Editing History of Indonesia

{{Short description|none}}
{{See also|Timeline of Indonesian history}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
[[Image:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|260px|As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on [[Borobudur]], {{circa|800}} CE.]]
{{History of Indonesia}}
The '''history of Indonesia''' has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. [[Indonesia]] is an [[archipelago|archipelagic]] country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]].<ref name="Jumlah Pulau di indonesia">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/teknologi/20230619171810-199-963898/jumlah-pulau-resmi-di-ri-capai-17024-masih-ada-yang-tanpa-identitas/amp|title=Jumlah Pulau Resmi di RI Capai 17.024, Masih Ada yang Tanpa Identitas|date=20 November 2023|website=cnnindonesia.com|language=id|access-date=19 June 2020|archive-date=28 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628094859/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/teknologi/20230619171810-199-963898/jumlah-pulau-resmi-di-ri-capai-17024-masih-ada-yang-tanpa-identitas/amp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Jumlah Pulau di indonesia2">{{Cite news|url=https://kemlu.go.id/vancouver/en/pages/indonesia_at_a_glance/2016/etc-menu|title=Indonesia at a Glance|access-date=20 November 2023|website=kemlu.com|language=en|archive-date=19 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119030737/https://kemlu.go.id/vancouver/en/pages/indonesia_at_a_glance/2016/etc-menu|url-status=live}}</ref> The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of [[Culture of Indonesia|cultures]], [[Ethnic groups of Indonesia|ethnicities]], and [[Languages of Indonesia|languages]]. The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states. The boundaries of the state of Indonesia match the 20th-century borders of the [[Dutch East Indies]].

Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as "[[Java Man]]", and their tools suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited at least 1.5 million years ago. [[Austronesian people]], who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from [[Taiwan]] and arrived in Indonesia around 2000&nbsp;[[Common Era|BCE]]. From the 7th century CE, the powerful [[Srivijaya]] naval kingdom flourished, bringing [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] influences with it. The agricultural Buddhist [[Sailendra]] and Hindu [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] dynasties subsequently thrived in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. The [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|earliest evidence of Islamised populations]] in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern [[Sumatra]]; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted [[Islam]], which became the dominant religion in [[Java]] and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.<ref name='sejarahkerajaanislam'>{{cite web |url=https://www.gramedia.com/literasi/sejarah-kerajaan-islam-di-sumatera/ |title=Sejarah Kerajaan Islam di Sumatera |date=15 July 2022 |access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928091743/https://www.gramedia.com/literasi/sejarah-kerajaan-islam-di-sumatera/ |url-status=live}}</ref> For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences.

Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable [[nutmeg]], [[clove]]s, and [[cubeb|cubeb pepper]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]]. In 1602, the Dutch established the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC) and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the [[Dutch East Indies]] under government control. By the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The [[Dutch East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|occupation in 1942–1945]] during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader [[Sukarno]] declared independence and became president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish its rule, but a [[Indonesian National Revolution|bitter armed and diplomatic struggle]] ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.

[[Transition to the New Order|An attempted coup]] in 1965 led to a [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|violent army-led anti-communist purge]] in which over half a million people were killed. General [[Suharto]] politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968. His [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order administration]] was marked by widespread corruption, nepotism, human rights abuses, and the centralization of power, with political dissent brutally suppressed and the media tightly controlled. Economic policies disproportionately benefited elites, while poverty and inequality persisted for much of his rule. In the late 1990s, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|East Asian financial crisis]], which led to [[Fall of Suharto|popular protests]] and Suharto's resignation on 21 May 1998. The [[Post-Suharto era in Indonesia|''Reformasi'']] era following Suharto's resignation has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, the secession of [[East Timor]], and the first [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|direct presidential election in 2004]]. Political instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism remained problems in the 2000s, but the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations between different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.

Today, Indonesia, a nation with over 270 million people, is known for its diversity and multiculturalism, rooted in its rich history. Despite facing challenges such as political instability and economic crises, Indonesia has continued to develop its economy and plays a significant role in the Southeast Asian region. The country has also made notable contributions to global art, music, and cuisine.

==Prehistory==
{{Main|Prehistoric Indonesia}}
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| image1            = Sangiran 17-02.JPG
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| caption1          = The replica of [[Java Man]] skull, originally discovered in [[Sangiran]], Central Java
| image2            = Pithecanthropus_erectus-PeterMaas_Naturalis.jpg
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| caption2          = The [[syntype]] fossils of Java Man (''H. e. erectus''), at [[Naturalis]], [[Leiden]]
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In 2007, an analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in [[Sangiran]], showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of early humans in Indonesia. Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in Indonesia, popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]" were first discovered by the Dutch anatomist [[Eugène Dubois]] at [[Trinil]] in 1891, and are at least 700,000 years old. Other ''H.&nbsp;erectus'' fossils of a similar age were found at [[Sangiran]] in the 1930s by the [[anthropologist]] [[Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald]], who in the same time period also uncovered fossils at [[Ngandong]] alongside more advanced tools, re-dated in 2011 to between 550,000 and 143,000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought_offers_new_insights_into_evolution_999.html |title=Finding showing human ancestor older than previously thought offers new insights into evolution |publisher=Terradaily.com |access-date=28 April 2013 |archive-date=27 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171127124833/http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought_offers_new_insights_into_evolution_999.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G.&nbsp;G. |year=1988 |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=43–77 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{harvp|Whitten|Soeriaatmadja|Suraya|1996|pp=309–312}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4988–4992 |date=15 August 1983 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988|pmid=6410399 |pmc=384173 |bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P |doi-access=free}}
cited in {{harvp|Whitten|Soeriaatmadja|Suraya|1996|p=309}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |author2=P.Y. Sondaar |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4988–4992 |date=9 December 1994 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D |doi-access=free |access-date=15 June 2007 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225215/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |url-status=live}}
cited in {{harvp|Whitten|Soeriaatmadja|Suraya|1996|p=}}</ref> In 1977 another ''H.&nbsp;erectus'' skull was discovered at Sambungmacan.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pages.nycep.org/nmg/pdf/Delson_et_al_%20sm3.pdf|title=The Sambungmacan 3 ''Homo erectus'' calvaria: A comparative morphometric and morphological analysis|journal=The Anatomical Record|volume=262|issue=4|pages=380–397|year=2001|last1=Delson|first1=Eric|last2=Harvati|first2=Katerina|last3=Reddy|first3=David|last4=Marcus|first4=Leslie F.|last5=Mowbray|first5=Kenneth|last6=Sawyer|first6=G. J.|last7=Jacob|first7=Teuku|last8=Marquez|first8=Samuel|doi=10.1002/ar.1048 |pmid=11275970 |s2cid=25438682 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124164845/http://pages.nycep.org/nmg/pdf/Delson_et_al_%20sm3.pdf|archive-date=24 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, stone tools were discovered on Flores, dating from 1 million years ago. These are the earliest remains implying human seafaring technology.<ref>{{cite web|date=18 March 2010|title=Flores Man Could Be 1 Million Years Old – Science News|url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1838192/flores_man_could_be_1_million_years_old/|access-date=28 April 2013|publisher=redOrbit|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215151004/https://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1838192/flores_man_could_be_1_million_years_old/|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest evidence of artistic activity ever found, in the form of diagonal etchings made with the use of a shark's tooth, was detected in 2014 on a 500,000-year-old fossil of a clam found in Java in the 1890s, associated with ''H.&nbsp;erectus''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429983.200-shell-art-made-300000-years-before-humans-evolved.html#.VISuEibfWnM|title=Shell 'art' made 300,000 years before humans evolved|access-date=29 August 2017|archive-date=6 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606151439/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429983.200-shell-art-made-300000-years-before-humans-evolved.html#.VISuEibfWnM|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2003, on the island of [[Flores]], fossils of a 1.1 m (3&nbsp;ft 7 in) tall hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old were discovered, much to the surprise of the scientific community. This newly discovered hominid was named the "[[Flores Man]]", or ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=P. Brown |author2=T. Sutikna |author3=M. J. Morwood |author4=R. P. Soejono |author5=Jatmiko |author6=E. Wayhu Saptomo |author7=Rokus Awe Due |date=27 October 2004 |title=A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=431 |doi=10.1038/nature02999 |pages=1055–1061 |pmid=15514638 |issue=7012 |bibcode=2004Natur.431.1055B |s2cid=26441 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15287/files/PAL_E2586.pdf |access-date=4 January 2023 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103195019/http://doc.rero.ch/record/15287/files/PAL_E2586.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morwood |first1= M. J. |last2=Soejono |first2= R. P. |last3=Roberts |first3= R. G. |last4=Sutikna |first4= T. |last5=Turney |first5= C. S. M. |last6=Westaway |first6= K. E. |last7=Rink |first7= W. J. |last8=Zhao |first8= J.-X. |last9=van den Bergh |first9= G. D. |author10=Rokus Awe Due |last11=Hobbs |first11= D. R. |last12=Moore |first12= M. W. |last13=Bird |first13= M. I. |last14=Fifield |first14= L. K. | date = 27 October 2004 | title = Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia. | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 431 | pages = 1087–1091 | doi = 10.1038/nature02956 | pmid = 15510146 | issue = 7012|bibcode=2004Natur.431.1087M |s2cid=4358548 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:73804/HCA10UQ73804.pdf}}</ref> A [[Phylogenetic comparative methods|phylogenetic analysis]] published in 2017 suggests that ''H. floresiensis'' was descended from the same ancestor as ''[[Homo habilis]].''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Argue|first1=Debbie|last2=Groves|first2=Colin P.|last3=Lee|first3=Michael S.Y.|last4=Jungers|first4=William L.|date=2017|title=The affinities of Homo floresiensis based on phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial characters.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.006|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=107|pages=107–133|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.006|pmid=28438318|bibcode=2017JHumE.107..107A |issn=0047-2484|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033851/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248417300866?via%3Dihub|url-status=live}}</ref> ''H. floresiensis'' would thus represent a previously unknown and very [[Out of Africa I|early migration out of Africa]]. The ''Homo floresiensis'' skeletal material is dated from 60,000 to 100,000 years ago; [[stone tool]]s recovered alongside the skeletal remains were from [[Horizon (archaeological)|archaeological horizons]] ranging from 50,000 to 190,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sutikna|first1=Thomas|last2=Tocheri|first2=Matthew W.|last3=Morwood|first3=Michael J.|last4=Saptomo|first4=E. Wahyu|last5=Jatmiko|last6=Awe|first6=Rokus Due|last7=Wasisto|first7=Sri|last8=Westaway|first8=Kira E.|last9=Aubert|first9=Maxime|last10=Li|first10=Bo|last11=Zhao|first11=Jian-xin|date=30 March 2016|title=Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature17179|journal=Nature|volume=532|issue=7599|pages=366–369|doi=10.1038/nature17179|pmid=27027286|bibcode=2016Natur.532..366S|s2cid=4469009|issn=0028-0836|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033953/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature17179|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Megalitisch beeld bij Tegoerwangi TMnr 10025807.jpg|thumb|Megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]], 1500 CE]]
The Indonesian archipelago was formed during the thaw after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]]. Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland [[Asia]] eastward to [[New Guinea]] and [[Australia]]. ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|author=Guy Gugliotta|publisher=Smithsonian|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|title=The Great Human Migration|date=July 2008|page=2|access-date=17 February 2010|archive-date=13 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213000228/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2011, evidence was uncovered in neighbouring [[East Timor]], showing that 42,000 years ago, these early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pasthorizonspr.com/index.php/archives/11/2011/evidence-of-42000-year-old-deep-sea-fishing-revealed|title=Evidence of 42,000 year old deep sea fishing revealed : Archaeology News from Past Horizons|publisher=Pasthorizonspr.com|access-date=28 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515133750/http://www.pasthorizonspr.com/index.php/archives/11/2011/evidence-of-42000-year-old-deep-sea-fishing-revealed|archive-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

