Editing History of Islam

{{Short description|none}}
{{About|the history of Islam as a culture and polity|a history of the Islamic faith|Islamic schools and branches}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Islam|history}}
The '''history of [[Islam]]''' is believed, by most historians,<ref name="Watt2003">{{cite book|last=Watt|first=W. Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt|date=1998|title=Islam and the Integration of Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-17587-6|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 5]}}</ref> to have originated with [[Muhammad]]'s mission in [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] at the start of the 7th century CE,<ref name="Van-Ess 2017">{{cite book|author-last=van Ess|author-first=Josef|year=2017|chapter=Setting the Seal on Prophecy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viRoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|title=Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra, Volume 1: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam|translator-last=O'Kane|translator-first=John|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1: The Near and Middle East|volume=116/1|pages=3–7|doi=10.1163/9789004323384_002|isbn=978-90-04-32338-4|issn=0169-9423}}</ref><ref name="Zimney 2009">{{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Zimney|author-first=Michelle|year=2009|chapter=Introduction – What Is Islam?|editor-last=Campo|editor-first=Juan E.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PAxxi|location=New York|publisher=Facts on File|series=Encyclopedia of World Religions|pages=xxi–xxxii|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1}}</ref> although Muslims regard this time as a return to the original faith passed down by the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[Prophets of Islam|prophets]], such as [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Noah in Islam|Noah]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[David in Islam|David]], [[Solomon in Islam|Solomon]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], with the submission ({{tlit|ar|Islām}}) to the will of [[God in Islam|God]].<ref name="Esposito2016">{{cite book|last=Esposito|first=John L.|author-link=John Esposito|year=2016|orig-date=1988|title=Islam: The Straight Path|edition=5th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=9–12|isbn=978-0-19-063215-1|s2cid=153364691}}</ref><ref name="Donner2000">{{cite book|author-last=Donner|author-first=Fred M.|author-link=Fred Donner|year=2000|orig-date=1999|chapter=Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the Islamic Empire Up to the Mongol Conquest|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA5|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|title=The Oxford History of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=5–10|isbn=0-19-510799-3}}</ref><ref name="Peters2003">{{cite book|last=Peters|first=F. E.|year=2003|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11553-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 9]|url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9}}</ref>

According to the [[Prophetic biography|traditional account]],<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Zimney 2009"/><ref name="Lewis1995a">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|author-link=Bernard Lewis|year=1995|chapter=Part III: The Dawn and Noon of Islam – Origins|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjAABdA9z18C&pg=PA51|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|pages=51–58|isbn=978-0-684-83280-7}}</ref> the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] began receiving what Muslims consider to be [[divine revelation]]s in 610&nbsp;CE, calling for submission to the one God, preparation for the imminent [[Judgement Day in Islam|Last Judgement]], and charity for the poor and needy.<ref name="Donner2000"/>{{#tag:ref|"Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor."<ref name="Buhl1993">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Buhl|first1=F.|last2=Ehlert|first2=Trude|last3=Noth|first3=A.|last4=Schimmel|first4=Annemarie|last5=Welch|first5=A. T.|title=Muḥammad|orig-date=1993|year=2012|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P. J.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C. E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E. J.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W. P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=2nd|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|pages=360–376|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0780|isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref>|group=Note}} 
As Muhammad's message [[Timing of Sahabah becoming Muslims|began to attract followers]] (the ''ṣaḥāba'') he also met with [[Persecution of Muslims by Meccans|increasing hostility and persecution from Meccan elites]].<ref name="Donner2000"/>{{#tag:ref|"At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade."<ref name="Buhl1993"/>|group=Note}} In 622 CE Muhammad [[Hegira|migrated to the city of Yathrib]] (now known as [[Medina]]), where he began to unify the [[tribes of Arabia]] under Islam,<ref>Campo (2009), "Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 494</ref> returning to Mecca to take control in 630<ref name=Ramadan-178>{{cite book|last=Ramadan|first=Tariq|author-link=Tariq Ramadan|title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad|url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/178|year=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-530880-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/178 178]}}</ref><ref name=Haykal-438>{{cite book|last=Husayn Haykal|first=Muhammad|author-link=Muhammad Husayn Haykal|title=The Life of Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOyO-TSo5nEC&pg=PA438|year=2008|publisher=Islamic Book Trust|location=[[Selangor]]|isbn=978-983-9154-17-7|pages=438–441}}</ref> and order the destruction of all pagan idols.<ref name=Hitti-118>{{cite book|last=Hitti|first=Philip Khuri|author-link=Philip Khuri Hitti|title=History of the Arabs|year=1946|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|page=118|title-link=History of the Arabs (book)}}</ref><ref name=Ramadan-177>{{cite book|last=Ramadan|first=Tariq|author-link=Tariq Ramadan|title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad|url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/177|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530880-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama/page/177 177]}}</ref> 
By the time Muhammad died {{circa|11&nbsp;AH}} (632&nbsp;CE), almost all the tribes of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] had converted to Islam,<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], "Internationalization of Islam", Encarta Historical Essays.</ref> but disagreement broke out over who would [[Succession to Muhammad|succeed him as leader of the Muslim community]] during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]].<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Polk 2018">{{cite book|last=Polk|first=William R.|author-link=William R. Polk|year=2018|chapter=The Caliphate and the Conquests|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozFDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North|location=New Haven, CT|publisher=Yale University Press|series=The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series|pages=21–30|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.7|isbn=978-0-300-22290-6|jstor=j.ctv1bvnfdq.7}}</ref><ref name="Izutsu 2006">{{cite book|last=Izutsu|first=Toshihiko|author-link=Toshihiko Izutsu|year=2006|orig-date=1965|title=The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām|chapter=The Infidel (''Kāfir''): The Khārijites and the origin of the problem|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDxHG5MtLawC&pg=PA1|location=Tokyo|publisher=Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at [[Keio University]]|pages=1–20|isbn=983-9154-70-2}}</ref><ref name="Lewis1995b">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|year=1995|chapter=Cross-Sections – The State|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CjAABdA9z18C&pg=PA139|title=The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|page=139|isbn=978-0-684-83280-7}}</ref>

The [[early Muslim conquests]] were responsible for the [[spread of Islam]].<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Zimney 2009"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Polk 2018"/> By the 8th century&nbsp;CE, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] extended from [[al-Andalus]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east. Polities such as those ruled by the Umayyad and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliphates (in the [[Middle East]] and later in [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Spain]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Southern Italy]]), the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]], [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]], and [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] were among the most influential powers in the world. Highly [[Persianate society|Persianized empires]] built by the [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]], [[Ghaznavid dynasty|Ghaznavids]], and [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] significantly contributed to technological and administrative developments. The [[Islamic Golden Age]] gave rise to many centers of culture and [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|science]] and produced notable [[polymath]]s, [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|astronomers]], [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematicians]], [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|physicians]], and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophers]] during the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="Zimney 2009"/>

By the early 13th century, the [[Delhi Sultanate]] conquered the northern [[Indian subcontinent]], while Turkic dynasties like the [[Sultanate of Rum]] and [[Artuqids]] conquered much of [[Anatolia]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] throughout the 11th and 12th centuries. In the 13th and 14th centuries, destructive [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasions]], along with the loss of population due to the [[Black Death]], greatly weakened the traditional centers of the Muslim world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, but saw the emergence of the [[Timurid Renaissance]] and major economic powers such as the [[Mali Empire]] in [[West Africa]] and the [[Bengal Sultanate]] in [[South Asia]].<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). {{cite book|year=2005|title=Bengal: the unique state|publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10.|isbn=978-81-8069-149-2|quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zf6xAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|title=Historical Dictionary of Mali|last1=Imperato|first1=Pascal James|last2=Imperato|first2=Gavin H.|date=25 April 2008|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6402-3|pages=201}}</ref> Following the deportation and enslavement of the Muslim [[Moors]] from the [[Emirate of Sicily]] and elsewhere in [[History of Islam in southern Italy|southern Italy]],<ref>Julie Taylor, ''Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera'', (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 18.</ref> the Islamic Iberia was gradually conquered by Christian forces during the [[Reconquista]]. Nonetheless, in the [[early modern period]], the [[gunpowder empires]]—the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], and [[Safavid Iran|Safavids]]—emerged as world powers.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the [[Muslim world]] fell under the influence or direct control of the European [[Great Powers]].<ref name="Zimney 2009"/> Some of their efforts to win independence and build modern nation-states over the course of the last two centuries continue to reverberate to the present day, as well as fuel conflict-zones in the [[Middle East and North Africa|MENA region]], such as [[Afghan conflict|Afghanistan]], [[Central African Republic Civil War|Central Africa]], [[Chechen–Russian conflict|Chechnya]], [[Iraqi conflict|Iraq]], [[Kashmir conflict|Kashmir]], [[Libyan crisis (2011–present)|Libya]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Syrian civil war|Syria]], [[Somali Civil War|Somalia]], [[Xinjiang conflict|Xinjiang]], and [[Yemeni crisis|Yemen]].<ref>{{cite magazine |editor-last=Davis |editor-first=Ian |date=2018 |title=SIPRI Yearbook: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security – V. Armed conflict in the Middle East and North Africa |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRIYB18c02sV.pdf |magazine=SIPRI Yearbook |location=[[Stockholm]], Sweden |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |pages=66–82 |issn=0953-0282 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230125184601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRIYB18c02sV.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2023 |access-date=14 January 2025}}</ref> The [[oil boom]] stabilized the [[Gulf Cooperation Council|Arab States of the Gulf Cooperation Council]] (comprising [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]), making them the world's largest oil producers and exporters, which focus on [[capitalism]], [[free trade]], and [[tourism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sand to Silicon: Going Global|last=Sampler & Eigner|publisher=Motivate|year=2008|isbn=978-1-86063-254-9|location=United Arab Emirates|page=15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production|title=International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|work=eia.gov}}</ref>
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==Early sources and historiography ==
{{Main|Historiography of early Islam|Sīrah}}
{{Further|Revisionist school of Islamic studies|Islamic archaeology|Classical Islam}}
{{history of religion |expanded=religions}}
The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=628}} Most Islamic history was [[Oral tradition|transmitted orally]] until after the rise of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Vansina|1985}}</ref> One of the most important [[Historiography of early Islam|historiographical sources]] for the origins of [[Islam]] is the work of the [[List of Muslim historians|Muslim historian]] [[Al-Tabari|Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭabarī]] (839–923 CE).{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=6}} Differing views about how to deal with the scarce sources has led to the development of four different approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today:{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=633}}<ref>See also {{harvnb|Hughes|2013|pp=6–7}}, who links the practice of source and tradition (or [[Form criticism|form]]) criticism as one approach.</ref> 

* The ''descriptive'' method uses the outlines of Islamic traditions, adjusted for the stories of miracles and faith-centred claims within those sources.{{sfn|Donner|2010|pp=629, 633}} [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737–1794) and [[Gustav Weil]] (1808–1889) represent some of the first historians following the descriptive method.  
* In the ''[[Source criticism|source critical]]'' method, scholars compare all available sources in order to identify which informants to the sources are weak and thereby to distinguish spurious material.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=630}} The work of [[William Montgomery Watt]] (1909–2006) and that of [[Wilferd Madelung]] (1930–2023) exemplify source-critical study.  
* In the ''[[Tradition criticism|tradition critical]]'' method, the sources are believed to be based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history, and so are treated very cautiously.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=631}} [[Ignác Goldziher]] (1850–1921) pioneered the tradition critical method, and [[Uri Rubin]] (1944–2021) continued this approach.
* The ''[[Revisionist school of Islamic studies|skeptical]]'' method doubts nearly all of the material in the traditional sources, regarding any possible historical core as too difficult to decipher from distorted and fabricated material.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=632}} An early example of the sceptical method was the work of [[John Wansbrough]] (1928–2002).
[[File:Rashidun_coin_Pseudo-Byzantine_types.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Coin in use during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] (661–750 CE). [[Byzantine coinage|Pseudo-Byzantine type]] with depictions of the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Constans II]] holding the [[Christian cross|cross-tipped staff]] and ''[[globus cruciger]]''.]]
Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the studies produced. Overview treatments of the history of early Islam tend to take the descriptive approach. Scholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth generally follow the source-critical and tradition-critical methods.{{sfn|Donner|2010|p=633}} The quality of historical sources improves after the 8th century CE.{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=9}} Those sources which treated earlier times with a large temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more contemporaneous, the quality of genre of available historical accounts improves, and new documentary sources—such as official documents, correspondence and poetry—appear.{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=9}} For the time prior to the beginning of Islam—in the 6th century CE—sources are superior as well, if still of mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian realm of influence]] in the 6th century CE are poor, while the sources for [[Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine provinces]] at the time are of a respectable quality, complemented by [[Syriac Christian]] sources for Syria and Iraq.{{sfn|Robinson|2010|pp=4-5}}

Until the early 1970s,<ref name=FMDQiRS2008:30>[[#FMDQiRS2008|Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008]]: p.30</ref> [[Kafir|Non-Muslim]] scholars of [[Islamic studies]]—while not accepting mythical accounts, such as [[Miracle|divine intervention]]—did accept its origin story in most of its details.<ref name=THItSotS2012:45>[[#THItSotS2012|Holland, ''In the Shadow of the Sword'', 2012]]: p.45</ref><ref name=FMDQiRS2008:29>[[#FMDQiRS2008|Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008]]: p.29</ref> 
Thereafter, historians of the [[revisionist school of Islamic studies]] began to use relevant [[archaeology]], [[epigraphy]], [[numismatics]], and contemporary non-Arabic literature<ref name=YDNJKMQtIS2000:420>[[#YDNJKMQtIS2000|Nevo & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000]]: p.420</ref> to crosscheck writings from 150 to 250 years after Muhammad.<ref name=YDNJKMQtIS2000:422-6>[[#YDNJKMQtIS2000|Nevo & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000]]: p.422-6</ref> The school included scholars such as [[John Wansbrough]] and his students [[Andrew Rippin]], [[Norman Calder]], [[G. R. Hawting]], [[Patricia Crone]], and [[Michael Cook (historian)|Michael Cook]], as well as [[Günter Lüling]], [[Yehuda D. Nevo]], and [[Christoph Luxenberg]].<ref name=GSRQSaIC2008:8>[[#GSRQSaIC2008|Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008]]: p.8</ref>

[[File:Map of the Three Arabias Excerpted Partly from the Arab of Nubia Partly from Several Other Authors.png|upright=1.2|thumb|Non-Islamic testimonies about Muhammad's life describe him as the leader of the [[Saracens]],<ref>"Chapter 1. "A Prophet Has Appeared, Coming with the Saracens": Muhammad’s Leadership during the Conquest of Palestine According to Seventh- and Eighth-Century Sources". The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, pp. 18-72. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812205138.18</ref> believed to be descendants of [[Ishmael]], that lived in the [[Arabian Peninsula in the Roman era|Roman-era provinces]] of ''[[Arabia Petraea]]'' (West) and ''[[Arabia Deserta]]'' (North).]]
These Revisionist schools argue that:
* [[Mecca]] was not a settlement, nor an important commercial center, for thousands of years before Islam—as is claimed in traditional Islamic sources. In addition, [[Historical reliability of the Quran|geographical descriptions in the Quran]] and [[Hadith|''ḥadīth'' literature]] don't match with the location of Mecca. Rather, these sources point to somewhere in north-western Arabia, e.g. [[Petra, Jordan|Petra]] in [[Jordan]]<ref>Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: ''Hagarism'' (1977) pp. 22-24; Patricia Crone: ''Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam'' (1987); and the private researcher Dan Gibson: ''Quranic Geography'' (2011)</ref> as Islamic origin.
* Islam did not originate among [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|polytheistic Arab Pagans]], but in a milieu where Jewish and Christian texts were well-known in the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] [[Arabian peninsula]]. The "[[Kafir|infidels]]" ({{langx | ar | Kāfirūn}}) described in the Quran were not polytheistic Arab Pagans but rather [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Jews]] and [[Arab Christians|Christians]] in northern Arabia who, according to the traditional Islamic narrative, had polemically deviated from [[monotheism]].<ref>G. R. Hawting: ''The Idea of Idolatry and the Rise of Islam: From Polemic to History'' (1999); Fred Donner: ''Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam'' (2010) p. 59</ref> In the early period of Islam, Jews were regarded as "[[Mumin|believers]]" ({{langx | ar | Muʼminūn}}) and considered a part of the {{lang | ar | [[Ummah]]}}. Anti-Jewish narratives, such as the story about the [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|massacre of the Jewish tribe by Muslims]] in 627 CE after the [[Siege of Banu Qurayza]], appeared in traditional Islamic sources after [[Islamic–Jewish relations|Islam split from Judaism]], long after [[Death of Muhammad|Muhammad's death]] (632 CE).<ref>Fred Donner: ''Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam'' (2010) pp. 68 ff.; cf. also Hans Jansen: Mohammed (2005/7) pp. 311-317 (German edition 2008)</ref>
* The period that is today called early Islamic history was probably not an Islamic, religiously-motivated conquest but a [[secular]] Arab invasion.<ref>Robert G. Hoyland: ''In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire'' (2015)</ref>
* The [[Umayyad Caliphate]], and especially its fifth Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān]] (647–705, {{reign | 685 | 705}} CE), shaped the Islamic narrative to form a distinctive Islamic-Arab identity.<ref>Donner, ''Muhammad and the Believers. At the Origins of Islam'' (Harvard University Press; 2010)  {{ISBN|978-0-674-05097-6}}</ref> The word ''[[Islam|Islām]]'' does not appear in the records of ibn Marwān's construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]], and early Muslims referred to themselves simply as "[[Mumin|believers]]". Coins containing symbols of various religions ([[fire altar]]<ref>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the [[Dirham|drahms]] of the [[Sasanian coinage|Sasanian style]], the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the [[List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire|Persian Emperors]] in every detail, except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions, such as the ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' in the margins: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</ref> and [[Christian cross]]) were minted under the Caliphs. Ibn Marwān also plays an important role in the [[History of the Quran|reorganization of the Quranic text]].<ref>Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: ''Hagarism'' (1977) p. 29; Yehuda D. Nevo: ''Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State'' (2003) pp. 410-413; Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Hrsg.): ''Der frühe Islam. Eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen'' (2007) pp. 336 ff.</ref> 
* Almost all of the traditional texts on the beginnings of Islam were written during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750–1258 CE) and through these fabricated texts, the Abbasids tried to legitimize their own rule.<ref>Patricia Crone: ''Slaves on Horses. The Evolution of the Islamic Polity'' (1980) pp. 7, 12, 15; also: Hans Jansen: ''Mohammed'' (2005/7)</ref>

==Timeline==
{{Main|Timeline of the history of Islam}}
The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to [[World War I]]. It covers major historical centers of power and culture, including the [[Arabian peninsula]] (modern-day [[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Yemen]]), [[Mesopotamia]] (modern-day [[Iraq]]), [[Persia]] (modern-day [[Iran]]), [[Levant]] (modern-day [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], and [[Palestine (region)|Israel/Palestine]]), [[Egypt]], the [[Maghreb]] (north-west Africa), the [[Sahel]], the [[Swahili Coast]], [[Somalia]], southern [[Iberia]] ([[al-Andalus]]), [[Transoxania]] ([[Central Asia]]), [[Hindustan]] (including modern-day [[North India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Pakistan]]), and [[Anatolia]] (modern-day [[Turkey]]). It is necessarily an approximation, since rule over some regions was sometimes divided among different centers of power, and authority in larger polities was often distributed among several dynasties. For example, during the later stages of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], even the capital city of [[Baghdad]] was effectively ruled by other dynasties such as the [[Buyyids]] and the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuks]], while the [[Ottoman Turks]] commonly delegated executive authority over [[Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire|outlying provinces to local potentates]], such as the [[List of governors and rulers of the Regency of Algiers|Deys of Algiers]], the [[Beys of Tunis]], and the [[Mamluks of Iraq]].

