ref> and later also the [[Schengen Area]].<ref>Stenersen: 175</ref> Large public investments in the 1990s were a new [[Rikshospitalet|National Hospital]] and [[Oslo Airport, Gardermoen]]—connected to the capital with Norway's first high-speed railway, the [[Gardermoen Line]].<ref name="s174" /> A number of large government companies, such as [[Statoil]], [[Telenor]] and [[Kongsberg Gruppen|Kongsberg]] were privatized.<ref name="dereg" /> [[Lillehammer Municipality|Lillehammer]] hosted the [[1994 Winter Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lillehammer.kommune.no/links/113598 |title=An Olympic Fairy Tale |last1=Hove-Ødegård |first1=Arne |last2=Celius |first2=Sten |last3=Brun |first3=Ivar Ole |publisher=Lillehammer Municipality |year=2004 |access-date=11 December 2010 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5uv6grx5a?url=http://www.lillehammer.kommune.no/files/75261/ |archive-date=12 December 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The end of the [[Cold War]] resulted in cooperation with Russia and reduced military activity.<ref>Stenersen: 176</ref>

==21st century==
[[File:President George W. Bush meets with Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik of Norway in the Oval Office Friday, May 16, 2003.jpg|200px|thumb|Norwegian Prime Minister [[Kjell Magne Bondevik]] met with U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] at the [[Oval Office]] in [[White House]], on 27 May 2003.]]The [[Norwegian Armed Forces]] shifted their focus from defending an invasion to being mobile for use in NATO operations abroad and participated in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] in 2001, [[Iraq War]] in 2003, and in the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]] in 2011. They were also involved in the [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fd/aktuelt/taler_artikler/politisk_ledelse/taler-og-artikler-av-statssekretar-roger/2011/fra-invasjonsforsvar-til-innsatsforsvar.html?id=660215 |title=Fra invasjonsforsvar til innsatsforsvar |last=Ingebrigtsen |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Ingebrigtsen |publisher=[[Government.no]] |date=7 October 2011 |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=23 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123202143/http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fd/aktuelt/taler_artikler/politisk_ledelse/taler-og-artikler-av-statssekretar-roger/2011/fra-invasjonsforsvar-til-innsatsforsvar.html?id=660215 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 26 December 2004 during a [[Christmas Day|Christmas holiday]] and [[Boxing Day]] celebration, more than 80 of [[Norwegians|Norwegian people]] in Thailand and the other part across the [[South Asia|South]] and Southeast Asia were among [[Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|thousands of people killed]] by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami]] off [[Sumatra]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Tsunami victims remembered |url=https://www.newsinenglish.no/2014/12/28/tsunami-victims-remembered/ |work=www.newsinenglish.no |date=28 December 2014 |access-date=13 December 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213072702/https://www.newsinenglish.no/2014/12/28/tsunami-victims-remembered/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[2011 Norway attacks|2011 attacks]] saw an attack on the [[Regjeringskvartalet|Government Headquarters]] in Oslo and [[Workers' Youth League (Norway)|Workers' Youth League]] camp at the island of [[Utøya]] by the Norwegian gunman [[Anders Behring Breivik]], killing 77 people.<ref>Thuesen: 444</ref> It was the worst ever gun massacre made by an individual.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Top 5 Worst Gun Massacres by an Individual |url=https://top5ofanything.com/list/db8a4490/Worst-Gun-Massacres-by-an-Individual |website=top5ofanything.com |access-date=26 February 2022 |archive-date=26 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226154644/https://top5ofanything.com/list/db8a4490/Worst-Gun-Massacres-by-an-Individual |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[2013 Norwegian parliamentary election|2013 Storting elections]], voters ended eight years of Labor rule led by Prime Minister [[Jens Stoltenberg]]. A coalition of the [[Conservative Party (Norway)|Conservative Party]] and the [[Progress Party (Norway)|Progress Party]], was elected. The transition came amid an economy in good condition, with low unemployment.