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| image2            = Maros_hunting_scene.png
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| caption2          = Redrawing of hunting scene from the Caves in the Maros-Pangkep karst
| image1            = Pig-deer print paintings in Pettakere Cave, Maros.jpg
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| caption1          = Cave paintings depicting a wild boar hunt in the [[Caves in the Maros-Pangkep karst|Maros-Pangkep karst]] of Sulawesi are estimated to be at least 43,900 years old. This finding was recognized as "the oldest known depiction of [[storytelling]] and the earliest instance of figurative art in human history.”
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[[File:Leang Tedongnge rock art panel credit AA Oktaviana-01.jpg|thumb|In 2021, researchers discovered cave art in Leang Tedongnge, estimated to be at least 45,500 years old, making it the world’s oldest known representational artwork.]]
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of [[Lubang Jeriji Saléh]] on the Indonesian island of [[Borneo]].<ref name="NYT-20181107-cz">{{cite news|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Zimmer|title=In Cave in Borneo Jungle, Scientists Find Oldest Figurative Painting in the World – A cave drawing in Borneo is at least 40,000 years old, raising intriguing questions about creativity in ancient societies.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/science/oldest-cave-art-borneo.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/07/science/oldest-cave-art-borneo.html|archive-date=2022-01-03|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|date=7 November 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=8 November 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="NAT-20181107">{{cite journal|author=Aubert, M.|display-authors=et al|title=Palaeolithic cave art in Borneo|date=7 November 2018|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0679-9|pmid=30405242|volume=564 |issue=7735|pages=254–257 |bibcode=2018Natur.564..254A|s2cid=53208538}}</ref> The discovery of the cave paintings is important within human cultural history, as it adds to the view that cave art was created simultaneously in [[Indonesia]] and [[Europe]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rice |first1=Doyle|title=Earliest cave paintings of animal discovered in Indonesia, dating back 40,000 years|url=https://eu.usatoday.com/story/tech/science/2018/11/07/cave-art-worlds-oldest-paintings-animals-discovered-borneo/1922195002/|access-date=9 November 2018|work=USA TODAY |date=8 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Francesco d'Errico, an expert in prehistoric art at the [[University of Bordeaux]], described the investigation as a "major archaeological discovery".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rincon|first1=Paul|title='Oldest animal painting' discovered|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-46114423|access-date=8 November 2018|work=BBC News|date=7 November 2018}}</ref> On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world which is more than 44,000 years old from the [[Solutional cave|limestone cave]] of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=12 December 2019|title=Animal painting found in cave is 44,000 years old|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50754303|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217194552/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50754303 |archive-date=17 December 2020 |access-date=26 April 2020|work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Hannah Devlin |date=11 December 2019|title=Earliest known cave art by modern humans found in Indonesia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/dec/11/earliest-known-cave-art-by-modern-humans-found-in-indonesia|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218090143/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/dec/11/earliest-known-cave-art-by-modern-humans-found-in-indonesia |archive-date=18 December 2020|access-date=26 April 2020|work=The Guardian|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Guarino|first1=Ben |title=The oldest story ever told is painted on this cave wall, archaeologists report|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/12/11/oldest-story-ever-told-is-painted-this-cave-wall-archaeologists-report/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321191052/https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/12/11/oldest-story-ever-told-is-painted-this-cave-wall-archaeologists-report/|archive-date=21 March 2020|access-date=26 April 2020|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en}}</ref>

An elaborate 4.5 m long [[Prehistoric Indonesia#Rock art|rock art]] panel in a limestone cave at Leang Bulu' in [[Sulawesi]] is currently considered the earliest figurative artwork in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aubert|first1=Maxime|last2=Lebe|first2=Rustan|last3=Oktaviana|first3=Adhi Agus|last4=Tang|first4=Muhammad|last5=Burhan|first5=Basran|last6=Hamrullah|last7=Jusdi|first7=Andi|last8=Abdullah|last9=Hakim|first9=Budianto|last10=Zhao|first10=Jian-xin|last11=Geria|first11=I. Made|date=11 December 2019|title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y|journal=Nature|volume=576|issue=7787|pages=442–445|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y|pmid=31827284|bibcode=2019Natur.576..442A|s2cid=209311825|issn=0028-0836|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033850/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1806-y|url-status=live}}</ref> It portrays several figures hunting wild pigs and dwarf bovids. This rock art was dated to at least 43,900 years ago on the basis of uranium-series analysis of overlying [[speleothem]]s. A painted hand stencil from Leang Timpuseng, which has a minimum age of 39,900 years, is now the oldest known hand stencil in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aubert|first1=M.|last2=Brumm|first2=A.|last3=Ramli|first3=M.|last4=Sutikna|first4=T.|last5=Saptomo|first5=E. W.|last6=Hakim|first6=B.|last7=Morwood|first7=M. J.|last8=van den Bergh|first8=G. D.|last9=Kinsley|first9=L.|last10=Dosseto|first10=A.|date=2014|title=Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature13422|journal=Nature|volume=514|issue=7521|pages=223–227|doi=10.1038/nature13422|pmid=25297435|bibcode=2014Natur.514..223A|s2cid=2725838|issn=0028-0836|access-date=3 October 2021|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033851/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13422|url-status=live}}</ref> Discoveries in 2021 revealed that another cave, Leang Tedongnge, has cave art with a minimum age of 45,500 years old, which makes it the earliest known representational work of art in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brumm |first1=Adam |last2=Oktaviana |first2=Adhi Agus |last3=Burhan |first3=Basran |last4=Hakim |first4=Budianto |last5=Lebe |first5=Rustan |last6=Zhao |first6=Jian-xin |last7=Sulistyarto |first7=Priyatno Hadi |last8=Ririmasse |first8=Marlon |last9=Adhityatama |first9=Shinatria |last10=Sumantri |first10=Iwan |last11=Aubert |first11=Maxime |date=2021-01-15 |title=Oldest cave art found in Sulawesi |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abd4648 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=7806210 |pmid=33523879|bibcode=2021SciA....7.4648B}}</ref> On July 3, 2024, the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published research findings indicating that the cave paintings which depict [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] figures interacting with a pig and measure {{convert|36|by|15|in|cm}} in [[Karampuang cave|Leang Karampuang]] are approximately 51,200 years old, establishing them as the oldest known paintings in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oktaviana |first1=Adhi Agus |last2=Joannes-Boyau |first2=Renaud |last3=Hakim |first3=Budianto |last4=Burhan |first4=Basran |last5=Sardi |first5=Ratno |last6=Adhityatama |first6=Shinatria |last7=Hamrullah |last8=Sumantri |first8=Iwan |last9=Tang |first9=M. |last10=Lebe |first10=Rustan |last11=Ilyas |first11=Imran |last12=Abbas |first12=Abdullah |last13=Jusdi |first13=Andi |last14=Mahardian |first14=Dewangga Eka |last15=Noerwidi |first15=Sofwan |date=2024-07-03 |title=Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=631 |issue=8022 |pages=814–818 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free |pmid=38961284 |pmc=11269172 |bibcode=2024Natur.631..814O}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Harris |first=Garreth |date=2024-07-04 |title=Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave |url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave |access-date=2024-07-05 |website=The Art Newspaper}}</ref>

[[Austronesian people]] form the majority of the modern population. They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000&nbsp;BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan.<ref>{{harvp|Taylor|2003|pp=5–7}}</ref> During this period, parts of Indonesia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, with outlets in [[Kalimantan]] which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref> [[Dong Son culture]] spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]], ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, [[megalithic]] practises, and [[ikat]] weaving methods. Some of these practices remain in areas including the [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] areas of Sumatra, [[Toraja]] in Sulawesi, and several islands in [[Nusa Tenggara]]. Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead believing their souls or life force could still help the living.