<timeline>
ImageSize = width:800 height:200
PlotArea = width:720 height:150 left:75 bottom:20

Colors =
    id:blank value:gray(0.9) #
    id:rashidun value:teal #
    id:umayyad value:yelloworange #
    id:abbasid value:black #
    id:fatimid value:green #
    id:ayyubid value:orange #
    id:mamluk value:gray(0.3) #
    id:mongol value:powderblue #
    id:seljuk value:tan1 #
    id:ghaznavid value:skyblue #
    id:delhi value:lightorange #
    id:ottoman value:red #
    id:khedive value:pink #
    id:safavid value:yellowgreen #
    id:qajar value:dullyellow #
    id:mughal value:lavender #

Period = from:600 till:2000
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:600
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:10 start:600

PlotData=
 align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 width:11 mark:(line,black)

 bar: --Region--
 bar:Arabia
 from:632 till: 661 color:rashidun shift:(2,7) text:[[Rashidun]]
 from:661 till: 750 color:umayyad shift:(17,12) text:[[Umayyads]]
 from:750 till: 969 color:abbasid shift:(8,15) text:[[Abbasid Caliphate]]
 from:969 till: 1176 color:fatimid shift:(2,10) text:[[Fatimids]]
 from:1176 till: 1260 color:ayyubid shift:(2,10) text:[[Ayyubids]]
 from:1260 till: 1517 color:mamluk shift:(2,10) text:[[Mamluks]]
 from:1517 till: 1923 color:ottoman shift:(2,10) text:[[Ottomans]]
 bar:Mesopotamia
 from:638 till: 661 color:rashidun 
 from:661 till: 750 color:umayyad
 from:750 till: 1258 color:abbasid 
 from:1258 till: 1432 color:mongol shift:(2,-4) text:[[Mongols]]
 from:1432 till: 1533 color:blank
 from:1533 till: 1918 color:ottoman
 bar:Persia
 from:651 till: 661 color:rashidun
 from:661 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 1220 color:abbasid 
 from:1220 till: 1501 color:mongol
 from:1501 till: 1736 color:safavid shift:(2,-4) text:[[Safavids]]
 from:1736 till: 1794 color:blank
 from:1794 till: 1925 color:qajar shift:(2,-4) text:[[Qajars]]
 bar:Levant
 from:637 till: 661 color:rashidun 
 from:661 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 969 color:abbasid 
 from:969 till: 1070 color:fatimid 
 from:1070 till: 1171 color:abbasid 
 from:1171 till: 1260 color:ayyubid
 from:1260 till: 1517 color:mamluk
 from:1517 till: 1923 color:ottoman
 bar:Egypt
 from:637 till: 661 color:rashidun 
 from:661 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 969 color:abbasid 
 from:969 till: 1171 color:fatimid # shift:(0,-4) text:[[Fatimids]]
 from:1171 till: 1260 color:ayyubid # shift:(2,-4) text:[[Ayyubids]]
 from:1260 till: 1517 color:mamluk
 from:1517 till: 1867 color:ottoman
 from:1867  till: 1914 color:khedive shift:(20,-3) text:[[Khedivate]]
 bar:Maghreb
 from:709 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 920 color:abbasid 
 from:920 till: 1040 color:fatimid 
 from:1040 till: 1517 color:blank  shift:(0,-4) text:[[various]]
 from:1517  till: 1911 color:ottoman
 bar:al-Andalus
 from:711 till: 1031 color:umayyad 
 from:1031 till: 1492 color:blank shift:(0,-4) text:[[various]]
 bar:Transoxania
 from:710 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 1220 color:abbasid
 from:1220 till: 1507 color:mongol shift:(0,-4) text:[[Mongols]]
 from:1507 till: 1920 color:blank shift:(0,-4) text:[[various]]
 bar:Hindustan
 from:712 till: 750 color:umayyad 
 from:750 till: 977 color:abbasid
 from:977 till: 1186 color:ghaznavid shift:(0,-4) text:[[Ghaznavids]]
 from:1186 till: 1206 color:blank
 from:1206 till: 1526 color:delhi shift:(0,-4) text:[[Delhi Sultanate]]
 from:1526 till: 1857 color:mughal shift:(0,-4) text:[[Mughal Empire|Mughals]]
 bar:Anatolia
 from:1077 till: 1300 color:seljuk shift:(0,-4) text:[[Sultanate of Rum]]
 from:1300 till: 1923 color:ottoman
</timeline>

::: ''Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details.''

== Inception ==
{{for timeline|Timeline of the history of Islam (6th century)|Timeline of the history of Islam (7th century)}}
{{further|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Muhammad in Mecca|Early Muslim conquests}}
{{see also|Early social changes under Islam}}

[[File:Map of Arabia 600 AD.svg|thumb|Map of the [[tribes of Arabia]] in late antiquity]]
Early Islam arose within the historical, social, political, economic, and religious context of [[late antiquity]] in the [[Middle East]].{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=9}} [[Judaism in pre-Islamic Arabia|Judaism]] became the dominant religion of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]] in Yemen after about 380 CE, while [[Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia|Christianity]] took root in the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref name="Robin302"/> The second half of the 6th century CE saw political disorder in [[pre-Islamic Arabia]], and communication routes were no longer secure.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA297|year=2012|publisher=OUP USA|pages=297–99|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1}}</ref> [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Religious divisions]] played an important role in the crisis.<ref name="Robin302">{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA302|year=2012|publisher=OUP USA|page=302|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1}}</ref> There was also a yearning for a more "spiritual form of religion", and "the choice of religion increasingly became an individual rather than a collective issue."<ref name="Robin302"/> While some [[Arabs]] were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those [[Abrahamic religions]] provided "the principal intellectual and spiritual reference points", and Jewish and Christian loanwords from [[Aramaic]] began to replace the old pagan vocabulary of [[Arabic]] throughout the peninsula.<ref name="Robin302"/> The ''[[Hanif|Ḥanīf]]'' ("renunciates"), a group of [[Monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia|monotheists]] that sought to separate themselves both from the foreign Abrahamic religions and the traditional Arab polytheism,<ref name="Rubin 2006">{{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Rubin|author-first=Uri|author-link=Uri Rubin|year=2006|title=Ḥanīf|editor-last=McAuliffe|editor-first=Jane Dammen|editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]]|volume=II|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00080|isbn=978-90-04-14743-0}}</ref> were looking for a new religious worldview to replace the pre-Islamic Arabian religions,<ref name="Rubin 2006"/> focusing on "the all-encompassing father god [[Allah]] whom they freely equated with the Jewish [[Yahweh]] and the Christian [[Jehovah]]."{{sfn|Rogerson|2010}} In their view, [[Mecca]] was originally dedicated to this monotheistic faith that they considered to be the one true religion, established by the patriarch [[Abraham]].<ref name="Rubin 2006"/>{{sfn|Rogerson|2010}}

According to the [[Historiography of early Islam|traditional account]],<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Zimney 2009"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/> the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] was born in [[Mecca]], an important caravan trading center,<ref name="Peters-1994-68">{{cite book|last=Peters|first=F. E.|year=1994|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA68|location=[[Albany, New York]]|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|series=SUNY series in Near Eastern Studies|pages=68–75|isbn=9780791418758|access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> around the year 570 CE.<ref>"The very first question a biographer has to ask, namely when the person was born, cannot be answered precisely for Muhammad. [...] Muhammad's biographers usually make him 40 or sometimes 43 years old at the time of his call to be a prophet, which [...] would put the year of his birth at about 570 A.D." F.&nbsp;Buhl & A.T.&nbsp;Welch, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.'', "Muhammad", vol.&nbsp;7, p.&nbsp;361.</ref> His family belonged to the Arab clan of [[Quraysh]], which was the chief tribe of Mecca and a dominant force in western Arabia.<ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Robin287">{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA287|year=2012|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=287|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1}}</ref> To counter the effects of anarchy (particularly raiding for booty between [[Tribes of Arabia|tribes]]), they upheld the institution of "sacred months" when all violence was forbidden and travel was safe.<ref name="Robin301">{{cite book|author=Christian Julien Robin|title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA301|year=2012|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=301|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1}}</ref> The polytheistic [[Kaaba]] shrine in Mecca and the surrounding area was a popular pilgrimage destination for surrounding Arabs, which was a significant source of revenue for the city.<ref name="Robin301"/><ref name="Zeitlin49">{{cite book|author=Irving M. Zeitlin|title=The Historical Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbhJJ7AOLL4C&pg=PA30|date=19 March 2007|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3999-4|page=49}}</ref>

[[File:Stanford 2007, recto.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A page from the [[Sanaa manuscript]], with "subtexts" revealed under [[UV]], very different from [[1924 Cairo edition|contemporary editions of the Quran]]. [[Gerd R. Puin|Puin]] argues that these variants indicate [[Early Quranic manuscripts|an evolving text]], not a fixed one.<ref name="Atlantic 1999">{{cite magazine |author-last=Lester |author-first=Toby |author-link=Toby Lester |date=1 January 1999 |title=What Is the Koran?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825233826/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/ |issn=2151-9463 |oclc=936540106 |archive-date=25 August 2012 |access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref>]]

Most likely Muhammad was "intimately aware of Jewish belief and practices," and acquainted with the ''Ḥanīf''.{{sfn|Rogerson|2010}}{{sfn|Hazleton|2013|p="a sense of kinship"}} Like the ''Ḥanīf'', Muhammad practiced ''[[Taḥannuth]]'', spending time in seclusion at the Cave Hira in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]] and "turning away from paganism."{{sfn|Bleeker|1968|p=32-34}}<ref>Sally Mallam, [https://humanjourney.us/ideas-that-shaped-our-modern-world-section/mohammad-and-the-beginnings-of-islam-community-of-believers/ ''The Community of Believers'']</ref> When he was about 40 years old, he began receiving at mount Hira' what Muslims regard as divine [[Muhammad's first revelation|revelations]] delivered through the [[Angels in Islam|angel]] [[Gabriel#Islam|Gabriel]] on the [[Night of Power]], which would later form the [[Quran]]. These inspirations urged him to proclaim a strict [[Monotheism|monotheistic faith]], as the final expression of [[Bible prophecy|Biblical prophetism]] earlier codified in the sacred texts of Judaism and Christianity; to warn his compatriots of the impending [[Judgement Day]]; and to castigate social injustices of his city.<ref name="Muhammad p. 363">"Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor." F.&nbsp;Buhl & A.T.&nbsp;Welch, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.'', "Muhammad", vol.&nbsp;7, p.&nbsp;363.</ref> Muhammad's message [[Timing of Sahabah becoming Muslims|won over a handful of followers]] (the ''ṣaḥāba'') and was met with [[Persecution of Muslims by Meccans|increasing persecution from Meccan notables]].<ref name="Donner2000"/><ref name="Mecca. p. 364">"At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade." F.&nbsp;Buhl & A.T.&nbsp;Welch, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.'', "Muhammad", vol.&nbsp;7, p.&nbsp;364.</ref> In 622 CE, a few years after losing protection with the death of his influential uncle [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|ʾAbū Ṭālib ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib]], Muhammad migrated to the city of Yathrib (subsequently called [[Medina]]) where he was joined by his followers.{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=187}} Later generations would count this event, known as the ''[[Hegira|hijra]]'', as the start of the Islamic era.<ref name="Hourani15-19">{{cite book|author=Albert Hourani|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA15|year=2002|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|pages=15–19|isbn=978-0-674-01017-8}}</ref>

[[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|1314 Illustration by [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid ad-Din]], depicting the [[Negus]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Medieval Abyssinia]] declining a [[Quraysh|Meccan]] delegation's request to surrender the [[Companions of the Prophet|early Muslims]].]]

In the [[first Islamic state]] in Medina, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the [[Constitution of Medina]], Muhammad began to lay the [[Early social changes under Islam|foundations of the new Islamic society]], with the help of new Quranic verses which provided guidance on matters of law and religious observance.<ref name="Hourani15-19"/> The [[surah]]s of this period emphasized his place among the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|long line of Biblical prophets]], but also differentiated the message of the Quran from the sacred texts of Christianity and Judaism.<ref name="Hourani15-19"/> [[Early Muslim conquests|Armed conflict]] with the Arab Meccans and [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Jewish tribes]] of the Yathrib area soon broke out.<ref>{{cite book|author=W. Montgomery Watt|title=Muhammad at Medina|url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp|date=1956|publisher=Oxford at the Clarendon Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp/page/n22 1]–17, 192–221}}</ref> After a series of military confrontations and political manoeuvres, Muhammad was able to [[Occupation of Mecca|secure control of Mecca]] and allegiance of the Quraysh in 629 CE.<ref name="Hourani15-19"/> In the time remaining until [[Death of Muhammad|his death]] in 632 CE, tribal chiefs across the Arabian peninsula entered into various agreements with him, some under terms of alliance, others acknowledging his claims of prophethood and agreeing to follow Islamic practices, including paying the [[Zakat|alms levy]] to his government, which consisted of a number of deputies, an army of believers, and a public treasury.<ref name="Hourani15-19"/>

The real intentions of Muhammad regarding the [[spread of Islam]], its political undertone, and his [[Dawah|missionary activity]] (''da'wah'') during his lifetime are a contentious matter of debate, which has been extensively discussed both among [[Ulama|Muslim scholars]] and [[Kafir|Non-Muslim]] scholars within the academic field of [[Islamic studies]].<ref name="Poston 1992">{{cite book|author-last=Poston|author-first=Larry|year=1992|chapter=Daʻwah in the East: The Expansion of Islam from the First to the Twelfth Century, A.D.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzvnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|title=Islamic Daʻwah in the West: Muslim Missionary Activity and the Dynamics of Conversion to Islam|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=11–12|isbn=978-0-19-507227-3|oclc=133165051}}</ref> Various authors, Islamic activists, and historians of Islam have proposed several understandings of Muhammad's intent and ambitions regarding his religio-political mission in the context of the pre-Islamic Arabian society and the founding of his own religion:<ref name="Poston 1992"/>

{{Blockquote
|text=Was it in Muhammad's mind to produce a world religion or did his interests lie mainly within the confines of his homeland? Was he solely an [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]]—a political [[genius]] intent upon uniting the tribal clans under the banner of a new religion—or was his vision a truly international one, a desire to produce a reformed humanity in the midst of a new world order? These questions are not without significance, for a number of the proponents of contemporary da'wah activity trace their inspiration to the prophet himself.[...] Despite the claims of these writers, it is difficult to prove that Muhammad intended to found a world-encompassing faith superseding the religions of Christianity and Judaism. His original aim appears to have been the establishment of a succinctly Arab brand of [[monotheism]], as indicated by his many references to the Qurʾān as an "Arabic book" and by his accommodations to other monotheistic traditions.<ref name="Poston 1992"/>
}}

==Rashidun Caliphate==
{{Main|Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{Further|Rashidun|Military campaigns under Caliph Uthman}}
{{See also|Canonization of Islamic scripture|Political aspects of Islam}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|upright|250px|Empire of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rāshidūn Caliphate]] at its peak under the third ''[[Rashidun|rāshidūn]]'' caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān]] (654 CE) {{legend|#008000|Strongholds of the Rāshidūn Caliphate}}]]

After the [[death of Muhammad]] in 632 CE, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title of ''[[caliph]]'' ({{langx|ar|خَليفة|translit=khalīfa|lit=successor}}).<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Polk 2018"/> Thus, the subsequent Islamic empires were known as "[[caliphate]]s",<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Pakatchi-Ahmadi 2017">{{cite encyclopedia|author1-last=Pakatchi|author1-first=Ahmad|author2-last=Ahmadi|author2-first=Abuzar|year=2017|title=Caliphate|translator-last=Asatryan|translator-first=Mushegh|editor1-last=Madelung|editor1-first=Wilferd|editor2-last=Daftary|editor2-first=Farhad|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica|location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_05000066|issn=1875-9823}}</ref> and a series of four caliphs governed the early Islamic empire: [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]] (632–634), [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]] (Umar І, 634–644), [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]] (644–656), and [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] (656–661). These leaders are known as the ''[[Rashidun|rāshidūn]]'' ("rightly-guided") caliphs in [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī Islam]].<ref name="Lewis1995a"/> They oversaw the initial phase of the [[early Muslim conquests]], advancing through [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]], [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|the Levant]], [[Muslim invasion of Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]].<ref name="Lewis1995a"/>

Alongside the growth of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the major political development within early Islam in this period was the sectarian split and political divide between [[Kharijites|Kharijite]], [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]], and [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] [[Muslims]]; this had its roots in a dispute over the succession for the role of caliph.<ref name="Van-Ess 2017"/><ref name="Izutsu 2006"/> Sunnīs believed the caliph was elective and any Muslim from the Arab clan of [[Quraysh]], the tribe of Muhammad, might serve as one.<ref name="Lewis1995b"/> Shīʿītes, on the other hand, believed the title of caliph should be hereditary in the [[Ahl al-Bayt|bloodline of Muhammad]],<ref name="jaarel 2015">{{cite journal|last=Foody|first=Kathleen|date=September 2015|title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran|editor-last=Jain|editor-first=Andrea R.|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]]|volume=83|issue=3|pages=599–623|doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029|doi-access=free|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]]|eissn=1477-4585|issn=0002-7189|jstor=24488178|lccn=sc76000837|oclc=1479270|quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, [[Muhammad]] not only designated [[Ali|ʿAlī]] as his friend, but appointed him as his [[Succession to Muhammad|successor]]—as the "lord" or "master" of the new [[Ummah|Muslim community]]. ʿAlī and [[Family tree of Ali|his descendants]] would become known as [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|the Imams]], divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted [[Tafsir|special insight into the Qurʾanic text]]. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over [[Islamic holy books|Islamic texts]] and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the [[Occultation (Islam)|disappearance]] of the [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|twelfth and final Imam]] in the ninth century.}}</ref> and thus all the caliphs, with the exceptions of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] and his firstborn son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan]], were actually illegitimate [[usurper]]s.<ref name="Lewis1995b"/> However, the Sunnī sect emerged as triumphant in most regions of the [[Muslim world]], with the exceptions of [[Iran]] and [[Oman]]. [[Companions of the Prophet|Muhammad's closest companions]] (''ṣaḥāba''), the four "[[Rashidun|rightly-guided]]" caliphs who succeeded him, continued to expand the Islamic empire to encompass [[Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)|Jerusalem]], [[Siege of Ctesiphon (637)|Ctesiphon]], and [[Muslim invasion of Damascus|Damascus]], and sending Arab Muslim armies as far as the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Sindh region]].<ref>[http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050930020401/http://alcor.concordia.ca/~shannon/201Lec02images_files/image004.jpg|date=30 September 2005}}</ref> The early Islamic empire stretched from [[al-Andalus]] (Muslim Iberia) to the [[Muslim invasion of India|Punjab region]] under the reign of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad dynasty]].