<ref>{{cite news |title=Norway election: Conservative Erna Solberg triumphs |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24014551 |work=BBC News |date=10 September 2013 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018114640/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24014551 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Norwegian [[2017 Norwegian parliamentary election|parliamentary election 2017]] the center-right government of Prime Minister [[Erna Solberg]] won re-election.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-election-idUSKCN1BL0J3 |title=Norway's right-wing government wins re-election fought on oil, tax |newspaper=Reuters |date=12 September 2017 |last1=Dagenborg |first1=Henrik Stolen |access-date=5 March 2021 |archive-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527163130/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-election-idUSKCN1BL0J3 |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2018, the Liberal Party joined the government, the [[Christian Democratic Party (Norway)|Christian Democrats]] joined them in January 2019. The Progress Party left the coalition in January 2020, but it continued to support the government.<ref>{{cite news |title=Progress leaves Solberg's coalition |url=https://www.newsinenglish.no/2020/01/20/progress-leaves-solbergs-coalition/ |work=Norway's News in English — www.newsinenglish.no |date=20 January 2020 |access-date=3 May 2023 |archive-date=3 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503074514/https://www.newsinenglish.no/2020/01/20/progress-leaves-solbergs-coalition/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Norway's new center-left cabinet under Prime Minister [[Jonas Gahr Støre|Jonas Gahr Stoere]], the leader of Norway's center-left Labor Party, took office on 14 October 2021. He formed a minority coalition government with the [[Centre Party (Norway)|Centre Party]], supported by the [[Socialist Left Party (Norway)|Socialist Left Party]]. The previous center-right government was ousted in the 13 Sep [[2021 Norwegian parliamentary election|election]] after two four-year terms.<ref>[https://www.usnews.com/news/business/articles/2021-10-14/norways-prime-minister-present-his-new-government Norways Prime Minister present his government] US News {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026095923/https://www.usnews.com/news/business/articles/2021-10-14/norways-prime-minister-present-his-new-government |date=26 October 2021 }}</ref>

== Gallery ==

=== 2000s–2010 ===
<gallery mode="packed" widths="170" heights="120" class="centre">
De Nordiska statsministrarna. (Bilden ar tagen vid Nordiska radets session i Oslo, 2003).jpg|Five Nordic Prime Ministers ([[Matti Vanhanen]] (left) from [[Finland]], [[Davíð Oddsson]] (second left) from [[Iceland]], [[Kjell Magne Bondevik]] (center) from Norway, [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] (second right) from [[Denmark]], and [[Göran Persson]] (right) from Sweden) at the [[Nordic Council]] Session in [[Oslo]], on 27 October 2003.
Jens Stoltenberg 2007 04 18.jpg|Jens Stoltenberg was the Prime Minister of Norway from 2005 until 2013.
Harald of Norway.jpg|[[Harald V of Norway|Norwegian King Harald V]] and [[Queen Sonja of Norway|Norwegian Queen Sonja]], greeted by [[First Lady of the United States]] U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] and his wife, [[Laura Bush]] at the [[White House]] during a state visit in Washington, D.C., United States, in March 2005.
Oslo Bors.jpg|[[Oslo Stock Exchange]] languishes during the [[2008 financial crisis]].
OsloOpera 20080605-1.jpg|[[Oslo Opera House]] opened in 2007 and is part of the [[Fjord City]] redevelopment of Oslo's waterfront.
Bill og Melinda Gates 2009-06-03 (bilde 05).JPG|Norwegian Prime Minister [[Jens Stoltenberg]] (second left) and his wife [[Ingrid Schulerud]] (left), meet with [[Bill Gates|Bill]] (second right) and [[Melinda Gates]] (right) at the visit to the [[Oslo Opera House]], on 3 June 2009.
Dmitry Medvedev in Norway 27 April 2010-7.jpeg|Norwegian Prime Minister [[Jens Stoltenberg]] (right) and Russian President [[Dmitry Medvedev]] (left) announce that Norway and Russia have settled the long conflict over their maritime border in the [[Barents Sea]], on 27 April 2010.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Foreign relations of Norway]]
*[[Norway and the European Union]]
*[[Arctic policy of Norway]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Further|Foreign relations of Norway#Further reading}}
* Almlid, Geir K. ''Britain and Norway in Europe Since 1945: Outsiders'' (Springer Nature, 2020).