[[File:Bali panorama.jpg|thumb|left|Example of [[Terrace (earthworks)|rice terraces]] in Indonesia]]

Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of [[Paddy field|wet-field rice cultivation]] as early as the 8th century BCE,<ref>{{harvp|Taylor|2003|pp=8–9}}</ref><!--BCE is correct, not CE!--> allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions. Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well-organized society, in contrast to the society based on [[Upland rice|dry-field rice]], which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does not require an elaborate social structure to support it.

[[Buni culture]] clay pottery flourished in coastal northern [[West Java]] and [[Banten]] around 400 BCE to 100 CE.<ref name="Zahorka-2007">{{cite book| last = Zahorka| first = Herwig| publisher = Yayasan cipta Loka Caraka| title = The Sunda Kingdoms of West Java, From Tarumanagara to Pakuan Pajajaran with Royal Center of Bogor, Over 1000 Years of Propsperity and Glory| year = 2007}}</ref> The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of the [[Tarumanagara]] kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java.

==Hindu-Buddhist civilizations==
===Early kingdoms===
[[Image:Prasasti tugu.jpg|thumb|left|upright|1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of [[Tarumanagara]], founded in Tugu sub-district of [[Jakarta]]]]

Much of Indonesia, like much of Southeast Asia, were influenced by [[Indian culture]].<ref name="Becoming Indian p.125">Becoming Indian: The Unfinished Revolution of Culture and Identity by Pavan K. Varma p.125</ref> From the 2nd century, through the Indian dynasties like the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]], [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]], [[Pala Empire|Pala]] and [[Chola Empire|Chola]] in the succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia.<ref name="Becoming Indian p.125"/>

References to the Dvipantara or [[Java|Yawadvipa]], a [[Hindu]] kingdom in [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In [[India]]'s earliest epic, the [[Ramayana]], [[Sugriva]], the chief of [[Rama]]'s army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of [[Sita]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&dq=Yawadvipa+is+mentioned+in+India%27s+earliest+epic%2C+the+Ramayana&pg=PA465 |title=History of Ancient India Kapur, Kamlesh |isbn=9788120749108 |access-date=15 March 2023 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017143431/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&dq=Yawadvipa+is+mentioned+in+India%27s+earliest+epic%2C+the+Ramayana&pg=PA465 |url-status=live |author1=Kapur |author2=Kamlesh |date=11 November 2023 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt.}}</ref> According to the ancient [[Tamil language|Tamil]] text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.<ref>Hindu culture in ancient India by Sekharipuram Vaidyanatha Viswanatha p.177</ref><ref>Tamil Literature by M. S. Purnalingam Pillai p.46</ref><ref>The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai p.11</ref> The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early [[Hindu]] statue of [[Ganesha]] estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in [[Panaitan]] island. There is also archaeological evidence of [[Sunda Kingdom]] in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and [[Jiwa Temple]] in [[Batujaya Archaeological Site|Batujaya]], Karawang, [[West Java]] was probably built around this time. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] in the 4th and 5th centuries.<ref>History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. by Sigfried J. de Laet p.395</ref> and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo.

A number of [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Seven rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in [[Kutai]], [[East Kalimantan]], near the [[Mahakam River]] known as the [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Yupa inscription]] or "Mulavarman Inscription" believed to be one of the earliest [[Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world|Sanskrit inscriptions of Indonesia]], the plinths were written by [[Brahmins]] in the [[Sanskrit]] language using the [[Pallava script]] of India recalling of a generous king by the name of [[Mulavarman]] who donated a huge amount of [[alms]] to Brahmin priests in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the [[Kutai#History|Kutai Martadipura Kingdom]] located in present [[East Kalimantan]] Province, believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom of Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iphedia.com/2019/12/the-three-oldest-hindu-kingdoms-in.html|title=Three Oldest Hindu Kingdoms in Indonesia|publisher=www.iphedia.com|access-date=29 August 2021|archive-date=10 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310123526/https://www.iphedia.com/2019/12/the-three-oldest-hindu-kingdoms-in.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Tarumanagara and Sunda===
{{Main|Tarumanagara Kingdom|Sunda Kingdom}}

One such early kingdom was [[Tarumanagara]], which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located in [[West Java]] close to modern-day [[Jakarta]], its 5th-century king, [[Purnawarman]], established the earliest known inscriptions in [[Java island|Java]], the [[Ciaruteun inscription]] located near [[Bogor]]. And other inscriptions called the [[Pasir Awi inscription]] and the [[Muncul inscription]]. On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is written in Pallava script and in [[Sanskrit]] and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with [[Vishnu]], and [[Brahmin]]s ritually secured the hydraulic project.<ref>Mary Somers Heidhues. ''Southeast Asia: A Concise History''. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000. Pp. 45 and 63.</ref>

[[File:Panoramic views of Borobudur.jpg|thumb|right|8th-century [[Borobudur]] Buddhist monument, [[Sailendra]] dynasty, is the largest [[Buddhist temple]] in the world.]]

Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the [[Kalingga Kingdom]] was established in [[Central Java]] northern coast, mentioned in Chinese account.<ref>{{cite book |author=R. Soekmono |title=Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 | publisher = Penerbit Kanisius |orig-year=1973 |edition=5th reprint |year=1988 |location=Yogyakarta |page=37}}</ref> The name of this kingdom was derived from ancient [[India]]n kingdom of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], which suggest the ancient link between India and Indonesia.

The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE) around centuries was dominated by [[Srivijaya]] based in Sumatra and [[Sailendra]] that dominated southeast Asia based in Java and constructed [[Borobudur]], the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated this period; [[Majapahit]] in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and [[Malacca Sultanate|Malacca]] on the west coast of the [[Malay Peninsula]], arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading empires,<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, p. 15"/> this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago.

===Mataram===
{{Main|Mataram Kingdom}}
[[File:Prambanan Temple, around sunrise, 23 November 2013.jpg|thumb|left|[[Prambanan]] in [[Java (island)|Java]] was built during the [[Sanjaya dynasty]] of [[Mataram Kingdom]]; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia.]]

[[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram Empire]], sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom,<ref>Kusumayudha S.B., Murwanto H., Sutarto, Choiriyah S.U. (2019) [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-02032-3_8#citeas Volcanic Disaster and the Decline of Mataram Kingdom in the Central Java, Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801235040/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-02032-3_8#citeas |date=1 August 2020}}. In: Wasowski J., Dijkstra T. (eds) Recent Research on Engineering Geology and Geological Engineering. GeoMEast 2018. Sustainable Civil Infrastructures. Springer, Cham</ref> was an [[Indianized kingdom]] based in Central Java around modern-day [[Yogyakarta]] between the 8th and 10th centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the [[Sailendra]] dynasty, and later by the [[Sanjaya dynasty]]. The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by [[Mpu Sindok]]. An eruption of the volcano [[Mount Merapi]] in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based in the [[Srivijaya Empire]] may have caused the move.

The first king of [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], [[Sri Sanjaya]], left [[Canggal inscription|inscriptions in stone]].<ref name="holing">{{cite journal |journal=Indonesia |title=In Search of "Ho-Ling" |author=W. J. van der Meulen| volume=23 |issue=23 |year=1977 |pages=87–112 |doi=10.2307/3350886|jstor=3350886}}</ref> The monumental Hindu temple of [[Prambanan]] in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by [[Rakai Pikatan|Pikatan]]. [[Dharmawangsa]] ordered the translation of the [[Mahabharata]] into [[Old Javanese]] in 996.

In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture. A rapid increase in [[Candi of Indonesia|temple construction]] occurred across the landscape of its heartland in [[Yogyakarta|Mataram]] ([[Kedu Plain|Kedu]] and [[Kewu Plain]]). The most notable temples constructed in Mataram are [[Kalasan]], [[Sewu]], [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]]. The Empire had become the supreme power not only in [[Java]] but also over [[Srivijaya|Srivijayan Empire]], [[Bali]], [[Ligor|southern Thailand]], some [[Philippine]] kingdoms, and [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] in [[Cambodia]].<ref>Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella, ed. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-0368-1}}.</ref>

[[File:Candi_Sewu_viewed_from_the_south,_23_November_2013.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sewu]] temple in [[Special Region of Yogyakarta]]]]

Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion, the [[Shailendra dynasty|Buddhist]] and [[Sanjaya dynasty|Shivaist]] dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion. The [[Sanjaya dynasty|Shivaist dynasty]] of Mataram kingdom in [[Java]] led by [[Rakai Pikatan]] and the [[Shailendra dynasty|Buddhist dynasty]] of [[Srivijaya]] kingdom in [[Sumatra]] led by [[Balaputradewa]]. The hostility between them didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in [[Jombang Regency|Watugaluh]], Java. Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result. Yet the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then descended to [[Kahuripan|Kahuripan kingdom]] led by [[Airlangga]] son of [[Udayana]] of [[Bali]].<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=23}}</ref>

===Srivijaya===
{{Main|Srivijaya}}

[[Srivijaya]] was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. From the 7th century, the powerful [[Srivijaya]] naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.<ref>{{harvp|Taylor|2003|pp=22–26}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=3}}</ref>

Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day [[Palembang]]. Srivijaya was not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance.<ref name="Ricklefs_19">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=19}}</ref> Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland.<ref name="Ricklefs_19"/> It was a [[thalassocracy]] and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history.<ref name="Ricklefs_12">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=12}}</ref> The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through the [[Strait of Malacca]].<ref name="Ricklefs_12"/>