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  from: 632 till: 633  color:lightgrey shift:(7,-3) text:[[Ridda wars]]
  from: 633 till: 656  color:lightgrey shift:(7,-3) text:[[Rashidun Caliphate|Rāshidūn Campaigns]]
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  from: 661 till: 666  color:age text:[[Muawiyah I|Muʿāwiya I]]
</timeline>

After Muhammad's death, [[Abu Bakr|Abū Bakr]], one of his closest associates, was chosen as the first [[caliph]] ("successor"). Although the office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy.<ref name="Lewis1995a"/><ref name="Hourani22"/> A number of [[Tribes of Arabia|tribal Arab leaders]] refused to extend the agreements made with Muhammad to Abū Bakr, ceasing payments of the alms levy and in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right.<ref name="Hourani22">{{cite book|author=Albert Hourani|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA15|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=22–23|isbn=978-0-674-01017-8}}</ref> Abū Bakr asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the [[Ridda wars]], whose momentum was carried into the lands of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] empires.<ref>"The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires."{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref> By the end of the reign of the second caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb]], the Arab Muslim armies, whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels<ref>"In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the cause of Islam." W.&nbsp;Montgomery Watt, ''Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.'', "Abu Bakr", vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;110. "Umar's subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes which had rebelled during the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." {{Harvtxt|Berkey|2003|p=71}}</ref> and former imperial auxiliary troops,<ref>[N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources hint that we should view many in Muhammad's west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads, not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of their imperial masters.{{Harvtxt|Hoyland|2014|p=227}}</ref> [[Arab–Byzantine wars|invaded the eastern Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt]], while [[Muslim conquest of Persia|the Sasanids lost their western territories]], with the rest of Persia to follow soon afterwards.<ref name="Hourani22"/>
[[File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid style]] coins during the Rashidun period,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1-last=Album|author1-first=Stephen|author2-last=Bates|author2-first=Michael L.|author3-last=Floor|author3-first=Willem|author3-link=Willem Floor|title=COINS AND COINAGE|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|volume=VI/1|pages=14–41|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=30 December 2012|orig-date=15 December 1992|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783|doi-access=free|issn=2330-4804|access-date=23 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517020427/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|archive-date=17 May 2015|url-status=live|quote=As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the ''drahms'' of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like ''besmellāh'' in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.}}</ref> similar designs were minted in the names of important leaders such as [[Muawiyah I]] and [[Ibn Zubayr]].  ([[Crescent and star (symbol)|crescent-star]], [[fire altar]], depictions of the last Sasanian emperor [[Khosrow II]], Arabic ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' in margin)]]

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb improved the administration of the fledgling Islamic empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks, and playing a role in foundation of cities like [[Basra]]. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, ʿUmar established the ''[[Bayt al-mal]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdul Basit Ahmad|title=Umar bin Al Khattab – The Second Caliph of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&pg=PT43|publisher=Darussalam|isbn=978-9960-861-08-1|page=43|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA20|date=2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|page=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQxYnAykK6sC&pg=PT132|date=8 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-22-3|page=132}}</ref> a welfare institution for the Muslim and [[Kafir|Non-Muslim]] poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The ''Bayt al-mal'' ran for hundreds of years under the Rāshidūn Caliphate in the 7th century CE and continued through the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad period]] and well into the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid era]]. ʿUmar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Al-Buraey|title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA254|year=1985|publisher=KPI|isbn=978-0-7103-0333-2|page=254}}</ref><ref>''The challenge of Islamic renaissance'' by Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Muhammad Al-Buraey|title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA252|year=1985|publisher=KPI|isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1|page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Ahmed Akgündüz|author2=Said Öztürk|title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539|date=1 January 2011|publisher=IUR Press|isbn=978-90-90-26108-9|page=539}}</ref> When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.<ref name="Brill Archive">{{cite book|author1=Sami Ayad Hanna|author2=George H. Gardner|title=Arab Socialism. &#91;al-Ishtirakīyah Al-ʻArabīyah&#93;: A Documentary Survey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271|year=1969|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=271–|id=GGKEY:EDBBNXAKPQ2}}</ref> The expansion was partially halted between 638 and 639 CE during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and the Levant, respectively, but by the end of ʿUmar's reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia were incorporated into the early Islamic empire.

Local populations of [[Jews]] and [[Arab Christians|indigenous Christians]], who lived as religious minorities and were forced to pay the ''[[jizya]]'' tax under the Muslim rule in order to finance the wars with Byzantines and Sasanids, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2000|p=38}}</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p. 86</ref> As new areas were conquered, they also benefited from free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic empire, where, to encourage commerce, taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade.<ref>''Islam: An Illustrated History'' by Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay p. 40</ref> The Muslims paid ''[[zakat]]'' on their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since the [[Constitution of Medina]], drafted by the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges.<ref>{{cite journal|author=R. B. Serjeant|title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1978|volume=41|pages=1–42|s2cid=161485671}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=R. B. Serjeant|title=The Constitution of Medina|journal=Islamic Quarterly|volume=8|year=1964|page=4}}</ref>

In 639 CE, ʿUmar appointed [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan]] as the governor of [[Muslim invasion of Syria|Syria]] after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=15 October 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=40}}</ref> To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]], in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, with ships crewed by [[Monophysitism|Monophysite Christians]], [[Copts|Egyptian Coptic Christians]], and [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Jacobite Syrian Christians]] sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the [[Battle of the Masts]] in 655 CE, opening up the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to Muslim ships.<ref>{{cite book|author=Archibald Ross Lewis|title=European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&pg=PA24|year=1985|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32082-7|page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Michael Kroll|title=History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123|date=2005|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4634-5730-3|page=123}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Timothy E. Gregory|title=A History of Byzantium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&pg=PA183|date=26 August 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5997-8|page=183}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Weston|title=Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61|date=28 July 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-18257-4|page=61}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg|thumb|270px|upright|left|Eastern territories of the [[Byzantine Empire]] invaded by the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab Muslims]] during the [[Arab–Byzantine wars]] (650 CE)]]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because ʿUmar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.<ref name="Brill Archive"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Khalid Muhammad Khalid|author2=Muhammad Khali Khalid|title=Men Around the Messenger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA117|date=February 2005|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=978-983-9154-73-3|page=117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29138-5|page=605}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Maulana Muhammad Ali|title=The Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101|date=9 August 2011|publisher=eBookIt.com|isbn=978-1-934271-25-4|page=101}}</ref> Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like [[Basra]] and [[Kufa]] in [[Iraq]] and [[Fustat]] in Egypt.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rahman|1999|p=37}}</ref>

When ʿUmar was assassinated in 644 CE, [[Uthman ibn Affan|ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān]], second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad, became the third caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of [[Varieties of Arabic|different Arabic dialects]] and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When ʿUthmān became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the [[History of the Quran|compilation of the Quran]] was finished some time between 650 and 656 CE, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 50 (1): 3.</ref> After Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the [[Arabs]] started to resurface. Following the [[Roman–Persian wars]] and the [[Byzantine-Sasanian wars]], deep-rooted differences between [[Muslim invasion of Iraq|Iraq]] (formerly under the [[Sasanian Empire]]) and [[Muslim invasion of Syria|Syria]] (formerly under the [[Byzantine Empire]]) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic empire to be in their area.<ref>''Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War'' by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32</ref>

As ʿUthmān became very old, [[Marwan I]], a relative of Muawiyah slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When ʿUthmān was assassinated in 656 CE, [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the [[First Fitna|first Muslim civil war]] (the "First Fitna"). ʿAlī was assassinated by the [[Kharijites]] in 661 CE. Six months later, ʿAlī's firstborn son [[Hasan ibn Ali|Ḥasan]] made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I, in the interest of peace. In the [[Hasan–Muawiya treaty]], Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī handed over power to Muawiyah I on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilferd Madelung|title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64696-3|page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php|title=Sahih Bukhari: Book of "Peacemaking"|first=Sahih|last=Bukhari}}</ref> Muawiyah I subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the [[Umayyad dynasty]], with a capital in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=67–72}}</ref> [[Husayn ibn Ali|Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī]], by then Muhammad's only surviving grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads; he was killed in the [[Battle of Karbala]] the same year, in an event still mourned by [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa Muslims]] on the [[Day of Ashura]]. Political unrest called the [[Second Fitna|second Muslim civil war]] (the "Second Fitna") continued, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah I to [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Kabul]], [[Bukhara]], and [[Samarkand]], and expanded into [[North Africa]]. In 664 CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered [[Kabul]],<ref>Roberts, J: ''History of the World''. Penguin, 1994.</ref> and in 665 CE pushed further into the [[Maghreb]].<ref>Dermenghem, E. (1958). ''Muhammad and the Islamic tradition''. New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.</ref>

==Umayyad Caliphate==
{{main|Umayyad Caliphate}}
[[File:Greek Muawiya inscription of Hammat Gader, 663 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=A black and white scan of a 7th-century stone plaque inscribed in Greek with credits to a sovereign ruler for restoring a bath facility|A Greek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring the Roman-era bath facilities at [[Hamat Gader]] in 663, the sole epigraphic attestation of Mu'awiya's rule in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]]]

The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams]], the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750 CE. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of [[Mecca]], [[Damascus]] was the capital. After the death of [[Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr]] in 666,<ref>''The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate'' by Wilferd Madelung. p. 340.</ref><ref>''Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I'', Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. p. 543</ref> [[Muawiyah I]] consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from [[Medina]], which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the [[Bayt al-mal]] and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.<ref>''Islam and Politics'' John L. Esposito 1998 p. 16</ref><ref>''Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project'' by Benjamin Jokisch – 2007 p. 404</ref><ref>''The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East'' Hugh N. Kennedy – 2006 p. 197</ref> All this increased discontent.<ref>''A Chronology of Islamic History'' by H. U. Rahman pp. 106, 129</ref><ref>''Voyages in World History'' by Josef W. Meri p. 248</ref> The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid dynasty]] in 750, which moved the capital to [[Baghdad]].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}; {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}</ref> A branch of the [[Ummayad]] family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the [[Fitna of al-Andalus]]. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|thumb|upright|250px|Territories of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]]]

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than {{convert|5000000|sqmi}} making it one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] the world had yet seen,<ref name=Blankinship>{{Cite book|title=The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads|first=Khalid Yahya|last=Blankinship|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7|page=37}}</ref> and the fifth [[List of largest empires#Contiguous empires|largest contiguous empire]] ever.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of [[Constantinople]]. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in [[Anatolia]]. [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]] credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-[[civil war]] anarchy. However, [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the [[Ummah]], fabricating self-aggrandizing [[heresy|heresies]]<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php answering-ansar.org. ch 8.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622044557/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php |date=22 June 2011 }}</ref> slandering [[Muhammad|the Prophet]]'s family<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php answering-ansar.org. ch 7.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622045815/http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php |date=22 June 2011 }}</ref> and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.<ref>''Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu'', Page 484, by Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. p. 484.</ref> One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
In 682, Yazid restored [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the [[Berber people|Berbers]] and Byzantines.<ref>History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti</ref> From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards [[Tangier]], where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the [[Atlas Mountains]].<ref>History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan</ref> With about 300 [[cavalry]]men, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.<ref>The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb</ref> Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of [[Rhodes]] and [[Crete]]. Under the rule of [[Yazid I]], some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if [[Husayn ibn Ali]] the descendant of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Imam Husain's son, Imam [[Ali ibn Husain]], was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in [[Karbala]] war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah]] came in power as first Caliph of [[Fatimid]] in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali. These Imams were recognized by Shia Islam taking Imam Ali as first Caliph/Imam and the same is institutionalized by the [[Safavids]] and many similar institutions named now as [[Ismaili]], [[Twelver]], etc.

The period under [[Muawiya II]] was marked by civil wars ([[Second Fitna]]). This would ease in the reign of [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]], a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a [[currency]] for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under [[Justinian II]] ([[Battle of Sebastopolis]]) in 692 in [[Asia Minor]]. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of [[Slavs]]. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} He reformed agriculture and commerce.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular [[postal service]].
[[File:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba]] (Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form dates from the 9th century, [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]].]]
Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]] played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. This tactic was crucial for the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.

[[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik]] was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed [[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]] governor of [[Mesopotamia]]. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of [[al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|al-Hajjaj]], one of two prominent leaders (the other was [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]]) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to [[Damascus]] on becoming Caliph, remaining in [[Ramla]]. Sulayman sent [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik]] to attack the Byzantine capital ([[Siege of Constantinople (717–18)|siege of Constantinople]]). The intervention of [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

[[Yazid II]] came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.<ref>In the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720–721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.</ref> Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the [[Berber Revolt]]. He was also faced with a revolt by [[Zayd ibn Ali]]. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The [[Battle of Akroinon]], a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.<ref>*Eggenberger, David (1985). ''An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present''. Courier Dover Publications. {{ISBN|0-486-24913-1}} p. 3.</ref> Hisham died in 743.
[[File:The Saracen Army outside Paris, 730-32 AD.png|thumb|Umayyad army invades France after conquering the Iberian Peninsula]] [[Al-Walid I]] began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into [[Carthage]] and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]] crossed the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and began to [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquer the Iberian Peninsula]] using North African [[Berber people|Berber]] armies. The [[Visigoths]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] were defeated when the Umayyad conquered [[Lisbon]]. The Iberian Peninsula was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the [[Battle of Tours]]). In the east, Islamic armies under [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]] made it as far as the [[Indus Valley]].
[[Al-Walid II]] saw political intrigue during his reign. [[Yazid III]] spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the [[Qays and Yaman tribes|Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis]] and [[Mawali|non-Arab Muslims]], and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human [[free will]]).<ref>von Ess, "Kadar", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' 2nd Ed.</ref> Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a [[coup]].<ref>Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, ''Seeing Islam as Others Saw It'' (Darwin Press, 1998), 660</ref> Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the [[Quran|Book of God]] and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. [[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid]], named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. [[Marwan II]] ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince [[Abd al-Rahman I|Abd al-Rahman]] who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there.

== Abbasid Caliphate ==
{{Main|Abbasid Caliphate}}
[[File:Abbasids850.png|thumb|[[Abbasid Caliphate]] in the [[850s]]]]
The [[Abbasid dynasty]] rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier [[Caliphate]]s. Initially, they conquered [[List of islands in the Mediterranean|Mediterranean islands]] including the [[Balearics]] and, after, in 827 the [[Islamic Southern Italy|Southern Italy]].<ref name="EoI-Islam">J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02</ref> The [[ruling party]] had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary [[Abu Muslim]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1977a|p=105}}</ref> Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic [[Arabic literature|prose]] and [[Arabic poetry|poetry]], termed by ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' as its "[[Golden Age of Islam|golden age]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1977b|pp=661–63}}</ref> Commerce and industry (considered a [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]]) and the [[Islamic arts|arts]] and sciences (considered a [[Islamic science|Muslim Scientific Revolution]]) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs [[al-Mansur]] (ruled 754–775), [[Harun al-Rashid]] (ruled 786–809), [[al-Ma'mun]] (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.<ref name="B.a-d">"Abbasid Dynasty", ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2005)</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as [[Christians]], [[Jews]] and [[Sabians]],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> [[Christian influences on the Islamic world|contributed to the Islamic civilization]] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the [[House of Wisdom]] employed [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Christian]] and [[List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars|Persian scholars]] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304 "Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K]. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi|last=Brague|year=2009|isbn=9780226070803|page=164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Almost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref>
[[File:Dinar of al-Mansur, AH 136-158.jpg|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of Abbasid caliph [[Al-Mansur]] (r. 754–775) the founder of [[Baghdad]], ''patron of art and science'']]
The capital was moved from Damascus to [[Baghdad]], due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in [[Persia]] and [[Transoxania]].<ref name="B.a-d" /> At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, [[Abd ar-Rahman I]], escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the [[Maghreb]], Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab [[Aghlabid]]s as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognize central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]] dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "''al-Qahirah''" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as [[Cairo]]).

During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the [[Tulunid]] and the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid dynasty]]. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the [[Samanid Empire]]. In Persia the Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.<ref name="B-I">"Islam", ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2005)</ref><ref name = "AHGC"/> Abbasid influence had been consumed by the [[Great Seljuq Empire]] (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.<ref name="B.a-d" /> Two other Turkish tribes, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Karahanids]] and the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]], converted to Islam during the 10th&nbsp;century. Later, they were subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader [[Alp Arslan]] (1063 – 1072) financially supported sciences and literature and established the [[Nezamiyeh]] university in Baghdad.<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' [[Walter de Gruyter]] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful [[Dawah|proselytising]].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> The first stage in the [[Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent|conquest of India]] began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 to 1209) years later, the area up to the [[Ganges river]] had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in [[Kanem Region|Kanem]] starting from sometime between 1081 and 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of [[Gao]] as early as 1009. The [[Mali Empire|Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali]] reached prominence in the 13th century.<ref>"Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</ref>

The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to [[Ira Lapidus]], "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their [[Mawali]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidus|2002|p=54}}</ref> The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as ''mawali'', who remained outside the [[kinship]]-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic [[ecumenism]], promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the ''[[Ummah]]'' in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the [[Shariah]] was codified, and the four [[Madhabs]] were established. This era also saw the rise of classical [[Sufism]]. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of [[Hadith]] of [[Sahih Bukhari]] and others.<ref>{{harvnb|Nasr|2003|p=121}}</ref> Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, the Quran identifying [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christian]]s, [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], and [[Sabians]] (commonly identified with the [[Mandaeans]]) as "[[people of the book]]". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]], two major [[Islamic schools and branches|denominations of Islam]], solidified and the [[divisions of the world in Islam|divisions of the world]] theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic [[monarchy]] ([[unitary state|unitary system of government]].) The regional [[Sultanate]] and [[Emirate]] governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Khaddūrī|2002|pp=21–22}}</ref> In the [[early Islamic philosophy]] of the [[#Al-Andalus|Iberian Umayyads]], [[Averroes]] presented an argument in ''The Decisive Treatise'', providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official [[Ash'ari]] theology; thus, [[Averroism]] has been considered a precursor to modern [[secularism]].<ref>Abdel Wahab El Messeri. [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm Episode 21: Ibn Rushd], ''Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask'', ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref><ref>Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090628121624/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13 The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt], ''Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)''.</ref>

===Golden Baghdad Abbasids===
''Early Middle Ages''

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According to Arab sources in the year 750, [[Al-Saffah]], the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the [[Battle of the Zab]], Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>for more, see [[As-Saffah#As-Saffah's Caliphate|As-Saffah's Caliphate]]</ref>
[[File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg|thumb|An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.]]
In [[Al-Mansur]]'s time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. [[Al-Mahdi]], whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, [[Al-Hadi]]<ref>An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=taoEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA319 p. 319]</ref> was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.

The military conflicts subsided as [[Harun al-Rashid]] ruled.<ref>Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WlYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA567 p. 567].</ref> His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library [[Bayt al-Hikma]] ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The [[Barmakid]] family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.<ref>Johannes P. Schadé (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions.</ref>

[[Al-Amin]] received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his brothers, leading to the [[Fourth Fitna]]. [[Al-Ma'mun]]'s general [[Tahir ibn Husayn]] [[Siege of Baghdad (812–813)|took Baghdad]], executing Al-Amin.<ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]] History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992</ref> The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty.