* Andresen, Astri, and Kari Tove Elvbakken. "In peace and war: birth control and population policies in Norway (1930–1945)." ''[[Continuity and Change]]'' 35.3 (2020): 345–369 [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/5660163DBF3D7FDC1FF8CC796D87C35D/S0268416020000235a.pdf/in_peace_and_war_birth_control_and_population_policies_in_norway_19301945.pdf online].
* Anker, Peder. ''The power of the periphery: How Norway became an environmental pioneer for the world'' (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
* Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth. ''The History of Norway'' (2011)
* Brégaint, David. "Kings and aristocratic elites: communicating power and status in medieval Norway." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 46.1 (2021): 1–20. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03468755.2020.1784267 online]
* Dackling, Martin. "Traditional or modern peasants? odelsrett and bördsrätt in parliamentary debates, 1810–1860" ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 46.1 (2021): 63–83. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03468755.2020.1778519 online]
* Derry, T.K. ''A Short History of Norway'' (George Allen and Unwin, 1968)
* Eitrheim, Øyvind, Jan Tore Klovland, and Lars Fredrik Øksendal. ''A monetary history of Norway, 1816–2016'' (Cambridge University Press, 2016).
* Evju, Håkon. ''Ancient constitutions and modern monarchy: historical writing and enlightened reform in Denmark-Norway 1730–1814'' (Brill, 2019)
* Falls, Cyril. "The Independence of Norway" ''History Today'' (Dec 1955) 5#12 pp 833–838, covers 1814–1905.
* Garau, Salvatore. ''Fascism and Ideology: Italy, Britain, and Norway'' (Routledge, 2015) [https://revistas.rcaap.pt/analisesocial/article/download/22428/16524/87042 online].
* Goksøyr, Matti, and Gaute Heyerdahl. "The 1952 and 1994 Olympic Flames: Norway's Quest for Winter Olympic Identity." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' (2021): 1–19. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09523367.2021.1984893 online]
* Grytten, Ola. "Revising growth history: new estimates of GDP for Norway, 1816–2019" ''Economic History Review'' (Feb 2022, 75#pp 181–20 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357717280_Revising_growth_history_new_estimates_of_GDP_for_Norway_1816-2019_Print excerpt]
** Grytten, Ola Honningdal. "Revising price history: consumer price index for Norway 1492–2018." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 68.2 (2020): 129–144. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ola-Grytten/publication/338844720_Revising_price_history_consumer_price_index_for_Norway_1492-2018/links/5e30298892851c7f7f05dbc3/Revising-price-history-consumer-price-index-for-Norway-1492-2018.pdf online]
* Haug, Karl Erik. "Norway", in: ''1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War'', ed. by Ute Daniel, et al. (Freie Universität Berlin, 2016). [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/norway online]
* Insall, Tony. ''Secret Alliances: Special Operations and Intelligence in Norway 1940–1945–The British Perspective'' (Biteback Publishing, 2021).
* Kersaudy, Franöois. ''Norway 1940'' (U of Nebraska Press, 1998).
* Kjølsvik, Idar, and Herborg Finnset. "Norway's Millennium of Christianity and Decade of Celebration." ''[[Lutheran Quarterly]]'' 34.4 (2020): 410–424.
* Kunkeler, Nathaniël, and Martin Kristoffer Hamre. "Conceptions and Practices of International Fascism in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands, 1930–40." ''[[Journal of Contemporary History]]'' 57.1 (2022): 45–67. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/00220094211031992 online]
* Kvam, Vegard. "Compulsory school attendance as a child welfare initiative: the socio-political function of education legislation with respect to vulnerable children in Norway, 1814–1900." ''History of Education'' 47.5 (2018): 587–610.