{{multiple image
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| image2            = Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa.jpg
| width2            = 105
| caption2          = The depiction of [[Sri Jayanasa of Srivijaya|Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]], the first king of Srivijaya
| image1            = Srivijayan Expansion.gif
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| caption1          = The territory of the Srivijaya empire. Historically, Srivijaya was one of the largest kingdoms in [[Southeast Asia]].
}}

By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka.<ref name="Ricklefs_12"/> Around this time, Srivijaya had established [[suzerainty]] over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref name="LOC">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite encyclopedia|title=Indonesia: a country study|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|last=Seekins|first=Donald M.|series=Area handbook series1057-5294|date=1993|editor1-last=Frederick|editor1-first=William H.|edition=5th|isbn=9780844407906|entry=Indianized empires|editor2-first=Robert L.|editor2-last=Worden|access-date=25 September 2022|archive-date=9 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209105017/https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038834|url-status=live}}}}</ref> Dominating the Malacca and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda straits]], the empire controlled both the [[Spice Route]] traffic and local trade.<ref name="LOC" /> It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century.<ref name="LOC" /> This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western [[Borneo]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Andaya |first=Leonard Y. |date=2001 |title=The Search for the 'Origins' of Melayu |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072349 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=315–330 |doi=10.1017/S0022463401000169 |jstor=20072349 |s2cid=62886471 |issn=0022-4634 |access-date=14 November 2022 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114163756/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072349 |url-status=live}}</ref> A stronghold of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]], Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.<ref name="LOC" />

The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola Empire]] of south India was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]] but during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref> A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first [[Singhasari]] and then [[Majapahit]]. Islam eventually made its way to the [[Aceh]] region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with [[Arab]]s and [[India]]n traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of [[Pasai]] in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]], the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] on the Malay peninsula.

===Singhasari and Majapahit===
{{Main|Singhasari|Majapahit}}
{{multiple image
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| caption1          = Expansion of the Majapahit empire extended to much of the Indonesian archipelago until it receded and fell in the early 16th century.
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Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, p. 15">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=15}}</ref> The Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under [[Gajah Mada]] it experienced what is often referred to as a [[Golden age (metaphor)|golden age]] in Indonesian history,<ref>{{cite journal |title=The next great empire |author=Peter Lewis |journal=Futures |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=1982 |pages=47–61 |doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref> when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali<ref name="Cribb">{{cite book |title=Historical Atlas of Indonesia |first=Robert |last=Cribb |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781136780578 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&q=nature+of+majapahit+influence&pg=PA87 |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033854/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&q=nature+of+majapahit+influence&pg=PA87#v=snippet&q=nature%20of%20majapahit%20influence&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> from about 1293 to around 1500.

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, [[Kertarajasa]], was the son-in-law of the ruler of the [[Singhasari]] kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of [[Kublai Khan]] in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. [[Kertanagara]], ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a [[punitive expedition]] which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]], Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the [[Mongols]] against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

[[Gajah Mada]], a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and [[proselytise]]rs began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of [[Bali]] at the end of Majapahit power.

==Islamic civilizations==
===Spread of Islam===
{{Main|Spread of Islam in Indonesia}}
[[File:Map of the Indian Ocean and the China Sea was engraved in 1728 by Ibrahim Müteferrika.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Indonesia; 1674–1745 by Khatib Çelebi, a geographer from the Ottoman Turks.]]

The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], according to those early accounts the Indonesian archipelago were famous among early [[Muslim]] sailors mainly due to its abundance of precious [[spice trade]] commodities such as [[nutmeg]], [[cloves]], [[galangal]] and many other spices.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/spice_geo.html#asia_southeast |title=Geographic Spice Index |publisher=Gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com |access-date=28 April 2013 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024548/http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com/engl/spice_geo.html#asia_southeast |url-status=live}}</ref>

Although Muslim traders first travelled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the [[The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)|spread of Islam]] among the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 3 to 14">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=3–14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/how-islam-came-to-dominate-indonesia-39182 |title=How Islam came to dominate Indonesia |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922081003/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/how-islam-came-to-dominate-indonesia-39182 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 3 to 14"/> The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 12–14">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=12–14}}</ref>

Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in [[Java]] and Sumatra by the end of the 7th until 13th century.<ref name="sejarahkerajaanislam"/> For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 12–14"/> Only [[Bali]] retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 12–14"/>

===Sultanate of Mataram===
{{Main|Sultanate of Mataram}}
[[File:Gapura Masjid Agung Kotagede.jpg|thumb|right|Gate of [[Kotagede|Masjid Agung Kotagede]] Mosque]]

The Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the [[Sultanate of Demak|Sultanate of Demak Bintoro]] and the Sultanate of Pajang.<ref name="SA">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Southeast Asian dynasties|last=Tiwary, S. S. (Shiv Shanker)|date=2008|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=9788126137244|pages=20|oclc=277277195}}</ref>

According to Javanese records, Kyai [[Gedhe Pamanahan of Mataram|Gedhe Pamanahan]] became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of [[Pajang]] to the east, near the current site of [[Surakarta]] (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A concise history of Islam|author1=Ḥusain, Muẓaffar |author2=Akhtar, Syed Saud |author3=Usmani, B. D.|isbn=9789382573470|location=New Delhi|publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited|pages=336|oclc=868069299|date = 14 September 2011}}</ref>

Pamanahan's son, Panembahan [[Senapati of Mataram|Senapati]], replaced his father on the throne around 1584. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbours. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.<ref name="SA" />

The reign of Panembahan [[Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram|Seda ing Krapyak]] (Suhusunan Anyakrawati) (''c.'' 1601–1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful [[Surabaya]], already a major centre in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613. Krapyak died that year.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia, c. 1300 to the present|last=Ricklefs, M. C. (Merle Calvin)|date=1981|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0333243781|pages=40|oclc=8205362}}</ref>[[File:Ruine van de Dalam van Bantam.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the Sultanate of Banten Palace in 1859]]Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as [[Sultan Agung of Mataram|Sultan Agung]] ("Great [[Sultan]]") in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646.

===Sultanate of Banten===
{{Main|The Sultanate of Banten}}

In 1524–25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of [[Demak Sultanate]], seized the port of Banten from the [[Sunda kingdom]], and established [[The Sultanate of Banten]]. This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population. At its peak in the first half of the 17th century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD. The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records.<ref>{{cite book | last =Guillot | first =Claude | publisher= Gramedia Book Publishing Division | title = The Sultanate of Banten | year =1990|page =17}}</ref>

==European colonization==
[[File:Andries Beeckman - The Castle of Batavia.jpg|thumb|left|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), [[Java]], c. 1665 CE.]]

Beginning in the 16th century, successive waves of Europeans—the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], Spanish, Dutch and English—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in [[India]] and the 'Spice Islands' ([[Maluku Islands|Maluku]]) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] outlet in the [[Mediterranean]], monopolised spice imports to Europe. Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Spices and Their Costs in Medieval Europe|url=https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/munro5/SPICES1.htm|access-date=21 June 2020|website=www.economics.utoronto.ca|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030163425/https://www.economics.utoronto.ca/munro5/SPICES1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history. Other scholars consider this view untenable,<ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=22}}</ref> arguing that European influence during the times of the early arrivals of the 16th and 17th centuries was limited in both area and depth. This is in part due to Europe not being the most advanced or dynamic area of the world in the early 15th century. Rather, the major expansionist force of this time was Islam; in 1453, for example, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] conquered [[Constantinople]], while Islam continued to spread through Indonesia and the [[Philippines]]. European influence, particularly that of the Dutch, would not have its greatest impact on Indonesia until the 18th and 19th centuries.

===The Portuguese===
{{Main|Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago{{!}}Portuguese colonialism in Indonesian history}}
[[Image:Myristica fragrans - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-097.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[nutmeg]] plant is native to Indonesia's [[Banda Islands]]. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.]]

Newfound Portuguese expertise in navigation, shipbuilding and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered [[Malacca]] in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices<ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|pp=22–24}}</ref> and to extend the [[Catholic missions|Catholic Church's missionary]] efforts. The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions on the islands of [[Ternate]], [[Ambon Island|Ambon]], and [[Solor]] among others. The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came in the latter half of the 16th century. Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, [[Flores]] and [[East Timor|Timor]] in modern-day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region.<ref name="MILLER_XV">{{cite book | editor-last =Miller | editor-first =George | title =To The Spice Islands and Beyond: Travels in Eastern Indonesia | publisher =Oxford University Press | year =1996 | location =New York| pages =xv | isbn = 978-967-65-3099-8}}</ref> In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small: the romantic ''[[keroncong]]'' guitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect [[Portuguese language|Portuguese's]] role as the ''lingua franca'' of the archipelago alongside [[Malay language|Malay]]; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc. The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of [[Malacca]], and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia. There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 22 to 26">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|pp=22–26}}</ref>

===Dutch East India Company===
{{Main|Dutch East India Company in Indonesia}}
[[Image:Java-Map.jpg|thumb|left|An early 18th-century Dutch map from a time when only the north coastal ports of Java were well known to the Dutch]]

In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day [[Jakarta]]). The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of [[Java (island)|Java]] in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram]] and [[Banten]].