=== Rise of regional powers ===
{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra}}
[[File:EditedStattering.png|thumb|Regional powers born out of the fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate]]
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among [[Copt]]ic Arabs, [[Indo-Persian]]s, and immigrant Turks.<ref>{{harvnb|Nasr|2003|pp=121–22}}</ref> In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidus|2002|p=129}}</ref> The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirid]]s in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], which was founded during the caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]]'s reign. Similar dynasties included the [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]] and [[Seljuqs]]. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Spencer Baynes|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtpTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA578|year=1878|publisher=A. and C. Black|page=578}}</ref>

===High Baghdad Abbasids===
''Early Middle Ages''

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  from:932  till:934 color:age shift:(0,-13) text:[[Al-Qahir|Qahir]]
  from:934  till:940 color:era text:[[Ar-Radi|Radi]]
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Upon Al-Amin's death, [[Al-Ma'mun]] became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.<ref>Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.</ref> Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirid family]] became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the ''[[Mihna]]'', the [[Abbasid inquisition]] which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.<ref>The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.</ref> The ''[[Ulama]]'' emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The ''Ulema'' and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, [[List of border conflicts|border war]]s increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in [[Sardis]]. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.<ref>Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".</ref> His scientists originated [[alchemy]]. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, [[Al-Mu'tasim]], rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. [[Theophilos (emperor)|Byzantine emperor Theophilus]] launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the [[Battle of Anzen]]. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and [[ghilman]] slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the [[Mamluk]] system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of Abbasid caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] ([[Reign|r.]] 833–842) the founder of [[Samarra]], patron of art and science]]
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid family continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician [[Al-Kindi]] was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.<ref>Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991</ref>

[[Al-Wathiq]] succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.<ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]] History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. {{ISBN|0-88706-875-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-88706-875-1}}</ref>

[[File:Great Mosque of Samarra.jpg|thumb|[[Malwiya|Minaret]] at the [[Great Mosque of Samarra]].]]
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, [[Al-Mutawakkil]] succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the [[Great Mosque of Samarra]]<ref>Its minarets were spiraling cones {{convert|55|m|ft}} high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.</ref> as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Constantine the Philosopher]], who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by [[Michael III|Emperor Michael III]]. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the [[Imam Husayn Shrine|shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī]], an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

[[Al-Muntasir]] succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing [[Al-Musta'in]]. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to [[Al-Mu'tazz]] but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasid Caliph to assume power.

{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; clear:left; width: 250px; margin-right:1em;"
|-
!style="background-color: #f8eaba;" | High Abbasids<br />Jurisprudence
|-
|{{center|''Four constructions of Islamite law''}}
* [[Abu Hanifa]] (Iraq teacher)
* [[Malik ibn Anas]] (Medina Imam)
* [[Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i]] (Egyptian Imam)
* [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] (Baghdad teacher)
|-
!style="background-color: #f8eaba;" | Early Abbasids<br />Literature and Science
|-
|
* [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], physician, Greek translator;
* [[Ibn Fadlan]], explorer;
* [[Al Battani]], astronomer;
* [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Tabari]], historian and theologian;
* [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Al-Razi]], philosopher, medic, chemist;
* [[Al-Farabi]], chemist and philosopher;
* [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], mathematician;
* [[Alhazen]], mathematician;
* [[Al-Biruni]], mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
* [[Omar Khayyám]], poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
* [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]], Sufism mystic, writer and teacher
|}
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At [[Samarra]], the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and [[Moor (people)|Moor]]s), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. [[Al-Muhtadi]] became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. [[Al-Mu'tamid]] followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the [[Zanj Rebellion]], Al-Mu'tamid summoned [[Al-Muwaffaq (vizier)|al-Muwaffak]] to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The [[Hamdanid dynasty]] was founded by [[Hamdan ibn Hamdun]] when he was appointed governor of [[Mardin]] in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, [[al-Mu'tadid]], and never regained power. The [[Tulunids]] became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.

Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, [[Al-Muktafi]], succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the [[Carmathians]]. <!-- prevailed more or less with the Byzantines, who were not slow to take advantage of the Caliphate's difficulties.what does this mean? hostilities do not prevail. one or the other combatants might. "War was kept up with various fortune on both sides." Did the fortunes fund the war or did both sides have success?--> Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose [[Al-Muqtadir]]. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognize the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress [[Zoe Karbonopsina]] pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner<ref>A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.</ref> while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother [[al-Qahir]]. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son [[al-Radi]] took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, [[Ibn Raik]] (''[[amir al-umara]]''; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the [[Hanbali]]s, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute [[Alms and Almsgiving|alms]], or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidids]] of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor ([[Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid]]) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s, [['Imad al-Daula|'Alī ibn Būyah]] and his two younger brothers, [[Rukn al-Daula|al-Hassan]] and [[Mu'izz al-Daula|Aḥmad]] founded the [[Buyid dynasty|Būyid confederation]]. Originally a soldier in the service of the [[Ziyarids|Ziyārīds]] of [[Tabaristan|Ṭabaristān]], 'Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from [[Baghdad]] named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Jibal]] were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took [[Kerman|Kermān]] (967), [[Oman]] (967), the [[Al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazīra]] (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and [[Gorgan]] (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming ''de facto'' independent.<ref>Examples of the former include the loss of [[Mosul]] in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the [[Kakuyids|Kakūyid]] dynasty of [[Isfahan|Isfahān]], whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran.</ref>

===Middle Baghdad Abbasids===
''Early High Middle Ages''

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[[File:Dirham of al-Muttaqi.jpg|thumb|Dirham of Al-Muttaqi]]
At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The ''amir al-umara'' [[Bajkam]] contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on [[Al-Muttaqi]]. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid [[Nasir al-Dawla]] advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general [[Tuzun (amir al-umara)|Tuzun]] became ''amir al-umara''. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at [[Raqqa]], moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of [[Al-Mustakfi]]. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the [[Buwayhid dynasty]] and the [[Hamdanids]]. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.<ref>{{cite book|first=Harold|last=Bowen|title=The Life and Times of ʿAlí Ibn ʿÍsà: The Good Vizier|year=1928|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZM3AAAAIAAJ|page=385}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; clear:left; width: 250px; margin-right:1em;"
|-
!style="background-color: #f8eaba;" |Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims
|-
|
* [[Ibn Rushd]] ([[Averroes]]), philosopher;
* [[al-Farabi]], Persian (Soghdian) philosopher;
* [[Al-Mutanebbi]], Arabic poet;
* [[Ibn Sīnā|Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina]] ([[Avicenna]]), physician, philosopher, and scientist
|}
Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, [[Al-Muti]] became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in [[Iberia]]. Buwayhid Sultan [[Mu'izz al-Dawla]] was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.<ref>R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. {{ISBN|0-521-20093-8}}</ref>

The next Caliph, [[Al-Ta'i]], reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. [[Baha' al-Dawla]], the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed [[al-Qadir]] the new caliph.<ref name=Hanne>{{cite book|last=Hanne|first=Eric, J.|title=Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate|year=2007|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press|isbn=978-0-8386-4113-2|pages=55}}</ref>

During al-Qadir's Caliphate, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the [[Baghdad Manifesto]] and the doctrine that the Quran was created. He outlawed the [[Muʿtazila]], bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, [[Islamic literature]], especially [[Persian literature]], flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.<ref name = muir>{{cite book|author-link=William Muir|first=William|last=Muir|title=The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-20901-4}}</ref> By 1000, the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent.

During [[Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)|Al-Qa'im]]'s reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. [[Toghrül]] overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In [[Bahrain]], the Qarmatian state collapsed in [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]]. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. [[Al-Muqtadi]] was honoured by the Seljuq Sultan [[Malik-Shah I]], during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.<ref>Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213.</ref>

===Late Baghdad Abbasids===
''Late High Middle Ages''

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{{multiple image|header_background = #f8eaba
| header = Al-Aqsa Mosque
| image1 = Page 99.Strange.jpg|width1=215|caption1 = Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985
| image2 = The Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque.jpg|width2=190|caption2 = Dome of Al Aqsa Mosque
}}

The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the [[Crusades]] to the [[Seventh Crusade]]. The first Caliph was [[Al-Mustazhir]]. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the [[First Crusade]] in Syria. [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the [[Battle of Manzikert]]. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. [[Jerusalem]] was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the [[Al-Aqsa|Al-Aqsa Mosque compound]] from the ''[[Franks]]'' (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the [[infidel]]. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.<ref name="muir" />

[[Al-Mustarshid]] achieved more independence while the sultan [[Mahmud II of Great Seljuq]] was engaged in war in the East. The [[Bani Assad|Banu Mazyad]] (Mazyadid State) general, [[Dubays ibn Sadaqa]]<ref>ʻIzz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, ''The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491–541/1097–1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response''.</ref> (emir of [[Al-Hilla]]), plundered [[Bosra]] and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, [[Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud]]. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under [[Imad ad-Din Zengi|Zengi]], founder of the [[Zengid dynasty]]. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Sicker|title=The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlWsMcwZ9vEC|date=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96892-2}}</ref>

After the siege of Damascus (1134),<ref>{{cite book|first=Jean|last=Richard|title=The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem|volume=1|date=1979|page=36|translator-first=Janet|translator-last=Shirley|publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-444-85092-8}}</ref> Zengi undertook [[Military history of the Crusader states#War with the Zengids|operations in Syria]]. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.<ref>It is supposed by an emissary of the [[Hashshashins]], who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter.</ref> His son, [[Al-Rashid (12th century)|Al-Rashid]] failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of [[Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)|Al-Muqtafi]], appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to [[Isfahan]] and was killed by Hashshashins.<ref name="muir" />

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to Patriarch [[Abdisho III]] of the [[Church of the East]]. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the [[Siege of Baghdad (1157)]]. The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.

The next caliph, [[Al-Mustanjid]], saw [[Saladin]] extinguish the [[Fatimid dynasty]] after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. [[Al-Mustadi]] reigned when Saladin became the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.

[[An-Nasir]], "''The Victor for the Religion of God''", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven-year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, [[Az-Zahir (Abbasid caliph)|Az-Zahir]], was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, [[Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)|Al-Mustansir]], was made caliph.

Al-Mustansir founded the [[Mustansiriya Madrasah]]. In 1236 [[Ögedei Khan]] commanded to raise up [[Greater Khorasan|Khorassan]]<!-- what does "to raise up" mean here?--> and populated [[Herat]]. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in [[Mughan plain]], Azerbaijan. The rulers of [[Mosul]] and [[Cilician Armenia]] surrendered. Chormaqan divided the [[South Caucasus]] region into three districts based on military hierarchy.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Grigor of Akanc|title=The history of the nation of archers|translator1-first=R.P.|translator1-last=Blake|page=303|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|translator2-first=Richard N.|translator2-last=Frye|date=December 1949|volume=12|number=3/4|jstor=2718096|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2718096.pdf}}</ref> In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight [[Tumen (unit)|tumens]].<ref>Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p. 210</ref> By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding [[Abbasid]] Iraq and [[Ismaili]] strongholds, and all of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Kashmir]].<ref>[[Thomas T. Allsen]] (2004) ''Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-60270-X}}, p. 84</ref>

[[Al-Musta'sim]] was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under [[Hulagu Khan]] swept through the [[Transoxiana]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Baghdad was sacked]] and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

===Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517)===
{{Further|Mamluk Sultanate}}
''The "shadow" caliph of Cairo''<br />
''Late Middle Ages''

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  from:1362 till:1383 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil
  from:1383 till:1386 color:era shift:(0,-25 )text:Wathiq II
  from:1386 till:1389 color:era text:[[Al-Mu'tasim (Cairo)|Mu'tasim]]
  from:1389 till:1406 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil
  from:1406 till:1414 color:era shift:(0,-25) text:Musta'in
  from:1414 till:1441 color:era text:Mu'tadid II
  from:1441 till:1451 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mustakfi II
  from:1451 till:1455 color:era shift:(0,-25)text:Qa'im
  from:1455 till:1479 color:era text:Mustanjid
  from:1479 till:1497 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:Mutawakkil II
  from:1497 till:1508 color:era shift:(0,-25) text:Mustamsik
  from:1508 till:1517 color:era text:[[Al-Mutawakkil III|Mutawakkil III]]
  Bar:Crusades/War
  from:1270 till:1270 color:lightgrey shift:(0,20) text:[[Eighth Crusade|8th Crusade]]
  from:1271 till:1272 color:lightgrey shift:(0,10) text:[[Ninth Crusade|9th Crusade]]
</timeline>

The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of [[Cairo]] reigned under the tutelage of the [[List of Mamluk sultans|Mamluk sultans]] and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded [[Al-Musta'in (Cairo)|Al-Musta'in]] were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. [[Al-Mutawakkil III]] was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Bernard Lewis (1991). ''The Political Language of Islam''. University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ann K. S. Lambton|title=State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory: the Jurists|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SJRBU66I4MQC&pg=PA138|year=1981|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-19-713600-3|page=138}}</ref>

== Fatimid Caliphate ==
{{main|Fatimid Caliphate}}
[[File:Fatimid Caliphate.PNG|thumb|Fatimid Caliphate in 1000]]

The [[Fatimids]] originated in [[Ifriqiya]] (modern-day [[Tunisia]] and eastern [[Algeria]]). The dynasty was founded in 909 by [[Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah|ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah]], who legitimized his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter [[Fatimah|Fātima as-Zahra]] and her husband [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib]], the first Shīʻa [[Imam (Shia Islam)|Imām]], hence the name ''al-Fātimiyyūn'' "Fatimid".<ref>Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. A Concise History of the Middle East.</ref> Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central [[Maghreb]] and Egypt.<ref>"[http://www.commune-mahdia.gov.tn/ENG/presentation_ville/histoire_de_la_ville.htm Mahdia: Historical Background] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109154752/http://www.commune-mahdia.gov.tn/ENG/presentation_ville/histoire_de_la_ville.htm |date=9 November 2013 }}". Commune-mahdia.gov.tn.</ref><ref name="Beeson 24, 26–30">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm|title=Cairo, a Millennial|access-date=9 August 2007|first=Irene|last=Beeson|pages=24, 26–30|date=September–October 1969|journal=[[Saudi Aramco World]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930163720/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm|archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> The Fatimids and the [[Zaydis]] at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|author=Mahmoud A. El-Gamal|title=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA122|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-45716-3|page=122}}</ref><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917">{{cite book|first1=Spencer C.|last1=Tucker|first2=Priscilla|last2=Roberts|title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-842-2|page=917|volume=1}}</ref><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91">{{cite book|title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91|year=2010|publisher=Rand Corporation|isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5|page=91}}</ref>

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.<ref>Lane, J.-E., Redissi, H., & Ṣaydāwī, R. (2009). Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. Company. Page 83</ref> There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]].

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the [[Khan el-Khalili]] area at Bin El-Quasryn street.<ref>[http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/Cairo_of_the_mind.htm Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907092655/http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/Cairo_of_the_mind.htm |date=7 September 2008 }}</ref>

===Fatimid caliphs===
''Early and High Middle Ages''

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  from:934 till:946 color:age shift:(0,-9) text:[[Muhammad al-Qa'im Bi-Amrillah|Qa'im]]
  from:946 till:953 shift:(0,-20) color:era text:[[Ismail al-Mansur|Ismā'il]]
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  from:975 till:996 color:era text:[[Abu Mansoor Nizar al-Aziz Billah|Aziz]]
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  from:1021 till:1036 color:era text:[[Ali az-Zahir|Zahir]]
  from:1036 till:1094 color:age text:[[Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah|Mustansir]]
  from:1094 till:1101 color:era text:[[al-Musta'li|Musta'li]]
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  from:1149 till:1154 color:age shift:(0,-20) text:[[al-Ẓāfir|Ẓāfir]]
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:::''Also see'': [[Muslim history#Caliph of Cairo (1261–1517)|Cairo Abbasid Caliphs]] (above)

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid Caliphs]] claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they travelled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Henry Melvill Gwatkin|author2=James Pounder Whitney|author3=Joseph Robson Tanner|author4=Charles William Previté-Orton|author5=Zachary Nugent Brooke|title=The Cambridge Medieval History|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgemediev00broogoog|year=1913|publisher=Macmillan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgemediev00broogoog/page/n409 379]–}}</ref>
[[File:Mosquee al-akim le caire 1.jpg|right|thumb|
''The [[Al-Hakim Mosque]]''<br />
Cairo, Egypt; south of [[Bab Al-Futuh]]
----
"Islamic Cairo" building was named after [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], built by Fatimid vizier [[Gawhar Al-Siqilli]], and extended by [[Badr al-Jamali]].]]
Al Mahdi [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah]] established the first [[Imam]] of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under [[Aghlabid]] rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of [[Al-Qayrawan]] in Tunisia. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, [[Al-Mahdiyyah]]. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.<ref>[http://archive.mumineen.org/awliya/aimmat/e_imamqaim.html al-Qaim bi-Amrillah] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210105748/http://archive.mumineen.org/awliya/aimmat/e_imamqaim.html |date=10 February 2006 }}. archive.mumineen.org</ref> At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the [[Idrisids]], as well as Egypt itself. The Fatimid Caliphate grew to include [[Sicily]] and to stretch across [[North Africa]] from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to [[Libya]].{{sfn|Yeomans|2006|p=44}} Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central [[Maghreb]], an area consisting of the modern countries of [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Libya]], which he ruled from [[Mahdia]], in Tunisia. Newly built capital [[Mansouria, Tunisia|Al-Mansuriya]],{{#tag:ref|The name ''Mansuriyya'' means "the victorious", after its founder Ismāʿīl Abu Tahir Ismail Billah, called ''al-Mansur'', "the victor."{{sfn|Tracy|2000|p=234}}|group=Note}} or Mansuriyya ({{langx|ar|المنصوريه }}), near [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]], was the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate during the rules of the Imams [[Al-Mansur Billah]] (r. 946–953) and [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah]] (r. 953–975).

The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969, and he built a new palace city there, near Fusṭāt, which he also called al-Manṣūriyya. Under [[Al-Muizz Lideenillah]], the Fatimids conquered the [[Ikhshidid Wilayah]] (see [[Fatimid Egypt]]), founding a new capital at ''al-Qāhira'' ([[Cairo]]) in 969.<ref name="Beeson 24, 26–30"/> The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008-09_augmented/wp/c/Cairo.htm/|title=Cairo|access-date=3 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521030532/http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/link-suggestion/wpcd_2008-09_augmented/wp/c/Cairo.htm|archive-date=21 May 2016}}></ref> which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as [[Fustat]] until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to [[Syria]], as well as [[Sicily]].

Under the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak [[North Africa]], Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], Syria, the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, [[Tihamah]], [[Hejaz]], and [[Yemen]].<ref>Jennifer A. Pruitt, ''Building the Caliphate: Construction, Destruction, and Sectarian Identity in Early Fatimid Architecture'' (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 2020). {{ISBN|0-300-24682-X}}, 9780300246827</ref> Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its [[Song dynasty]], which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the [[High Middle Ages]].

After the eighteenth Imam, [[al-Mustansir Billah]], the Nizari sect believed that his son [[Nizar (Fatimid Imam)|Nizar]] was his successor, while another Ismāʿīlī branch known as the Mustaali (from whom the Dawoodi Bohra would eventually descend), supported his other son, [[al-Musta'li]].  The Fatimid dynasty continued with al-Musta'li as both Imam and Caliph, and that joint position held until the 20th Imam, [[al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah]] (1132). At the death of Imam Amir, one branch of the Mustaali faith claimed that he had transferred the imamate to his son [[at-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim]], who was then two years old.
After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the [[Zengid]] ruler [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nūr ad-Dīn]] had his general, [[Shirkuh]], seize Egypt from the vizier [[Shawar]] in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his nephew, [[Saladin]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Amin Maalouf|year=1984|title=The Crusades Through Arab Eyes|publisher=Al Saqi Books|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crusadesthrougha00maal_0/page/160 160–70]|isbn=978-0-8052-0898-6|url=https://archive.org/details/crusadesthrougha00maal_0/page/160}}</ref> This began the [[Ayyubid Dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria]].