* Kyllingstad, Jon Røyne. "The Norwegian Association for Heredity Research and the Organized International Eugenics Movement. Expertise, authority, transnational networks and international organization in Norwegian genetics and eugenics (1919–1934)." ''[[Perspectives on Science]]'' 30.1 (2022): 77–107. [https://direct.mit.edu/posc/article-abstract/30/1/77/108145/The-Norwegian-Association-for-Heredity-Research abstract]
* Larsen, Karen. ''A history of Norway'' (Princeton University Press, 1967) 576pp [https://archive.org/details/historyofnorway00lars online]
* Loftsgarden, Kjetil. "Mass Production and Mountain Marketplaces in Norway in the Viking and Middle Ages." ''Medieval Archaeology'' 64.1 (2020): 94–115 [https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/80776/2/Loftsgarden%252C%2BMass%2Bproduction%2Band%2Bmountain%2Bmarketplaces%2B-%2BMedieval%2BArchaeology.pdf online].
* Lucas, Colin. "Great Britain and the Union of Norway and Sweden." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 15.3–4 (1990): 269–278.
* Lundestad, Geir. "The United States and Norway, 1905–2006 Allies of a kind: so similar, so different." ''[[Journal of Transatlantic Studies]]'' 4.2 (2006): 187–209.
* Myhre, Jan Eivind. "Social History in Norway in the 1970s and Beyond: Evolution and Professionalisation." ''[[Contemporary European History]]'' 28.3 (2019): 409–421 [https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/71889/ContEurHist.pdf?sequence=2 online]
* Midgaard, John. ''A brief history of Norway'' (1963) [https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofno00midg online]
* Nelsen, Brent F. "Explaining Petroleum Policy in Britain and Norway, 1962–90." ''[[Scandinavian Political Studies]]'' 15.4 (1992): 307–328. [https://tidsskrift.dk/scandinavian_political_studies/article/download/32762/30974/74516 online]
* Riste, Olav. "Britain and Norway: from War to Cold War, 1944–1951." ''[[Scandinavian Journal of History]]'' 37.2 (2012): 164–170.
* Riste, Olav. "The historical determinants of Norwegian foreign policy." in J. J. Holst, ed. ''Norwegian Foreign Policy in the 1980s'' (1985): 12–26.
* Roy, Chiraag, Anthony Ware, and Costas Laoutides. "The political economy of Norwegian peacemaking in Myanmar's peace process." ''[[Third World Quarterly]]'' 42.9 (2021): 2172–2188. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01436597.2021.1909467 online] covers 2011 to 2019
* Salmon, Patrick. ''Scandinavia and the Great Powers 1890–1940'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Scandinavia-Powers-1890-1940-Patrick-Salmon/dp/0521891027/ excerpt]
* Sejersted, Francis. ''The Age of Social Democracy: Norway and Sweden in the Twentieth Century'' (Princeton University Press; 2014) 543 pages; the history of the Scandinavian social model as it developed after the separation of Norway and Sweden in 1905.
* Stenersen, Øivind and Ivar Libæk. ''History of Norway from the Ice Age to the Oil Age'' (3rd ed. Dinamo Forlag 2007), {{ISBN|9788250418523}}
* Taylor, Louisa. "Bishops, war, and canon law: The Military Activities of Prelates in High Medieval Norway." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 45.3 (2020): 263–285.
* Vinje, Victor Condorcet (2014) ''The Versatile Farmers of the North; The Struggle of Norwegian Yeomen for Economic Reforms and Political Power, 1750–1814'' (Nisus Publications).

===In Norwegian===
*{{cite book |last=Malmø |first=Morten |title=Norge på vingene! |year=1997 |publisher=Andante Forlag |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=978-82-91056-13-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Steine |first=Tor Olav |title=Fenomenet Norsk Data |year=1992 |publisher=Universitetsforlaget |location=Oslo |language=no |isbn=978-82-00-21501-1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Stenersen |first1=Øyvind |last2=Libæk |first2=Ivar |title=The History of Norway |year=2003 |publisher=Dinamo Forlag |location=Lysaker |work=Forlaget Historie og Kultur |language=no |isbn=978-82-8071-041-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Thuesen |first=Nils Petter |title=Norges historie |year=2011 |publisher=Universitetsforlaget |location=Oslo |work=Forlaget Historie og Kultur |language=no |isbn=978-82-92870-51-8}}

{{History of Europe}}
{{European history by country}}
{{Norway topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Norway}}

[[Category:History of Norway| ]]