The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality, and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the richest colonial possessions on earth.<ref name="Ricklefs 1991, pages 22 to 26"/>
[[File:Ternate Bali Bugis soldiers.jpg|thumb|From left to right: [[Ternate]], [[Bali]] and [[Bugis]] soldiers, European illustration from the 17th century]]
By the mid-17th century, Batavia, the headquarter of VOC in Asia, had become an important trade centre in the region. It had [[Siege of Batavia|repelled attacks]] from the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram kingdom]]. In 1641, the Dutch [[Battle of Malacca (1641)|captured Malacca]] from the Portuguese, thus weakened Portuguese position in Asia. The Dutch defeated the Sulawesi city of [[Makassar]] in 1667 thus bringing its trade under VOC control. Sumatran ports were also brought under VOC control and the last of the Portuguese were expelled in 1660. In return for monopoly control over the pepper trade and the expulsion of the English, the Dutch helped the son of the ruler of Banten overthrow his father in 1680. By the 18th century, the VOC has established themselves firmly in Indonesian archipelago, controlling inter-island trade as part of their Asian business which includes India, Ceylon, Formosa, and Japan. VOC has established their important bases in some ports in Java, Maluku, and parts of Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula.

===French and British interlude===
{{Main|French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies}}
[[Image:Java Great Post Road.svg|thumb|right|The Java [[Great Post Road]], commissioned by Daendels]]

After the fall of the [[Netherlands]] to the [[First French Empire]] and the dissolution of the [[Dutch East India Company]] in 1800, there were profound changes in the European colonial administration of the East Indies. The company's assets in East Indies were nationalised as the Dutch colony, the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Meanwhile, [[Europe]] was devastated by the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In the Netherlands, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in 1806 oversaw the dissolution of the [[Batavian Republic]], which was replaced by the [[Kingdom of Holland]], a French puppet kingdom ruled by Napoleon's third brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] (Lodewijk Napoleon). The East Indies were treated as a proxy French colony, administered through a Dutch intermediary.

In 1806, King [[Louis Bonaparte|Lodewijk]] of the Netherlands sent one of his generals, [[Herman Willem Daendels]], to serve as governor-general of the East Indies, based in Java. Daendels was sent to strengthen Javanese defences against a predicted British invasion. Since 1685, the British had had a presence in [[British Bencoolen|Bencoolen]] on the western coast of Sumatra, as well as several posts north of the Malaccan straits. Daendels was responsible for the construction of the [[Great Post Road]] ({{langx|id|Jalan Raya Pos}}) across northern [[Java]] from [[Anyer|Anjer]] to [[East Java|Panaroecan]]. The thousand-kilometre road was meant as to ease logistics across Java and was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.<ref>Pramoedya sheds light on dark side of Daendels' highway. ''The Jakarta Post'' 8 January 2006.</ref> In 1811, Java was captured by the British, becoming a possession of the British Empire, and [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]] was appointed as the island's governor. Raffles launched several military expeditions against local Javanese princes; such as the assault on [[Sultanate of Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] [[Kraton (Indonesia)|kraton]] on 21 June 1812, and the military expedition against Sultan [[Mahmud Badaruddin II]] of Palembang, along with giving orders to seize the nearby [[Bangka Island]].<ref>Ricklefs, M. C. ''A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200'', 4th Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008</ref><ref>Carey, Peter, The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the End of an Old Order in Java, 1785–1855, 2008</ref> During his administration, numbers of [[Candi of Indonesia|ancient monuments]] in Java were rediscovered, excavated and systematically catalogued for the first time, the most important one being the rediscovery of [[Borobudur]] Buddhist temple in Central Java.<ref>{{cite book|last=Noltie |first= Henry|title=Raffles' Ark Redrawn: Natural History Drawings from the Collection of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles|pages=19–20|publisher=British Library & Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh|place=London & Edinburgh|year=2009}}</ref><ref>Kern, H., (1917), ''Steen van den berg Pananggungan (Soerabaja), thans in’t India Museum te Calcutta'', Verspreide Gescriften VII, 85–114, Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff.</ref> Raffles was an enthusiast of the island's history, as he wrote the book ''[[The History of Java]]'' published later in 1817. In 1816, under the administration of British governor [[John Fendall Jr.|John Fendall]], Java was returned to control of the Netherlands as per the terms of the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=H. R. C. |date=1950 |title=The Anglo-Dutch Dispute in the East, 1814–1824 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2590770 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=229–239 |doi=10.2307/2590770 |jstor=2590770 |issn=0013-0117 |access-date=15 November 2022 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110033953/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590770?origin=crossref |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannigan |first=Tim |title=Raffles and the British invasion of Java |publisher=Singapore: Monsoon Books Pte Ltd. |year=2012 |isbn=978-981-4358-85-9 |edition=4th |pages=229}}</ref>

===Dutch state rule===
{{See also|Dutch East Indies}}
[[Image:Batavia tea warehouse.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jakarta|Batavian (Jakarta)]] tea factory in the 1860s]]

After the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy,<ref name="RICKLEFSp24">{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=24}}</ref> and after the end of British rule under Raffles' governorship, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the [[Java War]] of 1825–1830. After 1830, a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the [[Cultivation System]] (in Dutch: ''cultuurstelsel''). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian allies enormous wealth. The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government-owned plantations for 60 days of the year. The system was abolished in [[Liberal Period (Dutch East Indies)|a more liberal period]] after 1870. In 1901, the Dutch adopted what they called the [[Dutch Ethical Policy and Indonesian National Revival|Ethical Policy]], which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms.

[[File:1916 Dutch East Indies - Art.jpg|thumb|upright|Dutch imperial painting depicting the Dutch East Indies as "our most precious gem" (1916)]]

The Dutch colonials formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers, and pioneers. They lived together with the "natives", but at the top of a rigid social and racial [[caste system]].<ref>{{harvp|Vickers|2005|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Reid|1974|pp=170–171}}</ref> The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.tongtong.nl/indische-school/contentdownloads/tjiook_09web.pdf|last=Cordes |first=Jan Willem Cornelis|title=De Privaatrechterlijke Toestand: Der Vreemde Oosterlingen Op Java En Madoera ''(Don't know how to translate this, the secret? private? hinterland. Java and Madoera)''|year=2008|publisher= Bibiliobazaar|isbn= 978-0-559-23498-9|language=nl|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724170817/http://www.tongtong.nl/indische-school/contentdownloads/tjiook_09web.pdf|archive-date=24 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy, pumping wages into local areas, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950, Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000&nbsp;km of asphalted surface, 41,000&nbsp;km of metalled road area and 16,000&nbsp;km of gravel surfaces.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ten Horn-van Nispen |first1=Marie-Louise |last2=Ravesteijn |first2=Wim |year=2009 |title=The road to an empire: Organisation and technology of road construction in the Dutch East Indies, 1800–1940 |journal=Journal of Transport History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=40–57 |doi=10.7227/TJTH.30.1.5 |s2cid=110005354}}</ref> In addition the Dutch built {{convert|7,500|km|mi}} of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the economic base of the colonial state; after independence, they became the basis of the Indonesian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ravesteijn |first=Wim |date=2007 |title=Between Globalization and Localization: The Case of Dutch Civil Engineering in Indonesia, 1800–1950 |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/comparative_technology_transfer_and_society/v005/5.1ravesteijn.html |journal=Comparative Technology Transfer and Society |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=32–64 |doi=10.1353/ctt.2007.0017 |s2cid=145543172 |issn=1543-3404}}</ref>

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. In some cases, Dutch police and military actions in parts of Indonesia were quite cruel. Recent discussions, for example, of Dutch cruelty in [[Aceh]] have encouraged renewed research on these aspects of Dutch rule.<ref>Linawati Sidarto, 'Images of a grisly past', ''The Jakarta Post: Weekender'', July 2011 {{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |title=Grisly Images &#124; the Jakarta Post |access-date=26 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627150918/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/06/23/grisly-images.html |archive-date=27 June 2011}}</ref> It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state.<ref name="dutch explanation">Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as [[Prince Diponegoro]] in central Java, [[Imam Bonjol]] in central Sumatra and [[Pattimura]] in [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and a bloody [[Aceh War|thirty-year war in Aceh]] weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. (Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the [[Indonesian National Revolution|National Revolution]], Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.</ref> [[Portuguese Timor]], now [[East Timor]], remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded by Indonesia]]. The Indonesian government declared the territory [[East Timor (province)|an Indonesian province]] but relinquished it in 1999.

==Emergence of Indonesia==
===Indonesian National Awakening===
{{Main|Indonesian National Awakening}}
[[Image:Soekarno.jpg|thumb|upright|Sukarno, Indonesian Nationalist leader, and later, first president of Indonesia]]

In October 1908, the first nationalist movement was formed, [[Budi Utomo]].<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=118}}</ref> On 10 September 1912, the first nationalist mass movement was formed: [[Sarekat Islam]].<ref name="Brown_2003_119">{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=119}}</ref> By December 1912, Sarekat Islam had 93,000 members.<ref name="Brown_2003_119"/> The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. In the post–World War I era, the Indonesian communists who were associated with the [[Third International]] started to usurp the nationalist movement.<ref>C. Hartley Grattan, ''The Southwest Pacific since 1900'' (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1963) p. 452.</ref> The repression of the nationalist movement led to many arrests, including Indonesia's first president, [[Sukarno]] (1901–70), who was imprisoned for political activities on 29 December 1929.<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=129}}</ref> Also arrested was [[Mohammad Hatta]], first vice-president of Indonesia.<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=188}}</ref> Additionally, Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, was arrested on this date.<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=123}}</ref>

In 1914 the exiled Dutch socialist [[Henk Sneevliet]] founded the [[Indies Social Democratic Association]]. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) in 1924.<ref name="Kahin_84">{{harvp|Kahin|1952|p=84}}</ref> In the post–World War I era, the Dutch strongly repressed all attempts at change. This repression led to a growth of the PKI. By December 1924, the PKI had a membership of 1,140.<ref name="Kahin_84"/> One year later in 1925, the PKI had grown to 3,000 members.<ref name="Kahin_84"/> From 1926 to 1927, there was a PKI-led revolt against Dutch colonialism and the harsh repression of strikes of urban workers.<ref name="Kahin_86">{{harvp|Kahin|1952|p=86}}</ref> However, the strikes and the revolt was put down by the Dutch with some 13,000 nationalists and communists leaders were arrested.<ref name="Kahin_86"/> Some 4,500 were given prison sentences.<ref name="Kahin_86"/>

Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931 <ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=131}}</ref> but was re-arrested on 1 August 1933.<ref>{{harvp|Brown|2003|p=132}}</ref>

===Japanese occupation===
{{Main|Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Japanese troops move through Java.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese [[bicycle infantry]] move through [[Java]] during their [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|occupation of the Dutch East Indies]].]]