==Crusades==
{{Main|Crusades}}
Beginning in the 8th century, the [[Spain in the Middle Ages|Iberian Christian kingdoms]] had begun the [[Reconquista]] aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, [[Pope Urban II]], inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the [[Alexios I Komnenos|eastern Roman emperor]] to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the [[First Crusade]] from Western Europe which captured [[Edessa]], [[Antioch]], [[County of Tripoli]] and Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book|author=Henry Hallam|title=View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49|year=1870|publisher=W. J. Widdleton|pages=49–|volume=1}}</ref>

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller [[Crusader kingdoms]] over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the [[Levant]], but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After [[Shirkuh]] ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.<ref>{{cite book|volume=5|title=The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Information|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjHZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA133|year=1898|publisher=Porter & Coates|page=133}}</ref>

In the [[Third Crusade]] armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the [[Granada War|fall of Granada]] in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the [[Fourth Crusade]] was diverted from the Levant and instead took [[Constantinople]], leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the [[Turkish peoples]] to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to [[William of Malmesbury]], preventing them from further expansion into [[Christendom]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Sylvia Schein|title=Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099–1187)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaqY_g4i_ukC&pg=PA19|year=2005|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-0649-9|page=19}}</ref> and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.

{{see also|High Middle Ages|Frankokratia|Crusader states}}

==Ayyubid dynasty==
{{Main|Ayyubid dynasty}}
[[File:Ayyubid Sultanate 1193 AD.jpg|thumb|Ayyubid empire]]The [[Ayyubid dynasty]] was founded by [[Saladin]] and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding [[Aleppo]], by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Lock|title=The Routledge Companion to the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkCKZ9Hs4-QC&pg=PA180+|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-13137-1|page=180}}</ref>

=== Sultans of Egypt ===
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  from:1200 till:1218 color:age text:[[Al-Adil|Adil]]
  from:1218 till:1238 color:era text:[[Al-Kamil|Kamil]]
  from:1238 till:1240 color:age shift:(12,-3) text:[[Al-Adil II|Adil II]]
  from:1240 till:1249 color:era text:[[As-Salih Ayyub|Salih]]
  from:1249 till:1250 color:age text:[[Al-Muazzam Turanshah|Muazzam]]
  from:1250 till:1254 color:era shift:(3,-15) text:[[Al-Ashraf Musa|Ashraf]]
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  from:1217 till:1221 color:lightgrey text:[[Fifth Crusade|5th]]
  from:1228 till:1229 color:lightgrey text:[[Sixth Crusade|6th]]
  from:1248 till:1254 color:lightgrey text:[[Seventh Crusade|7th]]

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=== Sultans and Amirs of Damascus ===
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  from:1238 till:1238 color:age text:[[Al-Kamil|Kamil]]
  from:1238 till:1239 shift:(6,9) color:age text:[[Al-Adil II|Adil II]]
  from:1239 till:1239 shift:(12,-15) color:era text:[[As-Salih Ayyub|Ayyub]]
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  from:1228 till:1229 color:lightgrey text:[[Sixth Crusade|6th]]
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=== Emirs of Aleppo ===
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  from:1236 till:1260 color:era text:[[An-Nasir Yusuf|Nasir]]
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</timeline>

== Turco-Mongol conversion ==
=== Mongol period ===
{{Main|Mongol invasions and conquests}}
{{Further|Turco-Mongol tradition}}
[[File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg|thumb|230px|The [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] ruler, [[Ghazan]], depicted studying the [[Quran]] inside a [[Yurt|tent]]. Illustration of Rashīd ad-Dīn, first quarter of the 14th century, [[Berlin State Library|Staatsbibliothek]], [[Berlin]].]]

While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of [[al-Wathiq]] (842–847) and [[al-Mu'tadid]] (892–902),<ref>Anthony Parel, Ronald C. Keith ''Comparative Political Philosophy: Studies Under the Upas Tree'' Lexington Books, 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-7391-0610-5}} p. 186</ref> the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbasid dynasty in 1258.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Abbasid Dynasty|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The [[Mongols]] spread throughout [[Central Asia]] and [[History of Iran#Mongol conquest and rule (1219–1370)|Persia]];<ref name="Findley 2005">{{cite book|last=Findley|first=Carter V.|author-link=Carter V. Findley|year=2005|chapter=Islam and Empire from the Seljuks through the Mongols|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|title=The Turks in World History|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=56–66|isbn=978-0-19-517726-8|oclc=54529318}}</ref> the Persian city of [[Isfahan]] had fallen to them by 1237.<ref>[https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015081646/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html |date=15 October 2013 }}. ucalgary.ca</ref> 

The [[Ilkhans]] of [[Borjigin|Chingisid descendence]] understood themselves as defenders of Islam, perhaps even as the legimitate heirs of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref name=Peacock/>{{rp|style=ama|p=59}} [[Al-Nuwayri]], stated that the Mongols had heavenly approval and would live in accordance with the restrictions of [[Sharia|Islamic law]].<ref>Armstrong, Lyall. "The Making of a Sufi: al-Nuwayri's Account of the Origin of Genghis Khan (MSR X. 2, 2006)." (2006).</ref> Some [[Sufism|Sufi Muslim]] writers, such as the Persian poet and mystic [[Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī]] and his biographer Šams al-Dīn Aḥmad Aflākī, regarded the Mongols and [[Turkic peoples]] from the [[Eurasian Steppe]] as more [[Mumin|pious]] than the [[Ulama|Muslim scholars]], [[Asceticism#Islam|ascetics]], and [[mufti]]s of their time, and hence expressed favor of their conquests, considering the [[Mongol Empire|invasion]] as divine punishment from [[God in Islam|God]].<ref name=Peacock/>{{rp|style=ama|p=81}} Aflaki identifies the invasion with a ''hadith'', describing the Turks (and Mongols) as the army of Muhammad's wrath. In his ''Manaqib al-'Arifin'', the Turks and Mongols are described as God's "punishment from hell", and by that, people who follow the will of the Creator.<ref name="Dechant, John 2011"/> 

Many scholars had argued that the conversion of the Turks and Mongols has been filtered through the mediation of [[Persian culture|Persian]] and [[Central Asian]] culture.<ref name="Findley 2005"/><ref name="Nicholson 2018">{{cite book|author=M.L.D.|year=2018|chapter=Türkic religion|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A09WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1533|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity]]|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=II|pages=1533–4|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-881625-6|lccn=2017955557}}</ref> Rather than converting to Islamic orthodoxy, they encountered Islam mostly through the preaching of [[Sufism|Sufi Muslim]] wandering ascetics and mystics ([[fakir]]s and [[dervish]]es).<ref name="Findley 2005"/><ref name="Amitai-Preiss 1999">{{cite journal|last=Amitai-Preiss|first=Reuven|date=January 1999|title=Sufis and Shamans: Some Remarks on the Islamization of the Mongols in the Ilkhanate|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|volume=42|issue=1|pages=27–46|doi=10.1163/1568520991445605|issn=1568-5209|jstor=3632297}}</ref> Recently this view has been challenged on grounds that a defined Islamic orthodoxy has not yet existed during the conversion of the Turks and Mongols.<ref name="Findley 2005"/><ref name="Dechant, John 2011">Dechant, John. "Depictions of the Islamization of the Mongols in the" Manāqib al-ʿārifīn" and the Foundation of the Mawlawī Community." Mawlana Rumi Review 2 (2011): 135-164.</ref>

In the 13th to the 14th centuries, both [[Sunni Islam|Sunnī]] and [[Shia Islam|Shīʿa]] practices were intertwined, and historical figures commonly associated with the history of Shīʿa Islam, like [[Ali|ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib]] and [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq]] (respectively, the first and sixth [[The Twelve Imams|Shīʿīte Imams]]), played an almost universal role for Muslim believers to understand "[[Al-Ghaib|the Unseen]]" (''al-Ghaib'').<ref name=Peacock>{{cite book|last=Peacock|first=A.C.S.|year=2019|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|location=[[Cambridge]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=978-1-108-58212-4|s2cid=211657444}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=24}} A sharp distinction between Sunnī, Shīʿa, and heterodox Islamic beliefs did not exist. Therefore, ideas from foreign cultures were easier to integrate into the Islamic worldview.<ref name="Findley 2005"/> During this era, the Persian Sufi poet and mystic [[Rumi|Jalaluddin Rumi]] (1207–1273) wrote his masterpiece, the ''[[Masnavi]]'', which he believed to be "sent down" from God and understood it as the [[Tafsir|proper explanation of the Quran]] (''tafsīr'').<ref name=Peacock/>{{rp|style=ama|p=97}} According to Aflaki, the invading Mongols were impressed by Rumi's devotion to God, so they did not assault him, believing it would cause the wrath of God upon them.<ref name="Dechant, John 2011"/>

On the other hand, [[Ibn Taymiyya]] (1263–1328) did not accept the Mongols' conversion to Sunnism.<ref>Paul Salem ''Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World'' [[Syracuse University Press]], 1994 {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2629-9}} p. 117</ref> Feeling threatened by the [[Crusaders]] and the [[Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongols]], ibn Taymiyya called for elimination by [[jihad|a militant ''jihād'']] against whom he deemed "heretic", including [[Shia]]s, ''[[Ash'arism|al-Ashʿariyya]]'' and ''[[Falsafa|falāsifa]]'' (philosophers),<ref name="ReferenceD">Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> and established his own theological doctrines.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' [[Routledge]] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> His theology was characterized by a literal understanding of the Quran,<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=665}} a [[Physicalism|materialistic ontology]],<ref>Hoover, Jon, "Ibn Taymiyya", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2025 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), forthcoming URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2025/entries/ibn-taymiyya/>. Section 2</ref> and a rejection of most philosophical and mystical approaches in favor of a simplistic and dogmatic theology.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

Another unique characteristic of his theological approach was the importance of a [[Theocracy|theocratic state]]. Prior to ibn Taimiyya, religious wisdom was meant to guide governmental authorities, while ibn Taymiyya demanded [[Power (social and political)|political power]] to promote religious piety.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Having a deep-rooting discern for the Mongols, ibn Taimiyya sought to pronounce ''[[takfir|takfīr]]'' (excommunication) upon the Turco-Mongol rulers, despite their profession of the ''[[shahada]]'' (Islamic testimony of faith), or regular observance of ''[[salah|aṣ-Ṣalāh]]'' (obligatory prayers), ''[[sawm]]'' (fasting) and other expressions of religiosity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sivan |first=Emmanuel |title=Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-300-04914-5 |location=Vail-Ballou Press, Binghamton, N.Y., USA |pages=96–98 |chapter=Four: The Sunni revolution}}</ref> His disciple [[ibn Kathir]] ( d. 1373), propounded the same belief in his ''tafsīr''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sivan |first=Emmanuel |title=Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-300-04914-5 |location=Vail-Ballou Press, Binghamton, N.Y., USA |pages=97–98 |chapter=Four: The Sunni revolution}}</ref>

During his lifetime, ibn Taimiyya played only a marginal role and most of his writings were rejected. He was repeatedly accused of blasphemy by anthropomorphizing God, and his disciple [[Ibn Kathir]] distanced himself from his mentor.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Spevack|first=Aaron|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ|title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri|date=2014|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2|pages=129–130}}</ref> Yet, some of Ibn Taymiyya's teaching influenced Ibn Kathir's methodology on ''tafsīr'', discounted much of the exegetical tradition since then.<ref>Karen Bauer ''Gender Hierarchy in the Qur'an: Medieval Interpretations, Modern Responses'' [[Cambridge University Press]] 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-316-24005-2}} p. 115</ref><ref>Aysha A. Hidayatullah ''Feminist Edges of the Qur'an'' [[Oxford University Press]] 2014 {{ISBN|978-0-199-35957-8}} p. 25</ref> Only centuries later, among [[Wahhabism|Wahhabis]] and in 21st century [[Salafism]], their writings gained notable importance.<ref name="ReferenceD" /><ref name="ReferenceA" />{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=665}}{{sfnp|Leaman|2006|page=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=632}} 632]}}

=== Islamic Mongol empires ===
{{Main|Ilkhanate|Golden Horde|Timurid Empire}}
[[File:Goharshad2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Goharshad Mosque]] built by the [[Timurid Empire]]]]

Ultimately, the [[Ilkhanate]], [[Golden Horde]], and the [[Chagatai Khanate]] – three of the four principal Mongol khanates – embraced Islam.<ref>''Encyclopedia Americana'', Grolier Incorporated, p. 680</ref><ref>The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Abū al-Faz̤l ʻIzzatī, A. Ezzati, p. 274</ref><ref>Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravilʹ Bukharaev, p. 145</ref> In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by [[Timur]] (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in India and the [[Ottoman Turks]] in [[Anatolia]]. Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by displays of brutality matched only by [[Chinggis Khan]], whose example Timur consciously imitated.<ref name="Timur">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Tamerlane, or Timur|encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|quote=While Timur's capital, Samarqand, became a cosmopolitan imperial city that flourished as never before, Iran and Iraq suffered devastation at a greater degree than that caused by the Mongols. [...] Timur's conquests also consciously aimed to restore the Mongol Empire, and the deliberate devastation that accompanied them was a conscious imitation of the Mongol onslaught.}} {{cite book|last=S. Starr|first=S. Frederick|title=Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane|date=2014|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5llAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT411|page=411|quote=Timur's ceaseless conquests were accompanied by a level of brutality matched only by Chinggis Khan himself. At Isfahan his troops dispatched some 70,000 defenders, while at Delhi his soldiers are reported to have systematically killed 100,000 Indians.|isbn=978-93-5136-186-2}}</ref> [[Samarqand]], the cosmopolitan capital of Timur's empire, flourished under his rule as never before, while Iran and Iraq suffered large-scale devastation.<ref name="Timur"/> Muslim scholars, such as [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] and [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]], studied in the [[Maragheh observatory]], erected by [[Hulegu Khan]].<ref>Kuru, A. T. (2019). Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment: A Global and Historical Comparison. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 128</ref>

The Middle East was still recovering from the [[Black Death]], which may have killed one third of the population in the region. The plague began in China, and reached [[Alexandria]] in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The [[Timurid dynasty]] would found many strong empires of Islam, including the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] of India.<ref>Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 |date=29 September 2007 }} – This online copy has been posted by: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp |date=29 September 2007 }})</ref><ref>Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

=== Timurid Renaissance ===
{{Main|Timurid Renaissance}}
 
[[File:Persian Tamerlane Chess Set.png|thumb|[[Tamerlane chess]], invented by Amir [[Timur]]. The pieces approximate the appearance of the chess pieces in 14th century Persia.]]
The [[Timurid Empire]] based in [[Central Asia]] ruled by the [[Timurid dynasty]] saw a tremendous increase in the fields of [[arts]] and [[sciences]], spreading across both the eastern and western world.<ref name="Journal1988">{{cite journal|last=Subtelny|first=Maria Eva|date=November 1988|title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=20|issue=4|pages=479–505|doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861|s2cid=162411014|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>

Remarkable was the invention of [[Tamerlane Chess]], reconstruction of the city of [[Samarkand]], and substantial contributions made by the family of Sultan [[Shah Rukh]], which includes [[Gawhar Shad]], polymath [[Ulugh Begh]], and [[Sultan Husayn Bayqara]] in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. The empire received widespread support from multiple [[Islamic scholars]] and scientists. A number of Islamic learning centres and mosques were built, most notably the [[Ulugh Beg Observatory]].

The prosperity of the city of [[Herat]] is said to have competed with those of [[Florence]], the birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth.<ref>Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129</ref><ref>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465</ref>

The aspects of the Timurid Renaissance were later brought in [[Mughal India]] by the [[Mughal Emperors]]<ref>Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands: Southeast Asia in Global Context, C.800-1830 by Victor Lieberman Page 712</ref><ref>Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire by Lisa Page 4</ref><ref>Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800 edited by John Curry, Erik Ohlander, Page 141</ref> and served as a heritage of states of the other remaining [[Islamic Gunpowder empires]]: the [[Ottoman Turkey]] and the [[Safavid Iran]].<ref>The Silk Road: A Very Short Introduction by James A. Millward.</ref>

===Mamluk Sultanate===
{{Main|Mamluk Sultanate}}
[[File:Bahri Dynasty 1250 - 1382 (AD).PNG|thumb|upright|280px|Map of the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] (in red) and the [[Ilkhanate|Mongol Ilkhanate]] (in blue) (1250–1382)]]

In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by [[Mamluk|slave regiments]], and the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] was born. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the [[Mongol Empire]] during the [[Mongol invasions of the Levant]].

In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mongol invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]].<ref>Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070912161811/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut]". Saudi Aramco World.</ref> 
The Mamluks, who were [[slave-soldier]]s predominantly of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian]], and [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern European]] origins<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stowasser|first=Karl|date=1984|title=Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court|journal=[[Muqarnas (journal)|Muqarnas]]|volume=2|issue=The Art of the Mamluks|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|pages=13–20|doi=10.2307/1523052|jstor=1523052|issn=0732-2992|s2cid=191377149|quote=The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from [[Libya]] to the [[Euphrates]], from [[Cilicia]] to the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Sudan]], remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and the [[Indian Ocean]] – champions of [[Sunni orthodoxy]], guardians of [[Holiest sites in Islam|Islam's holy places]], their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol upheaval in the East]] or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the [[Ptolemies]]. [...] They ruled as a [[military]] [[aristocracy]], aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the [[sultan]] himself or of one of the Mamluk [[emir]]s were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the ''awlād al-nās'', the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ''ḥalqa'' troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: [[Kipchaks|Qipchaq]], [[Azeris]], [[Uzbeks|Uzbec Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], [[Circassians]], [[Georgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]], [[Bulgars]], [[Albanians]], [[Serbs]], [[Hungarians]].}}</ref><ref name="Ayalon 1991">{{cite encyclopedia|author-last=Ayalon|author-first=David|author-link=David Ayalon|year=2012|orig-date=1991|title=Mamlūk|editor1-last=Bosworth|editor1-first=C. E.|editor1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor2-last=van Donzel|editor2-first=E. J.|editor2-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor3-last=Heinrichs|editor3-first=W. P.|editor3-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|editor4-last=Lewis|editor4-first=B.|editor4-link=Bernard Lewis|editor5-last=Pellat|editor5-first=Ch.|editor5-link=Charles Pellat|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#2nd edition, EI2|Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition]]|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|volume=6|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0657|isbn=978-90-04-08112-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Poliak|first=A. N.|orig-date=1942|year=2005|chapter=The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Yāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVGdl09xAp4C&pg=PA27|editor-last=Hawting|editor-first=Gerald R.|title=Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies"|volume=10|issue=4|location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|pages=27–41|doi=10.1017/S0041977X0009008X|isbn=978-0-7007-1393-6|jstor=609130|s2cid=155480831}}</ref> (see [[Saqaliba]]), forced out the Mongols (see [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the [[First Battle of Homs|Battle of Hims]] a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.<ref name="AHGC" /> With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the [[Crusader states]] in the Levant. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).<ref name="Hourani">{{harvnb|Hourani|2003|p=85}}</ref>

The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" ([[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Islam|Dar al-Islam]]) and "non-Muslim territory" ([[Dar al-Harb]]).<ref name="Ayalon 1991"/> The [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] and the glorious [[Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)]], the latter partly led by Imam [[Ibn Taymiyyah]], marked the end of the [[Mongol invasions of the Levant]]. [[Fatwa]]s given during these conflicts changed the course of [[Political Islam]].<ref name=kadri->{{cite book|last1=Kadri|first1=Sadakat|title=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ...|date=2012|publisher=macmillan|isbn=978-0-09-952327-7|page=187|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC&q=Heaven+on+Earth:+A+Journey+Through+Shari%27a+Law}}</ref> As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, [[madrasas]] and [[khanqah]]s. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo (for further informations, see [[Mamluk architecture]]).

===Bahri Sultans===
{{main|Bahri dynasty}}
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  from:1277 till:1279 color:era shift:(-9,-15) text:[[Al-Said Barakah|Barakah]]
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  from:1294 till:1297 color:era text:[[al-Adil Kitbugha|Kitbugha]]
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  from:1299 till:1309 color:era shift:(9,9) text:[[an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad|Muhammad]]
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  from:1342 till:1342  color:era shift:(0,7) text:[[Shihab ad-Din Ahmad|Ahmad]]
  from:1342 till:1345 color:era text:[[as-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail|Ismail]]
  from:1345 till:1346 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban I|Shaban]]
  from:1346 till:1347 color:era shift:(0,-24) text:[[al-Muzaffar Sayf-ad-Din Hajji I|Hajji]]
  from:1347 till:1351 color:era shift:(0,18) text:[[an-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Mali al-Hasan|Hasan]]
  from:1351 till:1354 color:era shift:(0,7) text:[[as-Salih Salah-ad-Din bin Muhammad|Muhammad]]
  from:1354 till:1361 color:era text:[[an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan|Hasan]]
  from:1361 till:1363  color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Muhammad|Muhammad]]
  from:1363 till:1376 color:era shift:(0,-24) text:[[al-Ashraf Zayn-ad-Din Abu al-Mali Shaban|Shaban]]
  from:1376 till:1382 color:era text:[[al-Mansur Ala'a-ad-Din Ali|Ali]]
  from:1382 till:1382  color:era shift:(0,9) text:[[as-Salih Salah-ad-Din Hajji I|Hajji ]]
  from:1382 till:1389 color:era text:[[Barquq]]
  from:1389 till:1389  color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[Hajji II]]
  Bar:Crusades/War
  from:1270 till:1270 color:lightgrey shift:(0,10) text:[[Eighth Crusade|8th Crusade]]
  from:1271 till:1272 color:lightgrey shift:(0,1) text:[[Ninth Crusade|9th Crusade]]

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===Burji Sultans===
{{main|Burji dynasty}}

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  from:1405 till:1412 color:era text:[[an-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Faraj|Nasir]]
  from:1412 till:1412 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[Al-Musta'in (Cairo)|Musta'in]]
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  from:1421 till:1421 color:age shift:(0,7) text:[[al-Muzaffar Ahmad|Muzaffar]]
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  from:1421 till:1422 color:era shift:(6,-22) text:[[as-Salih Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad|Salih]]
  from:1422 till:1437 color:age text:[[Barsbay]]
  from:1437 till:1438 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[al-Aziz Jamal-ad-Din Yusuf|Aziz]]
  from:1438 till:1453 color:age shift:(0,9) text:[[az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Jaqmaq|Zahir]]
  from:1453 till:1453 color:era text:[[al-Mansur Fakhr-ad-Din Uthman|Mansur]]
  from:1453 till:1461 color:age shift:(0,-15) text:[[al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Inal|Ashraf]]
  from:1461 till:1461 color:era shift:(-3,18) text:[[al-Muayyad Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad|Muayyad]]
  from:1461 till:1467 color:era shift:(0,7) text:[[az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Khushqadam|Khushqadam]]
  from:1467 till:1467 color:era shift:(3,-9) text:[[az-Zahir Sayf-ad-Din Bilbay|Bilbay]]
  from:1467 till:1468 color:age shift:(16,-22) text:[[az-Zahir Timurbugha|Timurbugha]]
  from:1468 till:1496 color:era text:[[al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bay|Ashraf]]
  from:1496 till:1498 color:age shift:(-3,18) text:[[an-Ashraf Muhammad|Ashraf]]
  from:1498 till:1500 color:era shift:(0,7) text:[[az-Zahir Qansuh|Qansuh]]
  from:1500 till:1501 color:age shift:(3,-9) text:[[Janbalat]]
  from:1501 till:1501 color:era shift:(16,-22) text:[[Tuman bay I]]
  from:1501 till:1516 color:era text:[[al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri|Ghawri]]
  from:1516 till:1516 color:era shift:(0,-15) text:[[Tuman bay II]]
</timeline>
:::''See also'': [[List of governors of Islamic Egypt#The Mamluks era .281250–1517.29|Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era]]

== Al-Andalus ==
[[File:Adolf Seel Innenhof der Alhambra.jpg|thumb|The interiors of the [[Alhambra]] in [[Granada]], Spain decorated with [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|arabesque]] designs.]]

{{Main|Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Al-Andalus|Taifa}}

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General [[Tarik ibn Ziyad]], first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the [[Visigothic kingdom]] in [[Hispania]]. Crossing the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king [[Roderic]] was defeated and killed on 19 July at the [[Battle of Guadalete]]. Tariq's commander, [[Musa bin Nusair]] crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain [[Ṭārif]] in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the ''[[Chronicle of Alfonso III]]'', refers to an Arab attack incited by [[Erwig]] during the reign of [[Wamba, Visigothic king|Wamba]] (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.<ref name=Collins2004139>{{harvnb|Collins|2004|p=139}}</ref>

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of [[Emir]] by the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Walid I]] in [[Damascus]]. After the [[Abbasids]] came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler [[Abd al-Rahman III]] took over the title of ''[[Caliphate of Córdoba|Caliph of Córdoba]]'' (912–961).<ref name="Hourani 1">{{harvnb|Hourani|2003|p=41}}</ref> Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. [[Al-Hakam II]] succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Glubb|first=John Bagot|title=The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors|url=https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub|url-access=registration|year=1966|publisher=Prentice-Hall|page=[https://archive.org/details/courseofempirear0000glub/page/128 128]}}</ref> and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Glick|first=Thomas F.|title=Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14771-3|page=102}}</ref> Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Luscombe|first=David Edward|author2=Jonathan Riley-Smith|title=The new Cambridge medieval history|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41410-4|page=599}}</ref>

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of [[Hicham II]] who was ousted because of his indolence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=O'Callaghan|first=Joseph F.|title=A History of Medieval Spain|year=1983|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-9264-8|page=133}}</ref> Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called ''[[taifa kings|taifa kingdoms]]'' (Arabic, ''Muluk al-ṭawā'if''; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those [[petty kingdom]]s weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula ''vis-à-vis'' the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the ''taifas'', such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Constable|first=Olivia Remie|title=Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources|year=1997|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-1569-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons/page/n132 103]|chapter=The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler|url=https://archive.org/details/medievaliberiare00cons|url-access=registration}}</ref>

{{see also|Reconquista|Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula}}

===Emirs of Al-Andalus===
{{Main|Emirate of Córdoba}}

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[[Abd al-Rahman I]] and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the [[Abbasid Revolution]]. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near [[Ceuta]]. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the [[Berber Revolt]] (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the [[Ummah]] torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – [[Obeid Allah ibn Uthman]] and [[Abd Allah ibn Khalid]], both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in [[Zaragoza]]) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at [[Almuñécar]] in al-Andalus, to the east of [[Málaga]].

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to [[Zaragoza#Moorish Saraqusta|control Zaragoza]]. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the [[Guadalquivir|Guadalquivir river]], just outside Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a [[counterattack]], but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.<ref>This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph.</ref> The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a [[wikt:safe haven|safe haven]] for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.<ref>Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists. National Geographic Books, 2008.</ref>

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph [[al-Mansur]] had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ns5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385|year=1839|publisher=C. Knight|pages=385–|volume=15–16}}</ref>

[[File:Lamezquitacordoba.jpg|thumb|The exterior of the Mezquita.]]
Rahman I's successor was his son [[Hisham I]]. Born in Córdoba, he built many [[mosque]]s and completed the [[Mezquita]]. He called for a [[jihad]] that resulted in a campaign against the [[Kingdom of Asturias]] and the [[County of Toulouse]]; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by [[William of Gellone]], first cousin to [[Charlemagne]]. His successor [[Al-Hakam I]] came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in [[Aix-la-Chapelle]] to negotiate for aid. In the meantime Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.<ref>P{{cite book|author1=P. M. Holt|author2=Peter Malcolm Holt|author3=Ann K. S. Lambton|author4=Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA411|date=21 April 1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29137-8|page=411}}</ref>

[[Abd ar-Rahman II]] succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against [[Alfonso II of Asturias]], whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by [[Vikings]] who had disembarked in [[Cádiz]], conquered [[Seville]] (with the exception of its [[citadel]]) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval [[arsenal]] at [[Seville]] to repel future raids.  He responded to [[William of Septimania]]'s requests of assistance in his struggle against [[Charles the Bald]]'s nominations.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[Muhammad I of Córdoba|Muhammad I]]'s reign was marked by the movements of the [[Muwallad]] (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and [[Mozarab]]s (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son [[Al-Mundhir of Córdoba|Mundhir I]]. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muwallad rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against [[Umar ibn Hafsun]]. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi]].

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muwallad. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor [[Abd ar-Rahman III]], son of the killed son of Umawi.<ref>{{cite book|first=Maribel|last=Fierro|title=Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba|location=Oxford|publisher=Oneworld Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85168-384-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Ibn Idhari]]|translator=Francisco Fernández y González|title=Al-Bayan al-Mughrib|volume=1|year=1860|orig-date=Composed c. 1312|publisher=Francisco Ventura y Sabatel|location=Granada|language=es|oclc=557028856|ref=Ibn|title-link=Al-Bayan al-Mughrib}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lane-Poole|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Lane-Poole|title=The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions|url=https://archive.org/details/mohammedandynas00lanegoog|year=1894|publisher=Archibald Constable and Company|location=Westminster|oclc=1199708|ref=Lan94}}</ref>

====Caliphs of Al-Andalus====
{{Main|Caliphate of Córdoba}}

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====Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia====
{{main|Almoravid dynasty}}
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====Almohad caliphs====
{{main|Almohad Caliphate}}
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== Africa ==
{{main|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Islamization of the Sudan region|Shirazi era|Migration to Abyssinia|Swahili coast}}
The [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]] continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of [[Muhammad]] in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled [[Mesopotamia]], had invaded [[Armenia]], and were concluding their conquest of [[Byzantine Syria]]. [[Damascus]] was the seat of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. By the end of 641 all of [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] was in Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the [[Nubians|Nubian]] kingdom of [[Makuria]] was however repelled.

===Maghreb===
[[File:Kairouan's Great Mosque courtyard.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]].]]
{{Main|Maghreb}}

[[Kairouan]] in [[Tunisia]] was the first city founded by Muslims in the [[Maghreb]]. Arab general [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1176|title=Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya|publisher=Muslim Heritage|access-date=18 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102061328/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=1176|archive-date=2 November 2012}}</ref> considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264|date=2007|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-15388-2|page=264}}</ref>

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisid]] were the first Arab rulers in the western [[Maghreb]] (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first [[sultan]] [[Idris I]].<ref>Y. Benhima, "[http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=867&lang=en The Idrisids (789–974)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610132109/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=867&lang=en |date=10 June 2013 }}". ''qantara-med.org'', 2008.</ref>

The [[Almoravid dynasty]] was a Berber dynasty from the [[Sahara]] flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the [[Moorish]] empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, [[Tlemcen]] (in Algeria) and a part of what is now [[Senegal]] and [[Mali]] in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Almoravides}}</ref>

The [[Almohad Dynasty]] or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth [[Moorish]] dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.<ref>History of the Almonades, Reinhart Dozy, Second edition, 1881.</ref>

===Horn of Africa===
[[File:Zeila ruins.jpeg|thumb|left|160px|Ruins of [[Zeila]] (Saylac), Somalia.]]
{{main|Islam in Ethiopia|Islam in Somalia}}

The history of Islam in the [[Horn of Africa]] is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the [[Red Sea]], in the [[Arabian peninsula]], merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.<ref name="Sct">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014)|title=A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress}}</ref>

Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of [[Zeila]] in modern-day northern [[Somalia]] to seek protection from the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] at the court of the [[Aksumite Empire|Emperor of Aksum]]. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and the Red Sea came under the sway of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Muslim Caliphs]]. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.<ref name="Sct"/>

===East African coast===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 105-DOA0232, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Arabische Moschee.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[Great Mosque of Kilwa]]]]

Islam came to the [[Swahili coast]] and South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.<ref>Nicolini, B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar: Three-terminal cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean, 1799–1856. Leiden: Brill. p. 35</ref> They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.

Local Islamic governments centered in [[Islam in Tanzania|Tanzania]] (then [[Zanzibar]]). The people of ''[[Zayd]]'' were Muslims that immigrated to the region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the ''[[Ulema]]'' (''wanawyuonis'', in [[Swahili language]]). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief [[Qadi]] there was recognized for having the final religious authority.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nimtz|first=August H. Jr.|title=Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania|year=1980|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis}}</ref>

=== West Africa ===
{{Main|Ghana Empire#Almoravids|Suwarian tradition|Fula jihads}}
{{Expand section|date=March 2025}}

== East Asia ==

===Indian subcontinent===
{{Main|Islam in South Asia|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islam in India|Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Delhi Sultanate}}
[[File:Qutb minar ruins.jpg|thumb|left|[[Qutub Minar]] is the world's tallest brick [[minaret]], commenced by [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] of the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Slave dynasty]]; 1st dynasty of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].]]

On the [[Indian subcontinent]], Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's [[Kerala]] state. Arabs traded with [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]] even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of [[Sahaba]], under [[Malik Bin Deenar|Malik Ibn Deenar]], arrived on the [[Malabar Coast]] and preached Islam. According to that legend, [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|the first mosque of India]] was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name ''Tajudheen''. Historical records suggest that the [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|Cheraman Perumal Mosque]] was built in around 629.<ref name="BT">{{cite web|publisher=Bahrain tribune|url=http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332|title=World's second oldest mosque is in India|access-date=9 August 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706220818/http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332 <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archive-date=6 July 2006}}</ref>

Islamic rule first came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered [[Sindh]], though this was a short-lived consolidation of Indian territory. Islamic conquests expanded under [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in the 12th century CE, resulting in the establishment of the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid Empire]] in the Indus River basin and the subsequent prominence of [[Lahore]] as an eastern bastion of Ghaznavid culture and rule. Ghaznavid rule was eclipsed by the [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid Empire]] of [[Muhammad of Ghor]] and [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]], whose domain under the conquests of [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]] extended until the [[Bengal]], where Indian [[Islamic missionary activity|Islamic missionaries]] achieved their greatest success in terms of [[dawah]] and number of converts to [[Islam]].<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pp. 227-228</ref><ref>Majumdar, Dr. R.C., ''History of Mediaeval Bengal'', First published 1973, Reprint 2006, Tulshi Prakashani, Kolkata, {{ISBN|81-89118-06-4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2019}} [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak]] conquered [[Delhi]] in 1206 and began the reign of the [[Delhi Sultanate]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Srivastava|first=Ashirvadi Lal|title=The Sultanate Of Delhi 711–1526 AD|url=https://archive.org/stream/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1929|publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company}}</ref> a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Indo-Gangetic plain]] and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, [[Razia Sultana]].

Many prominent sultanates and emirates administered various regions of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, such as the [[Qutb Shahi]], [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], [[Shah Mir dynasty|Kashmir]], [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal]], [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]] and [[Bahmani|Bahmani Sultanates]], but none rivaled the power and extensive reach of the [[Mughal Empire]] at its zenith.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holden|first=Edward Singleton|author-link=Edward Singleton Holden|title=The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398 – A.D. 1707|url=https://archive.org/stream/mogulemperorsofh00hold#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1895|publisher=New York : C. Scribner's Sons}}</ref> The Bengal Sultanate in particular was a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with",<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state. Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. {{ISBN|978-81-8069-149-2}}. Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.</ref> while the Shah Mir dynasty ensured the gradual conversion of [[Kashmiris]] to Islam.

Persian culture, art, language, cuisine and literature grew in prominence in India due to Islamic administration and the immigration of soldiers, bureaucrats, merchants, Sufis, artists, poets, teachers and architects from Iran and Central Asia, resulting in the early development of [[Indo-Persian culture]].

===Southeast Asia===
[[File:Masjid demak.jpg|thumb|200px|Grand Mosque of [[Sultanate of Demak|Demak]], the first Muslim state in Java]]
{{See also|Spread of Islam in Indonesia}}

Islam first reached [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] through traders from Mecca in the 7th century,<ref name="AHGC"/> particularly via the western part of what is now [[Indonesia]]. Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India, and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.<ref>Gustave Le Bon. (1956). ''Hadarat al Arab''. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. 3rd Print. Cairo. p. 95.</ref>

According to [[T. W. Arnold]] in ''The Preaching of Islam'', by the 2nd century of the [[Islamic calendar]], Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of [[Ceylon]], modern-day Sri Lanka. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in ''Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia'' (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia).<ref>Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur. (2009). ''Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia'' (History of Socio-Economic of Indonesia). API Sejarah. Bandung. Indonesia. pp. 2–3</ref> According to an atlas created by the geographer Al-Biruni (973–1048), the Indian or Indonesian Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the Indian Ocean.<ref>Sir [[Thomas Arnold]] and Alfred Guilaume, (eds.), (1965). ''The Legacy of Islam''. Oxford University Press, New York, p. 87.</ref>

Soon, many [[Sufi]] missionaries translated classical [[Sufi literature]] from Arabic and Persian into [[Malay language|Malay]]; a tangible product of this is the [[Jawi script]]. Coupled with the composing of original [[Islamic literature]] in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.<ref>{{harvnb|Nasr|2003|p=143}}</ref> By 1292, when [[Marco Polo]] visited [[Sumatra]], most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The [[Sultanate of Malacca]] was founded on the [[Malay Peninsula]] by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]], a [[Srivijaya]]n Prince.

Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to [[Borneo]] and [[Java]]. By the late 15th century, [[Islam in the Philippines|Islam]] had been introduced to the [[Philippines]] via the southern island of [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Spencer Tucker|title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA419|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-951-1|pages=419–|volume=1}}</ref> The foremost{{citation needed|date=June 2017}} socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted from this are the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] and [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]]; Islamised kingdoms in the northern [[Luzon]] island, such as the [[Kingdom of Maynila]] and the [[Kingdom of Tondo]], were later conquered and [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianised]] with the majority of the archipelago by [[Spanish colonization of the Philippines|Spanish colonisers]] beginning in the 16th century.