The [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|Japanese invasion]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|subsequent occupation]] during World War II interrupted Dutch rule<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves |journal=Eighteenth-Century Studies |volume=31 |issue=3 |author=Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman |pages=349–355 |year=1998 |doi=10.1353/ecs.1998.0021 |hdl=20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092 |s2cid=161921454 |url= https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/en/publications/dutch-attitudes-towards-colonial-empires-indigenous-cultures-and-slaves(c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092).html |hdl-access=free |access-date=1 September 2020 |archive-date=19 February 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200219162307/https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/en/publications/dutch-attitudes-towards-colonial-empires-indigenous-cultures-and-slaves(c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092).html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|}}</ref> and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in [[World War II]], [[Nazi Germany]] occupied the Netherlands, but the [[Dutch government-in-exile]] initially continued to control the Dutch East Indies from its base in London. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July 1940 redirected exports intended for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year.<ref>Klemen, L. 1999–2000, ''The Netherlands East Indies 1941–42'', "[http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html |date=26 July 2011}}".</ref> That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The Japanese military defeated last Dutch forces in the East Indies in March 1942.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM In de haven van Kupang (Timor) luisteren de Japanse bevelhebber kolonel Kaida Tatuichi en zijn stafcommandant majoor Muiosu Slioji aan dek van H TMnr 10001519.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese commanders in the Dutch East Indies during the surrender]]

In July 1942, [[Sukarno]] accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. Sukarno and [[Mohammad Hatta]] were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Dutch East Indies varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced [[torture]], [[sex slavery]], [[arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary arrest]] and execution, and other [[war crimes]]. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers ([[Rōmusha|romusha]]) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed [[Indo (Eurasian)|Dutch-Indonesian]] descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.

In March 1945, the Japanese established the [[Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence]] (BPUPK) as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the Japanese 16th Army.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kusuma |first1=A.B. |last2=Elson |first2=R.E. |title=A note on the sources for the 1945 constitutional debates in Indonesia |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=167 |issue=2–3 |pages=196–209 |year=2011 |issn=0006-2294 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003589 |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:273574/UQ273574_OA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422134305/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_273574/UQ273574_OA.pdf?Expires=1524464538&Signature=L7n~f5jz9q0h741ZL~vNRd~QtUAtS1InYrFAZUb19ckLhWAYjThRguUCnuhKxD6zey3TKO1Fo~yB0pEYRDuxNVvOhd~Iu3lqDxqJ6sznapxJqLFT3S8Cz4Tz2W6tQyAlEKsHQinSGyNNkF5DcSUGPCvYjKSCuw3aFzFfqU7~2Zynwq1ChMPUaq7ZBkpLslgSFRZEcwhBIuOncmnP55TWpnrZz5zFVMqAQ7HTx-~eR5hUAxa8xlb3d27F-cuXlf-7eYFW1ltIjPFUfRUj7Cb-w5xQO0oaxEabBSMVK3ChYS~NYZ2xQAPE8hjJYO65GQMFU3PrrtlKdtuqQdYABlmoJQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ |archive-date=22 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> At its first meeting in May, [[Soepomo]] spoke of national integration and against personal individualism, while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim [[British Borneo]], [[British Malaya]], [[Portuguese Timor]], and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the [[Constitution of Indonesia|1945 Constitution]], which remains in force, though now much amended. On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and [[Rajiman Wediodiningrat|Radjiman Wediodiningrat]] were flown to meet Marshal [[Hisaichi Terauchi]] in Vietnam. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August. After [[Surrender of Japan|the Japanese surrender]], however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed [[Indonesian independence]] on 17 August. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.<ref>Cited in: Dower, John W. ''War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War'' (1986; Pantheon; {{ISBN|0-394-75172-8}}).
</ref>

===Indonesian National Revolution===
{{Main|Indonesian National Revolution}}
[[File:Indonesian flag raised 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb|right|Indonesian flag raising shortly after the declaration of independence]]

Under pressure from radical and politicised ''pemuda'' ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta on behalf of the Nation proclaimed [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|Indonesian independence]] on 17 August 1945 from colonialism by foreign nations two days after the Japanese Emperor's [[Victory over Japan Day|surrender in the Pacific]], and made this nation an independent state, which has the right to govern its people and nation in accordance with the philosophy, character and spirit of the Indonesia nation itself.<ref name='prankerajaannusantara'>{{cite web|url=https://kagama.co/2022/11/09/peran-kerajaan-nusantara-dalam-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-indonesia/|title=Peran Kerajaan Nusantara dalam Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia|date=9 November 2022|website=kagama.co|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227060541/https://kagama.co/2022/11/09/peran-kerajaan-nusantara-dalam-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-indonesia/|archive-date=27 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno [[President of Indonesia|President]] and Hatta [[Vice President of Indonesia|Vice-President]].<ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=213}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Indonesia |author=H. J. Van Mook |author-link=Hubertus Johannes van Mook |journal=Royal Institute of International Affairs |year=1949 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=274–285 |doi=10.2307/3016666 |jstor=3016666}}</ref><ref name="Bidien">{{cite journal |title=Independence the Issue |journal=Far Eastern Survey |author=Charles Bidien |volume=14 |issue=24 |pages=345–348 |date=5 December 1945 |doi=10.2307/3023219 |jstor=3023219}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Taylor|2003|p=325}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Reid|1974|p=30}}</ref> Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese. In December 1946 the United Nations acknowledged<ref name="decolon">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/1/ares1.htm |title=United Nations General Assembly Session 1 Resolution 66 |access-date=16 September 2017 |publisher=United Nations |archive-date=9 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309163750/http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/1/ares1.htm |url-status=live}}; {{cite web |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/209781/files/A_RES_66%28I%29-EN.pdf |title=Transmission of Information under Article 73e of the Charter |access-date=16 September 2017 |publisher=United Nations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916053427/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/209781/files/A_RES_66%28I%29-EN.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> that Netherlands had advised the United Nations that the "Netherlands Indies" was a non-self-governing territory (colony) for which the Netherlands had a legal duty to make yearly reports and to assist towards "a full measure of self-government" as required by the ''[[Chapter XI of the United Nations Charter|Charter of the United Nations article 73]]''.

[[File:Sukarno speaking on podium, Impressions of the Fight ... in Indonesia, p8.jpg|thumb|left|360px|[[Sukarno]] speaking at the ''Rapat Akbar'' (grand meeting) on 19 September 1945]]

The Dutch, initially backed by the British, tried to re-establish their rule,{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-girdle-of-emeralds-dutch-colonial-rule-in-the-east-indies/ |title="The Girdle of Emeralds: Dutch colonial rule in the East Indies", August 1, 1995, Radio Netherlands Archives |work=Radio Netherlands Archives |date=August 1995 |access-date=28 December 2019 |archive-date=19 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019212248/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-girdle-of-emeralds-dutch-colonial-rule-in-the-east-indies/ |url-status=live}}</ref> the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.<ref name="Bidien"/> Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the [[Bersiap]] period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]), so the city of [[Yogyakarta]] in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance persisted, led on Java by commander [[Abdul Haris Nasution|Nasution]]. On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the [[Federal republic|federal]] structure of the [[United States of Indonesia]] (RUSI). With the unification of all the kingdoms in the archipelago on 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia until now.<ref name="VICKERS_xiii">{{harvp|Vickers|2005|p=xiii}}</ref><ref name='prankerajaannusantara'/>

==Sukarno's presidency==
===Democratic experiment===
{{Main|Liberal democracy period in Indonesia}}
[[Image:1955 Indonesian Election Posters.png|thumb|left|Campaign posters for the 1955 Indonesian election]]

With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination. Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions.<ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|p=237}}</ref><ref name="Witton_26_28">{{harvp|Witton|2003|pp=26–28}}</ref> Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant ''[[Darul Islam (Indonesia)|Darul Islam]]'' who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent [[Republic of South Maluku]] by [[Ambon Island|Ambonese]] formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961.