As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The [[Aceh Sultanate]] was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern [[Sumatra]]. The Sultanate also attracted [[Sufi poetry|Sufi poets]]. The second Muslim power was the [[Malacca Sultanate|Sultanate of Malacca]] on the Malay Peninsula. The [[Demak Sultanate|Sultanate of Demak]] on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local [[Majapahit]] kingdom in the early 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2000|pp=226–30}}</ref> Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.<ref name="AHGC"/>

[[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]] forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general [[Afonso de Albuquerque]]. With Malacca subdued, the [[Aceh Sultanate]] and [[Bruneian Empire]] established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of [[Brunei Darussalam]].<ref name="AHGC"/>

===China===
[[File:Huaisheng Mosque Dec 2007.jpg|thumb|The [[Huaisheng Mosque]] of China, built by [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]].]]
{{Further|History of Islam in China}}

In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, [[Jafar ibn Abu Talib]] and [[Jahsh ibn Riyab]]) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the [[Chittagong]]&ndash;[[Kamrup region|Kamrup]]&ndash;[[Manipur]] route after sailing from [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with [[Sa'id ibn Zaid]], [[Qais ibn Sa'd]] and [[Hassan ibn Thabit]] to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650–51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.<ref>Khamouch, Mohammed. "[http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/China%201.pdf Jewel of Chinese Muslim's Heritage]". FTSC.</ref>

== Early Modern period ==
{{main|Early modern period}}
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[Ottoman conquest of Anatolia|Anatolia]], the [[Ottoman conquest of the Balkans|Balkans]], the [[Middle East]], and [[North Africa]]; the [[Safavid Empire]] in [[Greater Iran]]; and the [[Mughal Empire]] in [[South Asia]]. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of [[gunpowder]] and more efficient administration.<ref name="Armstrong116">{{harvnb|Armstrong|2000|p=116}}</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Further|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire|History of Turkey}}
[[File:I Osman.jpg|thumb|right|[[Osman I]], founder of the Ottoman Empire. [[Ottoman miniature]], 1579–1580, [[Topkapı Palace|Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi]], [[Istanbul]].]]

According to Ottoman historiography, the [[legitimation]] of a ruler is attributed to [[Sheikh Edebali]] who interpreted a dream of [[Osman I|Osman Gazi]] as God's legitimation of his reign.<ref>Jens Peter Laut ''Vielfalt türkischer Religionen'' Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg (German) p. 31</ref> Since [[Murad&nbsp;I]]'s [[Ottoman conquest of Adrianople|conquest of Edirne]] in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=Holt|editor-first1=P.M.|editor-last2=Lambton|editor-first2=Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C|title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west|editor-last3=Lewis|editor-first3=Bernard|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-521-22310-2|volume=2|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C 320]|editor-link2=Ann Lambton|editor-link3=Bernard Lewis|access-date=13 March 2015}}{{verify source|date=September 2021|reason=This cite does not match Google books or Worldcat. The Google cite does not match the contents of the book. The Worldcat cite is confusing. I believe I have listed the correct editors.}}</ref> During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as [[Selim&nbsp;I]] became the "[[Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques]]" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Drews|first=Robert|url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/|title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization|date=August 2011|publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]]|chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648"|chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf}}</ref>

The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the [[Mongol conquest of Anatolia|Mongol invasion of Anatolia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|1977a|p=263}}</ref> This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as [[bey]]liks. [[Osman I]], the founder of the [[Ottoman dynasty]], assumed leadership of one of these principalities ([[Söğüt]]) at the end of the 13th century, succeeding his father [[Ertuğrul]]. Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.<ref>Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. p. 94.</ref> By 1331, the [[Ottoman Turks]] had captured [[Nicaea]], the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, [[Orhan I]].<ref>{{harvnb|Koprulu|1992|p=109}}</ref> Victory at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] against the [[Serbian Empire]] in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time [[Bayezid I]] ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Koprulu|1992|p=111}}</ref>

[[File:OttomanEmpireMain.png|thumb|left|300px|The Ottoman Empire and sphere of influence at its [[Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire|greatest extent]] (1683)]]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord [[Timur]] (also known as "''Tamerlane''") captured Bayezid I in the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, beginning the [[Ottoman Interregnum]]. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid authority]]. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered as the youngest son of Bayezid I, [[Mehmed I]], waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting [[Asia Minor]] and declaring himself sultan in 1413.<ref name="AHGC">{{Cite web|author=Applied History Research Group|publisher=University of Calagary|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html|title=The Islamic World to 1600|access-date=18 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070410125136/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html|archive-date=10 April 2007}}</ref> Around 1512 the [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman naval fleet]] developed under the rule of [[Selim I]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ágoston|first=Gábor|year=2021|chapter=Part I: Emergence – Conquests: European Reactions and Ottoman Naval Preparations|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXALEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|title=The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] and [[Oxford]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|pages=123-138, 138-144|doi=10.1515/9780691205380-003|isbn=978-0-691-20538-0|lccn=2020046920|jstor=j.ctv1b3qqdc.8}}</ref> such that the Ottoman Turks were able to challenge the [[Republic of Venice]], a [[naval power]] which established its [[thalassocracy]] alongside the other [[Italian city-states|Italian]] [[maritime republics]] upon the [[Mediterranean Region]].<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Lane|author-first=Frederic C.|author-link=Frederic C. Lane|year=1973|chapter=Contests for Power: The Fifteenth Century|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nVq0BLfVT4C&pg=PA224|title=Venice, A Maritime Republic|location=[[Baltimore]]|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|pages=224–240|isbn=978-0-8018-1460-0|oclc=617914}}</ref> They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, [[Mehmed II]] (ruled 1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of [[muskets]] and large [[cannon]]s introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress [[Fall of Constantinople|succumbed]] in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.<ref name="AHGC"/> The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of [[gunpowder]].<ref name="Armstrong116"/>

[[File:View of the Süleymaniye Mosque from the Bosphorus (1).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] (Süleymaniye Camii) in [[Istanbul]] was built on the order of sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] by the [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman architect]] [[Mimar Sinan]] in 1557.]]
In the early 16th century, the Shiʿite [[Safavid dynasty]] assumed control in Persia under the leadership of [[Shah]] [[Ismail I]], defeating the ruling [[Turkmen people|Turcoman]] federation [[Aq Qoyunlu]] (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan [[Selim I]] sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]] (nicknamed "''Suleiman the Magnificent''"), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the [[Uzbeks]] on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526 – [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|reaching as far as the gates of Vienna]] thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with [[Francis I of France]] against [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] 10 years later. While Suleiman I's rule (1520–1566) is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Ágoston|editor1-first=Gábor|editor2-first=Bruce|editor2-last=Masters|year=2009|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC|location=[[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Facts on File]]|page=xxxii|isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1|lccn=2008020716}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Faroqhi|first=Suraiya|editor-last=İnalcık|editor-first=Halil|editor2=Donald Quataert|title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914|volume=2|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1994|page=553|chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699|isbn=978-0-521-57456-3|quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–99 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century.}}</ref>

===Safavid Empire===
{{Main|Safavid Empire}}
{{Further|Persianization|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
[[File:Safavid Empire 1501 1722 AD.png|thumb|left|300px|The [[Safavid Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Shah]] [[Ismail I]] (1501–1524)]]

The Shīʿīte [[Safavid dynasty]] rose to power in [[Tabriz]] in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran.<ref name="Matthee 2021">{{cite book|author-last=Baltacıoğlu-Brammer|author-first=Ayşe|year=2021|chapter=The emergence of the Safavids as a mystical order and their subsequent rise to power in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWBCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15|editor-first=Rudi|editor-last=Matthee|title=The Safavid World|location=[[New York City|New York]] and [[London]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|edition=1st|series=Routledge Worlds|pages=15–36|doi=10.4324/9781003170822|isbn=978-1-003-17082-2|s2cid=236371308}}</ref> They were of mixed ancestry, originally [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]],<ref name="R.M.">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebn-bazzaz|title=RM Savory. Ebn Bazzaz.}} ''Encyclopædia Iranica''</ref> but during their rule intermarried with [[Turkmens|Turcomans]],<ref>
*Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period" in Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence. ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 214, 229
*Blow, David (2009). ''Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend''. I.B.Tauris. p. 3
*Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) ''ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ''. ''Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6'', pp. 628-636
*Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). ''ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI''. ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''</ref> [[Georgians]],<ref>{{cite book|first=Aptin|last=Khanbaghi|date=2006|title=The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early|location=London & New York|publisher=IB Tauris|isbn=1-84511-056-0}}, pp. 130–1</ref> [[Circassians]],{{sfn|Yarshater|2001|p=493}}{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2006|p=130}} and [[Pontic Greeks]].<ref name="Anthony Bryer 1975">Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29'' (1975), Appendix II "Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond"</ref> The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the [[Safavid order]] of [[Sufism]],<ref name="Matthee 2021"/> while the Iranian population was largely composed by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]].<ref>Peter B. Golden (2002) "An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples"; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara, p. 321</ref> After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]], to unite the Persians behind him, [[Shah]] [[Ismail I]] made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population of Iran to the [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver sect of Shīʿa Islam]] so that he could get them to fight against the Sunni Ottomans.<ref>"Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica</ref>

This resulted in the [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shīʿa Islam]]. Iranian [[Zaydism|Zaydis]], the largest group amongst the Shīʿa Muslims before the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid rule]], were also forced to convert to the [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver]] denomination of Shīʿa Islam. The Zaydis at that time subscribed to the [[Hanafi]] [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]], as did most Sunnis, and there were good relations between them. [[Abu Hanifah]] and [[Zayd ibn Ali]] were also very good friends.<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917"/><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91"/> The Safavid dynasty from [[Azarbaijan]] ruled from 1501 to 1736; they [[Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism|established Twelver Shīʿīsm as the official religion of Safavid Iran]] and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the [[History of Iran|Persian identity]].<ref>''Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties?'' RM Savory, ''Iran under the Safavids'' (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), p. 3.</ref><ref>Alireza Shapur Shahbazi (2005), "The History of the Idea of Iran", in Vesta Curtis ed., Birth of the Persian Empire, IB Tauris, London, p. 108: "Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name "Iran" disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or "Iranian lands", which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations".</ref>
{{clear|left}}
[[File:Shah soleiman safavi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suleiman I of Persia|Shah Suleiman I]] and his courtiers, [[Isfahan]], 1670. Painter is [[Aliquli Jabbadar|Ali Qoli Jabbador]], and is kept at The [[St. Petersburg]] Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by [[Tsar Nicholas II]]. Note the two [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] figures with their names at the top left.]]

In 1524, [[Tahmasp I]] acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. [[Persian carpet|Carpetmaking]] became a major industry. The tradition of [[Persian miniature]] painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and [[hashish]] and removing [[casino]]s, [[tavern]]s, and [[brothel]]s. Tahmasp's nephew [[Ibrahim Mirza]] continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the [[Mughal dynasty]].

Tahmasp's grandson, [[Shah Abbas I]], restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shīʿīte Imam, [[Ali al-Ridha]] at [[Mashhad]], and restored the dynastic shrine at [[Ardabil]]. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts, and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas' most visible cultural achievements was the construction of ''[[Naqsh-e Jahan Square]]'' ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered {{convert|20|acre|m2}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2000|pp=199–204}}</ref> The [[Safavid dynasty]] was toppled in 1722 by the [[Hotaki dynasty]], which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Twelver Shīʿīsm.

===Mughal Empire===
{{Main|Mughal Empire}}
[[File:The Mughal Empire.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mughal India]] at its greatest extent, at the sharia apogee of [[Aurangzeb|Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir]].]]

Mughal Empire was a power that comprised almost all of [[South Asia]], founded in 1526. It was established and ruled by the [[Timurid dynasty]], with [[Turco-Mongol]] [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai]] roots from [[Central Asia]], claiming direct descent from both [[Genghis Khan]] (through his son [[Chagatai Khan]]) and [[Timur]],<ref name="Richards1995">{{citation|last=Richards|first=John F.|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=6|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel2004">{{citation|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7sewQQzOHUC|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|page=22|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3}}</ref><ref name="Balabanlilar2012">{{citation|last=Balabanlilar|first=Lisa|title=Imperial Identity in Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PS6PrH3rtkC|date=15 January 2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|page=2|isbn=978-1-84885-726-1}}</ref> and with significant [[India|Indian]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] ancestry through marriage alliances;<ref>Jeroen Duindam (2015), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ky2CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 ''Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300–1800'', p. 105], [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Malika|last=Mohammada|title=The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India|publisher=Aakar Books|year=2007|page=300|isbn=978-81-89833-18-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA300}}</ref> the first two [[Mughal emperors]] had both parents of Central Asian ancestry, while successive emperors were of predominantly Indo-Persian ancestry.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Great Mughals and their India|author=Dirk Collier|publisher=[[Hay House]]|year=2016|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT15|isbn=978-93-84544-98-0}}</ref> The dynasty was [[Indo-Persian culture|Indo-Persian]] in culture,<ref name="r1"/> combining [[Persianate society|Persianate]] culture<ref name="persianatemogul">{{cite book|title=God and Logic in Islam: The Caliphate of Reason|author=John Walbridge|page=165|quote=Persianate Mogul Empire.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Britain and the Persian Gulf: 1795–1880|author=John Barrett Kelly|page=473}}</ref> with local [[Culture of India|Indian cultural]] influences<ref name="r1">{{cite web|url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/|title=Indo-Persian Literature Conference: SOAS: North Indian Literary Culture (1450–1650)|publisher=SOAS|access-date=28 November 2012|archive-date=23 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923222924/http://www.soas.ac.uk/southasia/research/nilc/indopersian/|url-status=dead}}</ref> visible in its court culture and administrative customs.<ref name="r4">{{cite web|url=http://www.webindia123.com/history/MEDIEVAL/mughal%20period/mughal2.htm|title=Indian History-Medieval-Mughal Period-AKBAR|publisher=Webindia123.com|access-date=28 November 2012}}</ref>

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder [[Babur]] over [[Ibrahim Lodi]], the last ruler of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], in the [[First Battle of Panipat]] (1526). During the reign of [[Humayun]], the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the [[Sur Empire]] established by [[Sher Shah Suri]], who re-established the [[Grand Trunk Road]] across the northern Indian subcontinent, initiated the [[rupee]] currency system and developed much of the foundations of the effective administration of Mughal rule. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire began in 1556, with the ascension of [[Akbar]] to the throne. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal emperors were [[Muslims]]; Akbar, however, propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called [[Din-i-Ilahi|Dīn-i Ilāhī]], as recorded in historical books like ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' and ''[[Dabistān-i Mazāhib]]''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Makhan Lal|last=Roy Choudhury|title=The Din-i-Ilahi:Or, The Religion of Akbar}}</ref> The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in native societies during most of its existence, rather co-opting and pacifying them through concilliatory administrative practices{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} and a syncretic, inclusive ruling elite,{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 17}} leading to more systematic, centralized and uniform rule.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 152}} Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]], the [[Rajputs]], the [[Pashtuns]], the [[Hindu Jats]] and the [[Khalsa|Sikhs]], gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{cite book|author1=Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher|author2=Cynthia Talbot|title=India before Europe|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-80904-7|page=265}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Burjor Avari|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC&pg=PA131|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|pages=131–|isbn=978-0-415-58061-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Erinn Banting|date=2003|title=Afghanistan: The people|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistanpeopl0000bant|url-access=registration|publisher=Crabtree Publishing Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistanpeopl0000bant/page/9 9]–|isbn=978-0-7787-9336-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp = 23–24}}
[[File:Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg|thumb|[[Taj Mahal]] is a [[mausoleum]] built by [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] to house the tomb of his favourite wife, [[Mumtaz Mahal]].]]
The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] (1628–1658) represented the height of [[Mughal architecture]], with famous monuments such as the [[Taj Mahal]], [[Moti Masjid (Agra Fort)|Moti Masjid]], [[Red Fort]], [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]] and [[Lahore Fort]] being constructed during his reign.

The [[sharia]] reign of [[Aurangzeb|Muhammad Auranzgeb]] witnessed the establishment of the [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]].<ref>''Islamic and European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order'', [[Michael Adas]], Temple University Press (Philadelphia, PA), 1993.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chapra|first1=Muhammad Umer|title=Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-78347-572-8|pages=62–63}}</ref> Muslim India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world [[GDP]].<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, pages 259–261</ref> Its richest province, [[Bengal Subah]], which was a world leading economy and had better conditions than 18th century [[Western Europe]], showed signs of the [[Industrial Revolution]], through the emergence of the period of [[proto-industrialization]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Numerous conflicts such as the [[Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)|Anglo-Mughal War]] were also witnessed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb|first=Farhat|last=Hasan|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=34|issue=4|date=1991|pages=351–360|doi=10.1163/156852091X00058|jstor=3632456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1|date=September 2017}}
</ref>

After the death of [[Aurangzeb]], which marks the end of Medieval India and beginning of the European colonialism in India, internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to its break-up and declarations of independence of its former provinces by the [[Nawab of Bengal]], the [[Nawab of Awadh]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], the major economic and military power known as [[Kingdom of Mysore]] ruled by [[Tipu Sultan]] and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the [[Battle of Karnal]] by the forces of [[Nader Shah]], the founder of the [[Afsharid dynasty]] in Persia, and Delhi was [[Sack of Delhi|sacked and looted]], drastically accelerating their decline.

In 1757, the [[East India Company]] overtook [[Bengal Subah]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]]. By the mid-18th century, the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]] had routed Mughal armies and won over several Mughal provinces from the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to [[Bengal]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|date=2010|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|publisher=Macmillan India|page=Introduction 14|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3}}</ref>

[[Tipu Sultan]]'s [[Kingdom of Mysore]] based in [[South India]], which witnessed partial establishment of [[sharia]] based economic and military policies i.e. [[Fathul Mujahidin]], replaced Bengal ruled by the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] as [[South Asia]]'s foremost economic territory.<ref name="mehta">{{cite book|title=Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle|author=Binita Mehta|publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]]|year=2002|pages=110–111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1fAwgOercC&pg=PA110|isbn=978-0-8387-5455-9}}</ref><ref name="pande">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies|author=B. N. Pande|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgbXAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-81-85220-38-3}}</ref> 
The [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] were fought between [[Hyder Ali]], his son [[Tipu Sultan|Tipu]] and their [[First French Empire|French]] allies, including [[Napoleon]] Bonaparte, and the [[East India Company]]. [[Rocket artillery]] and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the [[Mysorean rockets]], were used during the war and the [[Jihad]] based [[Fathul Mujahidin]] was compiled.

During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, [[Bahadur Shah II]], had authority over only the city of [[Shahjahanabad]]. Bahadur issued a ''[[firman]]'' supporting the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Consequent to the rebellion's defeat he was tried by the [[East India Company]] [[Company rule in India|authorities]] for treason, imprisoned, and exiled to [[Rangoon]].<ref>{{cite book|author=John Capper|author-link=John Capper|date=1918|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi|pages=28–29|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2}}</ref> The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] passed the [[Government of India Act 1858|Government of India Act]] to enable [[the Crown]] formally to [[Nationalization|nationalize]] the East India Company and assume direct control of India in the form of the new [[British Raj]].