In contrast to the [[Constitution of Indonesia|1945 Constitution]], the [[Provisional Constitution of 1950|1950 constitution]] mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 [[United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-1-86373-635-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}</ref> A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. The long-postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; although the [[Indonesian National Party]] (PNI)—considered Sukarno's party—topped the poll, and the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) received strong support, no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short-lived coalitions.<ref name="Witton_26_28" />

===Guided Democracy===
{{Main|Guided Democracy in Indonesia}}
[[Image:Garuda Pancasila.jpg|thumb|right|National emblem of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted in 1950]]

By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was "based upon inherent conflict" which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state of human relationships. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He proposed a threefold blend of ''nasionalisme'' ('nationalism'), ''agama'' ('religion'), and ''komunisme'' ('communism') into a co-operative '[[Nasakom|Nas-A-Kom]]' government. This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics&nbsp;— the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957 a system of '[[Guided Democracy (1957-1965)|Guided Democracy]]', and proposed a cabinet representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI).<ref name="Witton_26_28"/> The US tried and failed to secretly overthrow the president, even though Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles|Dulles]] declared before Congress that "we are not interested in the internal affairs of this country."<ref>Weiner, Tim.[https://web.archive.org/web/20171214040730/http://www.komododreamland.com/ "Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA"]</ref>

Sukarno abrogated the [[Provisional Constitution of 1950|1950 Constitution]] on 9 July 1959 by a [[President Sukarno's 1959 Decree|decree]] dissolving the [[Constituent Assembly of Indonesia|Constitutional Assembly]] and restoring the 1945 [[Constitution of Indonesia|Constitution]].<ref name="Witton_26_28"/> The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the president. This dissolution of the constitutional assembly caused Sukarno to ban the [[Masyumi Party]] in August 1960.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akbarzadeh |first1=Shahram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8a8wefN4bd8C&q=political+islam+sukarno&pg=PA160 |title=Islam and Political Legitimacy |last2=Saeed |first2=Abdullah |date=2 September 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38056-5 |language=en}}</ref> Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to "mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people".<ref name="Witton_26_28"/> Western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the ''[[Reformasi (Indonesia)|Reformasi]]'' era.<ref name="Witton_26_28"/>

===Sukarno's revolution and nationalism===
<!-- Need to find a place for these refs: The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligned first with the emerging [[non-aligned movement]] and later with the socialist bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] against neighbouring [[Malaysia]], and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties.<ref>Jones, Matthew.[http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0511056990 "Conflict and Confrontation in South East Asia, 1961–1965"]. Press release.</ref> Army general [[Suharto]] became president in 1967 on the pretext of securing the country against an alleged communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno, whose tilt leftward had alarmed both the military and Western powers. -->
Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism. Sukarno was popularly referred to as ''bung'' ("older brother"), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West.<ref name="Witton_28"/> He instigated a number of large, ideologically driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy.<ref name="Witton_28">{{harvp|Witton|2003|p=28}}</ref> More positively, various reforms in health, education<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8wqYZXyvCp8C&pg=PA177&dq=sukarno+reforms+health&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OyVqVcuKM4SfsAH0l4CICw&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=sukarno%20reforms%20health&f=false History in Literature: A Reader's Guide to 20th Century History and the Literature It Inspired, 2004, By Edward Quinn, P.177]</ref> and working conditions were carried out during Sukarno's presidency.<ref>[https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/37576 Tjandra, S. (2016, February 4). Labour law and development in Indonesia. Meijers-reeks. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/37576, P.41-44]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BU9sU7sG3DoC&dq=sukarno+worker+protections&pg=PA214 Globalization, Wages, and the Quality of Jobs: Five Country Studies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110034356/https://books.google.com/books?id=BU9sU7sG3DoC&dq=sukarno+worker+protections&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q=sukarno%20worker%20protections&f=false |date=10 November 2023}} edited by Raymond Robertson. Google Books.</ref>

[[Western New Guinea]] had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus [[West New Guinea dispute|claimed it]] on this basis. Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and [[Operation Trikora|military confrontation]] with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian-Soviet arms agreement in 1960. It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963.<ref name="Witton_29">{{harvp|Witton|2003|p=29}}</ref> Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced ''[[Konfrontasi]]'' with the new state of Malaysia. The northern states of Borneo, formerly British [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah]], had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful ruler of [[Austronesian peoples]] and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt in [[Brunei]].<ref name="Witton_29"/> Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno increased the anti-British sentiment in his rhetoric and mounted military offensives along the Indonesia-Malaysia border in Borneo. As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia.<ref name="Witton_29"/>

Indonesia's economic position deteriorated under Sukarno; by the mid-1960s, the cash-strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible [[Investment#Economics|investment]]. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread.<ref name="Witton_29" /><ref>Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57</ref>

==New Order==
{{Main|New Order (Indonesia)}}

===Transition to the New Order===
{{Main|Transition to the New Order}}
{{See also|30 September Movement|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66}}
[[File:Logo of the Communist Party of Indonesia.svg|thumb|left|upright|During the mid-20th century. It was the largest non-ruling communist party in the world before its eradication in 1965 and ban the following year.]]

Described as the great ''dalang'' ("puppet master"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]]. Sukarno's anti-imperialist ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.<ref>[[Julia Lovell]], ''Maoism: A Global History'' (2019) pp 151–84.</ref>

On 30 September 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were assassinated in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the [[30 September Movement]], backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, [[Suharto|Major General Suharto]], commander of the Army Strategic Reserve ([[Kostrad]]), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear that the coup, which had little co-ordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. [[30 September Movement#Theories about the 30 September Movement|Complicated and partisan theories]] continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]] administration. Although there is not broad agreement on who bears ultimate responsibility for the coup or even if there was really a single mastermind controlling all events, modern evidence has suggested at least a role played by Western intelligence agencies including the American [[Central Intelligence Agency]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Peter Dale |date=1985 |title=The United States and the Overthrow of Sukarno, 1965–1967 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2758262 |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=239–264 |doi=10.2307/2758262 |jstor=2758262 |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105210848/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2758262 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |date=20 October 2017 |title=What the United States Did in Indonesia |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/ |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the United Kingdom's [[MI6]].<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Paul Lashmar |author2=Nicholas Gilby |author3=James Oliver |date=17 October 2021 |title=Slaughter in Indonesia: Britain's secret propaganda war |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=the Guardian |language=en |archive-date=27 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227084505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war |url-status=live}}</ref>

The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, went on a violent [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|anti-communist purge]] across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed,<ref>{{harvp|Friend|2003|pp=107–109}}</ref><ref>{{cite video | people =Chris Hilton (writer and director) | title =Shadowplay | medium =Television documentary | publisher =Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ricklefs|1993|pp=280–284, 287–290}}</ref> and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and 1 million were killed.<ref>{{harvp|Robinson|2018|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Melvin|2018}}</ref><ref name="Friend_113">{{harvp|Friend|2003|p=113}}</ref> The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.<ref name="Friend_113"/> The United States and other Western powers facilitated and supported the purge.<ref>{{harvp|Robinson|2018|pp=177, 206–207}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Melvin|2018|pp=9–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent|authorlink=Vincent Bevins |title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |page=157 |isbn=978-1541742406}}</ref>

Throughout the 1965–66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI's demise. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to [[Suharto|General Suharto]], who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.

===Consolidation of the New Order===
[[Image:President Suharto, 1993.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Suharto]] was the military president of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998. His regime was marked by corruption, human rights abuses, and authoritarian rule.]]

In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters, with direct support from the United States.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bevins|first=Vincent|date=20 October 2017|title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|work=The Atlantic|access-date=12 July 2018|quote="the U.S. was part and parcel of the operation, strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI." – historian John Roosa|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428190633/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|title=Telegrams confirm scale of US complicity in 1965 genocide|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=20 October 2017|website=Indonesia at Melbourne|publisher=[[University of Melbourne]]|access-date=12 July 2018|quote=The new telegrams confirm the US actively encouraged and facilitated genocide in Indonesia to pursue its own political interests in the region, while propagating an explanation of the killings it knew to be untrue.|archive-date=8 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208113040/https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/telegrams-confirm-scale-of-us-complicity-in-1965-genocide/|url-status=live}}</ref> Suharto's administration is commonly called the ''[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]'' era.<ref>The Library Congress. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060618231312/http://www.indonesiaphoto.com/content/view/102/46/ "History of Indonesia #10"]}}.</ref> Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.<ref>[http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021010216/http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002017.html |date=21 October 2006}}.</ref>

===Annexation of West Irian===
{{See also|Western New Guinea Dispute|Operation Trikora}}

At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of [[New Guinea]] (also known as [[Western New Guinea|West Irian]]), and permitted steps towards self-government and a declaration of independence on 1 December 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion 18 December preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the [[New York Agreement]], and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on 1 May 1963.

Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favour. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an '[[Act of Free Choice]]' was conducted in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. They were warned to vote in favour of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newint.org/features/1999/11/05/free/|title=Breaking Free From Betrayal|issue=318|work=[[New Internationalist]]|date=November 1999|access-date=17 January 2017|archive-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516223813/http://newint.org/features/1999/11/05/free/|url-status=live}}</ref> A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.

West Irian was renamed [[Irian Jaya]] ('glorious Irian') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]]) gave rise to [[Papua conflict|guerrilla activity]] in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.

===Annexation of East Timor===
{{Main|Indonesian occupation of East Timor}}
[[File:Timor Timur women.jpg|thumb|left|Timorese women with the [[Indonesia]]n national flag]]

In 1975, the [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of [[Portuguese Timor]], the eastern half of the island of [[Timor]] whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. In the East Timorese elections held in 1975, [[Fretilin]], a left-leaning party, and [[Timorese Democratic Union|UDT]], aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. [[Timorese Popular Democratic Association|Apodeti]], a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.

Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on 11 August 1975 and the start of a [[East Timorese civil war|month-long civil war]]. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory and did not resume the decolonisation process. On 28 November, Fretilin [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared independence]], and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesia [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded East Timor]], eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.

Following the [[Fall of Suharto|1998 resignation of Suharto]], the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|a UN-sponsored referendum]] held on 30 August 1999. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.

===Transmigration===
{{Main|Transmigration program}}

The Transmigration program (''Transmigrasi'') was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of [[Indonesia]] (such as [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Bali]]) to less populous areas of the country including [[Western New Guinea|Papua]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Sulawesi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Govt builds transmigration museum in Lampung |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/05/02/govt-builds-transmigration-museum-lampung.html |website=The Jakarta Post |access-date=December 6, 2024 |date=June 4, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604015847/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/05/02/govt-builds-transmigration-museum-lampung.html |archive-date=4 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia - The transmigration program in perspective (English) |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/353671468771708841/indonesia-the-transmigration-program-in-perspective |website=World Bank Group |access-date=December 7, 2024}}</ref> The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for [[utilitarianism|hard-working]] poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial, with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in destination areas to weaken separatist movements.<ref name="Anata">{{Cite book|title=The Indonesian Crisis: A Human Development Perspective|first=Aris|last=Anata|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2003|pages=229–230}}</ref> The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations.