== Modern period ==
{{quote box
| width = 25%
| quote = "Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."
| source = —[[Ibrahim Muteferrika]], ''Rational basis for the Politics of Nations'' (1731)
}}

The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The European [[great power]]s globalized economically and colonized much of the region.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

=== Ottoman Empire partition ===
{{Main|Partition of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S29571, Türkei, Dardanellen, MG-Stellung.jpg|thumb|Ottoman army in World War I]] 
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back [[Germany]] in [[World War I]] meant they shared the [[Central Powers]]' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the [[Battle of Gallipoli]]: [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]], who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the [[treaty of Sèvres]] (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]], which was recognized by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]]. Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and [[secular]]ization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted [[Arabic numerals]], the [[Latin script]], separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with [[women's suffrage]] in the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|pp=961, 969}}</ref>

During the First World War, the Allies cooperated with Arab partisans against the Ottoman Empire, both groups being united in opposition to a common enemy. The most prominent example of this was during the [[Arab Revolt]], when the British, led by secret intelligence agent [[T. E. Lawrence]]—better known as "Lawrence of Arabia" cooperated with Arab [[Guerilla warfare|guerillas]] against the Ottoman forces, eventually securing the withdrawal of all Ottoman troops from the region by 1918. Following the end of the war, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as [[protectorate]]s. However, many Arabs were left dismayed by the [[Balfour Declaration]], which directly contradicted the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]] publicized only a year earlier.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|pp=971–72}}</ref> Ottoman successor states include today's [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], Egypt, Greece, Iraq, [[Israel]], Lebanon, [[Romania]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Serbia]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the [[Black Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Bentley|Christian|2005|p=1402}}</ref>

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and [[nationalism]] began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as [[Wahabism]], which found its way into the [[Saudi royal family]].
{{See also|Ottoman Caliphate|Turkish War of Independence}}

===Arab–Israeli conflict===
{{Main|Arab–Israeli conflict}}

The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]] as a [[Jews|Jewish]] [[nation state]], the consequent [[1948 Palestinian exodus|displacement]] of the [[Palestinians|Palestinian people]] and [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries]], as well as the adverse relationship between the [[Arab world]] and the State of Israel (''see'': [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]]). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly [[Muslim world|Muslim-majority countries]].

The [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|State of Israel came into existence on 14 May 1948]] as a polity to serve as the [[homeland for the Jewish people]]. It was also defined in its declaration of independence as a "[[Jewish state]]", a term that also appeared in the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for British Palestine]] in 1947. The related term of "[[Jewish and democratic state]]" dates from a 1992 legislation by Israel's [[Knesset]].

The [[Six-Day War]] of 5–10 June 1967, was fought between [[Israel]] and the neighbouring states of [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], and [[Syria]]. The Arab countries closed the [[Suez Canal]] and it was followed in May 1970 by the closure of the "tapline" from [[Saudi Arabia]] through Syria to [[Lebanon]]. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of [[petroleum]] in [[Libya]], which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, [[Occidental Petroleum]] broke with other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases.

In October 1973, a new war between Israel and its Muslim neighbours, known as the [[Yom Kippur War]], broke out just as the oil companies began meeting with the [[Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OAPEC). Its leaders had been emboldened by the success of [[Anwar Sadat|Sadat's campaigns]] and the war strengthened their unity. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the [[Western Bloc]] that enabled Israel to put up a resistance against the Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the [[1973 oil embargo]] against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], political and economic instability, and uncertainty about the future remain constant features of the politics of the region.

Many countries, individuals, and [[non-governmental organizations]] elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, [[Arab culture]], [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]], [[Jewish culture]], or for ideological, [[human rights]], or strategic reasons. Although some consider the Arab–Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider [[clash of civilizations]] between the [[Western world]] and the [[Muslim world]],<ref>Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: a Socio-Political perspective [http://www.rubincenter.org/meria/2003/12/abdallah.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803040848/http://www.rubincenter.org/meria/2003/12/abdallah.pdf|date=3 August 2018}} by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal). Volume 7, No. 4. December 2003</ref><ref>[https://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict/Arab-islamic-empire.php Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion] (Israel Science and Technology)</ref> others oppose this view.<ref>[http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1050 Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809212404/http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1050 |date=9 August 2007 }}</ref> Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

=== Other Islamic affairs ===
{{multiple image|header_background = #f8eaba
| header = Modern Islamic world
| image1 = Islam by country.png|width1=340
| caption1 = Islam in the modern world
----
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
{{unbulleted list
|{{colour box|#036704}}{{colour box|#4b934a}}{{colour box|#80b281}} [[Sunni]] Islam
|{{colour box|#741a19}}{{colour box|#924c4c}}{{colour box|#b17f7e}} [[Shia Islam|Shia]] Islam
|{{colour box|#32347e}} [[Ibadi]] Islam
}}{{div col end}}}}

In 1979 the [[Iranian revolution]] transformed [[Iran]] from a constitutional monarchy to a [[Populism|populist]] [[theocracy|theocratic]] [[Islamic republic]] under the rule of [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], a Shi'i Muslim cleric and ''[[Marja'|marja]]''. Following the Revolution, a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power.

The development of the two opposite fringes, the [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam]], the Twelver Shia version, and its reinforcement by the [[Iranian revolution]] and the [[Salafi]] in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the [[Iran–Saudi Arabia relations]] resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Heather S. Gregg|author2=Hy S. Rothstein|author3=John Arquilla|title=The Three Circles of War: Understanding the Dynamics of Conflict in Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqRgDU1kKi0C&pg=PA66|year=2010|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59797-499-8|page=66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Said Amir Arjomand|title=After Khomeini: Iran Under His Successors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx9Tdoz6axoC&pg=PA195|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-974576-0|page=195}}</ref> Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged [[Saddam Hussein]] to invade Iran,<ref>Farrokh, Kaveh. ''Iran at War: 1500–1988''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-78096-221-4}}.</ref> which resulted in the [[Iran–Iraq War]], as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Education in Islam]]
*[[LGBT in Islam|History of homosexuality in the Muslim world]]
*[[History of the Quran]]
*[[History of slavery in the Muslim world]]
**[[Arab slave trade]]
**[[Barbary slave trade]]
**[[Devshirme]]
**[[Ghilman]]
**[[Houri]]
**[[Islamic views on slavery]]
**[[Mamluk]]
**[[Saqaliba]]
**[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Islam and democracy]]
*[[Islam and modernity]]
*[[Islam and secularism]]
*[[Islam and violence]]
*[[Islam and war]]
*[[Islam by country]]
*[[Islamic art]]
*[[Islamic attitudes towards science]]
*[[Islamic culture]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]
*[[Islamic philosophy]]
*[[Islamic schools and branches]]
**[[Madhhab|Schools of Islamic jurisprudence]]
**[[Schools of Islamic theology]]
*[[Islamism]]
*[[List of Muslim military leaders]]
*[[List of Muslim states and dynasties]]
*[[Political aspects of Islam]]
*[[Political philosophy#Islamic Political Evolution|Political philosophy of the Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Political quietism in Islam]]
*[[Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
*[[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia]]
*[[Sectarian violence among Muslims]]
*[[Transformation of the Ottoman Empire]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
'''Books, articles, and journals'''
{{refbegin|2}}
<!-- A -->
*{{Cite book|last1=al-Balādhurī|first1=A. Y.|last2=Hitti|first2=P. K.|year=1916|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5FCAAAAYAAJ|title=The origins of the Islamic state: Being a translation from the Arabic accompanied with annotations, geographic and historic notes of the Kitâbfutûḥ al-buldân of al-Imâm abu l'Abbâs Aḥmad ibn-Jâbir al-Balâdhuri|publisher=New York}}
*{{Cite book|last=Ankerl|first=Guy|title=Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western|publisher=INUPress|year=2000|isbn=978-2-88155-004-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Karen|author-link=Karen Armstrong|title=Islam: A Short History|publisher=Modern Library|year=2000|isbn=978-0-679-64040-0}}
* {{citation|last1=Asher|first1=C. B.|last2=Talbot|first2=C.|year=2008|title=India Before Europe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51750-8}}
<!-- B -->
*{{cite book|last1=Bentley|first1=Jerry H.|last2=Ziegler|first2=Herbert F.|year=2006|title=Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past|location=New York|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]}}
*{{Cite book|last=Berkey|first=Jonathan Porter|author-link=Jonathan Berkey|title=The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Bloom|last2=Blair|title=Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power|year=2000}}
* {{Citation|last=Bleeker|first=C.J.|year=1968|title=Fasting in the Koran|publisher=BRILL Archive}}
<!-- C -->
* {{cite book|last=Çakmak|first=Cenap|title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia|series=4 volumes|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2017|isbn=978-1-61069-217-5}}
* {{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Visigothic Spain 409–711|publisher=John Wiley and Sons Ltd|year=2004|isbn=9781405149662|location=New Jersey}}
<!-- D -->
*{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Donner|first=Fred M.|entry=Modern approaches to early Islamic history|title=The New Cambridge History of Islam|pages=625–47|volume=1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-83823-8|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Chase F.}}
<!-- E -->
*{{Cite book|last=Esposito|first=John|author-link=John Esposito|year=2000|title=Oxford History of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-510799-9|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john}}
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*{{Cite book|last=Hart|first=Michael|title=The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history|publisher=Carol Publishing Group|location=New York|year=1978|isbn=978-0-8065-1057-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/10000mich_0}}
* {{Citation|last=Hazleton|first=Lesley|author-link=Lesley Hazleton|year=2013|title=The First Muslim: The Story of Muhammad|publisher=Atlantic Books}}
*{{Cite book|ref={{harvid|Holt|1977a}}|author=P. M. Holt|author2=[[Bernard Lewis]]|title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1|year=1977a|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29136-1}}
*{{Cite book|ref={{harvid|Holt|1977b}}|author=P. M. Holt|author2=Ann K. S. Lambton|author3=[[Bernard Lewis]]|title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2|year=1977b|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29137-8}}
*{{Cite book|ref={{harvid|Hourani|2003}}|author=[[Albert Hourani]]|author2=[[Malise Ruthven]]|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|year=2003|publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition|isbn=978-0-674-01017-8}}
*{{Cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|publisher=Faber & Faber|year=2002|isbn=978-0-571-21591-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Hoyland|first=Robert G.|author-link=Robert G. Hoyland|title=In Gods Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
<!-- I -->
*{{Cite book|last=Irving|first=W.|year=1868|url=https://archive.org/details/mahometandhissu02irvigoog|title=Mahomet and his successors|location=New York|publisher=Putnam}}
<!-- K -->
*{{cite book|last=Khaddūrī|first=Majīd|title=The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar|year=2002|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6975-4|pages=19–20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89spaKByt_MC&q=majid+khadduri+siyar}}
*{{Cite book|ref={{harvid|Koprulu|1992}}|last=Koprulu|first=Mehmed Fuad|author2=Leiser, Gary|title=The Origins of the|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-7914-0819-3}}
<!-- L -->
*{{Cite book|last=Lapidus|first=Ira M.|title=A History of Islamic societies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-77056-9}}
*{{Cite book|last=Le|first=S. G.|year=1900|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rdcoAAAAYAAJ|title=Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate: From contemporary Arabic and Persian sources|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}}
* {{cite book|last1=Leaman|first1=Oliver|title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia|date=2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-32639-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=B.|title=The Arabs in History|url=https://archive.org/details/arabsinhistory0000bern|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-19-285258-8}}
<!-- M -->
* {{cite book|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC|year=2006|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68225-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Muir|first=Sir William|year=1877|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.502780|title=The life of Mahomet: from original sources|publisher=Smith, Elder, & Co.}}
<!-- N -->
*{{Cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=Islam:Religion, History and Civilization|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|location=New York|year=2003|isbn=978-0-06-050714-5|url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0}}
<!-- R -->
*{{Cite book|last=Rahman|first=F.|title=Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-226-70284-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Rahman|first=H. U.|title=A Chronology of Islamic History|publisher=Ta-Ha|year=1999|isbn=978-1-897940-81-5}}
* {{citation|last=Robb|first=P.|title=A History of India|year=2001|publisher=Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-69129-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Robinson|first=Chase F.|entry=Introduction / The rise of Islam, 600 705|title=The New Cambridge History of Islam|pages=1–15, 173–225|volume=1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-83823-8|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Chase F.}}
* {{Citation|last=Rogerson|first=Barnaby|year=2010|title=The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography|publisher=Hachette UK}}
* {{Cite book|publisher=Brill Archive|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kssUAAAAIAAJ|title=A history of Muslim historiography|year=1968|first=Franz|last=Rosenthal}}
<!-- S -->
*{{Cite book|last1=Sale|first1=G.|last2=Psalmanazar|first2=G.|last3=Bower|first3=A.|last4=Shelvocke|first4=G.|last5=Campbell|first5=J.|last6=Swinton|first6=J.|year=779|title=A universal history: From the earliest accounts to the present time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6o-AAAAYAA|volume=21|location=London|publisher=C. Bathurst}}
*{{Cite book|last=Sonn|first=Tamara|title=A Brief History of Islam|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-0900-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofis0000sonn}}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book|year=2000|author1-link=James Tracy (historian)|last=Tracy|first=James D.|title=City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7dUv-1Ql2oC&pg=PA235|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65221-6}}
<!-- V -->
*{{Cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|title=Oral Tradition as History|publisher=James Currey Publishers|year=1985|isbn=978-0852550076}}
<!-- W -->
*{{Cite book|editor1-last=Williams|editor1-first=H. S.|year=1904|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mWDAAAAMAAJ|title=The historians' history of the world: Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs. The crusades and the papacy|location=New York|publisher=The Outlook Company}}
<!-- Y -->
* {{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=Richard|title=The art and architecture of islamic cairo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNVBbTuPcPkC&pg=PA53|year=2006|publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press|isbn=978-1-85964-154-5}}
<!-- Z -->
*{{Cite book|last1=Zaydān|first1=J.|last2=Margoliouth|first2=D. S.|year=1907|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DRByAAAAMAAJ|title=Umayyads and ʻAbbásids|chapter=Being the fourth part of Jurjí Zaydán's history of Islamic civilization.|location=Leyden|publisher=E.J. Brill, imprimerie orientale}}
<!-- unknown -->
*{{Cite book|title=The World's work|year=1900|location=New York|publisher=Doubleday, Page & Co|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYXNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA136|chapter=Islam Aflame with Revolt}}

'''Encyclopedias'''
*{{Cite encyclopedia|editor=[[P. J. Bearman]]|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=[[C. E. Bosworth]]|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=[[W. P. Heinrichs]]|title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]]|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|issn=1573-3912}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|editor=[[P. J. Bearman]]|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=[[C. E. Bosworth]]|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=[[W. P. Heinrichs]]|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition (1954-2005)|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|ref={{harvid|McNeill|Bentley|Christian|2005}}|title=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History|publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1|volume=4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/berkshireencyclo0004unse_k2y1}}
*{{Cite encyclopedia|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition|year=2005|isbn=978-1-59339-236-9}}
* Baynes, T. S. (1888). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. New York, N.Y: H.G. Allen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BZ0MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA545 pp. 545–606] .
* In Pace, E. A. (1922). ''The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline and History of the Catholic Church''. New York: Encyclopedia Press. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=RmoQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA424 Mohammed and Mohammedanism.]". pp.&nbsp;424–28
* {{cite book|last=Yarshater|first=Ehsan|title=Encyclopædia Iranica|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|year=2001|isbn=978-0933273566}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Ágoston|first=Gábor|year=2021|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXALEAAAQBAJ|title=The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1b3qqdc|isbn=978-0-691-20538-0|jstor=j.ctv1b3qqdc|s2cid=243417695|lccn=2020046920|oclc=1224042619}}
*{{cite book|last=Anthony|first=Sean W.|year=2020|chapter=Introduction: The Making of the Historical Muhammad – Part I: Muhammad the Merchant|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam|location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|pages=1–84|doi=10.1525/9780520974524-004|isbn=978-0-520-34041-1|s2cid=240957346|lccn=2019035331|oclc=1153189160}}
*{{cite book|last=Black|first=Antony|year=2014|orig-date=2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjWrBgAAQBAJ|title=History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present|location=[[Edinburgh]]|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-7486-8878-4|oclc=855017249}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Conrad|editor1-first=Lawrence I.|editor1-link=Lawrence Conrad|editor2-last=Jabbur|editor2-first=Suhayl J.|year=1995|title=The Bedouins and the Desert: Aspects of Nomadic Life in the Arab East|location=[[Albany, New York]]|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|series=SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies|isbn=978-0-7914-2852-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Haider|first=Najam|year=2019|chapter=Modeling Islamic Historical Writing|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtGoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=The Rebel and the Imām in Early Islam: Explorations in Muslim Historiography|location=[[Cambridge]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=1–25|doi=10.1017/9781139199223.001|isbn=978-1-139-19922-3|s2cid=216606313|oclc=1164503161}}
*{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Aaron W.|author-link=Aaron W. Hughes|year=2013|chapter=Part I: Origins|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWOsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15|title=Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam|location=[[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|pages=15–40|isbn=978-0-231-53192-4|lccn=2012036923|oclc=809989049}}
*{{cite book|last=Khatab|first=Sayed|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycYb7PN3DkkC|title=The Power of Sovereignty: The Political and Ideological Philosophy of Sayyid Qutb|location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|edition=1st|series=Routledge Studies in Political Islam|isbn=978-0-203-08694-0|oclc=433839891}}
*{{cite book|author-last=Kurzman|author-first=Charles|author-link=Charles Kurzman|year=1998|chapter=Liberal Islam and Its Islamic Context|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA1|editor-last=Kurzman|editor-first=Charles|title=Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=1–26|isbn=978-0-19-511622-9|oclc=37368975}}
*{{cite book|last=Milani|first=Milad|year=2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jg9DwAAQBAJ|title=Sufi Political Thought|location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|edition=1st|series=Routledge Religion in Contemporary Asia Series|isbn=978-0-367-87025-6|lccn=2017023114|oclc=1010957516}}
*{{cite book|last=Oliver-Dee|first=Sean|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7mVEqJ1Go0wC|title=The Caliphate Question: The British Government and Islamic Governance|location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] and [[Plymouth|Plymouth, U.K.]]|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|isbn=978-0-7391-3603-4|lccn=2009018328}}
*{{cite journal|last=Sahner|first=Christian C.|date=June 2017|title="The Monasticism of My Community is Jihad": A Debate on Asceticism, Sex, and Warfare in Early Islam|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:0801d65c-8f84-469e-84b8-f2b40852f8ff|journal=[[Arabica (journal)|Arabica]]|volume=64|issue=2|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|pages=149–183|doi=10.1163/15700585-12341453|s2cid=165034994|issn=1570-0585}}
*{{cite book|last=Saikal|first=Amin|author-link=Amin Saikal|year=2021|orig-date=2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-j5DwAAQBAJ|title=Iran Rising: The Survival and Future of the Islamic Republic|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|doi=10.1515/9780691184197|isbn=978-0-691-18419-7|jstor=j.ctvc77cbb|s2cid=241721596|lccn=2018936897}}
*{{cite book|last=Soleimani|first=Kamal|year=2016|chapter=Religious (Islamic) Thought, Nationalism, and the Politics of Caliphate|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WP9jDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|title=Islam and Competing Nationalisms in the Middle East, 1876-1926|location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|series=The Modern Muslim World|pages=19–70|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-59940-7|isbn=978-1-137-59940-7|lccn=2016939591}}
*{{cite book|last=Tibi|first=Bassam|author-link=Bassam Tibi|year=2002|orig-date=1998|chapter=The Context: Globalization, Fragmentation, and Disorder|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGAcU6GB1EUC&pg=PA1|title=The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder|location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] and [[Los Angeles]]|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|edition=Updated|series=Comparative Studies in Religion and Society|pages=1–19|doi=10.1525/9780520929753-002|isbn=978-0-520-92975-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Yılmaz|first=Hüseyin|year=2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8mXDwAAQBAJ|title=Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought|location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] and [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire]]|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|doi=10.2307/j.ctvc77bv4|isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7|jstor=j.ctvc77bv4|lccn=2017936620|oclc=1203056833}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{wikibooks}}

{{History of Islam|state=collapsed}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{History of religions|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History of Islam| ]]
[[Category:Islamic studies]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]
[[Category:History of religion by religion|Islam]]