==Reform era==
{{Main|Post-Suharto era}}
{{See also|Indonesian Revolution of 1998}}

===Pro-democracy movement===
[[File:May 1998 Trisakti incident.jpg|thumb|University students and police forces clash in May 1998]]

In 1996, Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The [[Indonesian Democratic Party]] (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime, had changed direction and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the [[People's Representative Council]] Suryadi against a faction loyal to [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], the daughter of [[Sukarno]] and the PDI's chairperson.

After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in [[Medan]] on 20–22 June, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.

Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on [[Jakarta]] due to a set of high-profile [[ASEAN]] meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organised "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On 26 July, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.<ref>Aspinall 1996</ref>

On 27 July, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two hundred people were arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "[[Reformasi (Indonesia)|Reformasi]]" or Reform movement.<ref>Amnesty International 1996</ref>

===Economic crisis and Suharto's resignation===
{{Main|Fall of Suharto}}

In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]],<ref>{{cite book | last =Delhaise | first =Philippe F. | title =Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems | publisher =Willey | year =1998 | page =123 | isbn = 978-0-471-83450-2}}</ref> which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, as well as Suharto's presidency. At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The [[Indonesian rupiah|rupiah]], the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some [[Protectionism|protectionist]] policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact [[austerity]] measures, including cuts to public services and removal of [[Subsidy|subsidies]], in return for aid from the IMF and other donors. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, as well as fees for public services including education, rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. The [[austerity]] measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order<ref>{{cite journal |title=Indonesia: from showcase to basket case |author=Jonathan Pincus and Rizal Ramli |journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=723–734 |year=1998|doi=10.1093/cje/22.6.723}}
</ref> and led to [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998|popular protests]].

Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution]]. Dissent within the ranks of his own [[Golkar]] party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on 21 May he stood down from power.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/latest_news/97848.stm |title=President Suharto resigns |publisher=BBC |date=21 May 1998 |access-date=12 November 2006 |archive-date=19 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219061205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/latest_news/97848.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> He was replaced by his deputy, Vice President [[B.J. Habibie]].

President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to re-establish [[International Monetary Fund]] and donor community support for an economic stabilisation program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. [[1999 Indonesian legislative election|Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments]] were held on 7 June 1999. In the elections for the national parliament, the [[Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle|Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle]] (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]) won 34% of the vote; [[Golkar]] (Suharto's party, formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; [[United Development Party]] (PPP, led by [[Hamzah Haz]]) 12%; and [[National Awakening Party]] (PKB, led by [[Abdurrahman Wahid]]) 10%.
{{Clear left}}

===May 1998 riots===
{{Main|May 1998 riots of Indonesia}}

The May 1998 riots of Indonesia also known as the 1998 tragedy or simply the 1998 event, were incidents of mass violence, demonstrations, and civil unrest of a racial nature that occurred throughout Indonesia.

===Politics since 1999===
{{Main|Post-Suharto era in Indonesia}}

[[File:Indonesia2009PresElectBallotPaper.png|thumb|Indonesian 2009 election ballot. Since 2004, Indonesians are able to vote their president directly.]]

In October 1999, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], commonly referred to as "Gus Dur", as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice-President, both for five-year terms. Abdurrahman named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000. President Abdurrahman's government continued to pursue democratisation and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in [[Aceh]], the [[Maluku Islands]], and Irian Jaya. In [[West Timor]], the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Abdurrahman's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate.
{{Clear left}}

During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Abdurrahman gave an account of his government's performance. On 29 January 2001, thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and co-ordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice-President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] assumed the presidency on 23 July. [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] won Indonesia's first direct presidential election [[2004 Indonesian presidential election|in 2004]],<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Ananta | first1 = Aris | last2 = Arifin | first2 = Evi Nurvidya | last3 = Suryadinata | first3 = Leo | name-list-style = amp | title = Emerging Democracy in Indonesia | place = Singapore | publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-981-230-322-6 | pages = 80–83, 107}}</ref> and was reelected [[2009 Indonesian presidential election|in 2009]].<ref>{{cite news|title=SBY-Boediono Presiden-Wapres Terpilih 2009|url=http://www.antaranews.com/berita/151347/sby-boediono-presiden-wapres-terpilih-2009|access-date=16 January 2017|agency=[[Antara (news agency)|Antara]]|date=18 August 2009|language=id|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118030922/http://www.antaranews.com/berita/151347/sby-boediono-presiden-wapres-terpilih-2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Joko Widodo]], the PDI-P candidate, was elected president [[2014 Indonesian presidential election|in 2014]]. Having previously served as the [[Governor of Jakarta|Governor]] of [[Jakarta]], he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Child of the Slum Rises as President of Indonesia |first=Joe |last=Cochrane |date=22 July 2014 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/23/world/asia/joko-widodo-populist-governor-is-named-winner-in-indonesian-election.html?_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=24 July 2015 |archive-date=29 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729004750/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/23/world/asia/joko-widodo-populist-governor-is-named-winner-in-indonesian-election.html?_r=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, his opponent [[Prabowo Subianto Djojohadikusumo|Prabowo Subianto]] disputed the outcome and withdrew from the race before the count was completed.<ref name="PresidentWidodo">{{cite news|title=Jakarta governor Widodo wins Indonesian presidential election|url=http://www.indonesianews.net/index.php/sid/224021039/scat/f9295dc05093c851/ht/Jakarta-governor-Widodo-wins-Indonesian-presidential-election|access-date=23 July 2014|publisher=Indonesia News.Net|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020050428/http://www.indonesianews.net/index.php/sid/224021039/scat/f9295dc05093c851/ht/Jakarta-governor-Widodo-wins-Indonesian-presidential-election|archive-date=20 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Jokowi was reelected [[2019 Indonesian presidential election|in 2019]], again defeating Prabowo Subianto.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indonesia election: Joko Widodo re-elected as president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48331879 |date=21 May 2019 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=27 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227041552/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48331879 |url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2024, Prabowo Subianto, nationalist former general, won the presidential [[2024 Indonesian presidential election|election]], meaning he became Indonesia’s next president with his running mate  [[Gibran Rakabuming Raka]], son of outgoing President Joko Widodo, as new vice president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indonesia's Prabowo Subianto wins presidency, elections body confirms |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/20/indonesia-election-commission-confirms-prabowo-subianto-wins-presidency |work=Al Jazeera |language=en |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515225820/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/20/indonesia-election-commission-confirms-prabowo-subianto-wins-presidency |url-status=live}}</ref> On 20 October 2024, Prabowo Subianto  was sworn in as Indonesia's eighth president along with Vice President Gibran Rakabuming Raka.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indonesia: Ex-general Prabowo Subianto sworn in as president – DW – 10/20/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/indonesia-ex-general-prabowo-subianto-sworn-in-as-president/a-70544838 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Terrorism===
{{Main|Terrorism in Indonesia}}

As a multi-ethnic and multicultural democratic country with a Muslim-majority population, Indonesia faces the challenge of dealing with [[terrorism]] linked to global militant Islamic movements. [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] (JI), a militant Islamic organisation that aspires for the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah<ref name="pupji">
{{cite web|title=From Counter-Society to Counter-State: Jemaah Islamiah According to Pupji, p. 11.|author=Elena Pavlova|publisher=The Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies|url=http://www.ntu.edu.sg/rsis/publications/WorkingPapers/WP117.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605131713/http://www.ntu.edu.sg/rsis/publications/WorkingPapers/WP117.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2007
|url-status=dead}}</ref> across Southeast Asia, is responsible for a series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia. This terrorist organisation, linked to [[Al-Qaeda]], was responsible for the [[2002 Bali bombings|Bali bombings in 2002]] and [[2005 Bali bombings|2005]], as well as [[2003 Marriott Hotel bombing|Jakarta bombings in 2003]], [[2004 Australian embassy bombing in Jakarta|2004]], and [[2009 Jakarta bombings|2009]]. The Indonesian government and authorities have tried to crack down on terrorist cells in Indonesia.

On [[2016 Jakarta attacks|14 January 2016]], suicide bombers and gunmen initiated a terror attack in Jakarta, resulting in the death of eight people: three Indonesian civilians, a Canadian and four of the attackers. Twenty people were wounded during the attack. The [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] claimed responsibility for the incident.

===Tsunami disaster and Aceh peace deal===
{{See also|Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia}}

On 26 December 2004, a massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami]] devastated parts of northern [[Sumatra]], particularly [[Aceh]]. Partly as a result of the need for co-operation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the [[Free Aceh Movement]] (GAM) were restarted. Accords signed in [[Helsinki]] created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for local parties to be established, and other autonomy measures.

===Forest and plantation fires===
{{See also|Southeast Asian haze|1997 Southeast Asian haze|2015 Southeast Asian haze}}

Since 1997 Indonesia has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of [[Sumatra]] and [[Kalimantan]]. Haze occurs annually during the [[dry season]] and is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to [[slash-and-burn]] practices in Indonesia, especially in the provinces of [[South Sumatra]] and [[Riau]] on Indonesia's [[Sumatra]] island, and [[Kalimantan]] on Indonesian [[Borneo]].<ref name=SOB>{{cite web|url= http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/minister-blasts-execs-of-firm-that-denied-burning-forest |title=Minister blasts execs of firm that denied burning forest|first1=Wahyudi|last1=Soeriaatmadja|work=[[The Straits Times]] |date=13 October 2015|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013022700/http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/minister-blasts-execs-of-firm-that-denied-burning-forest|archive-date=13 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Indonesia haze: Why do forests keep burning?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34265922|work=[[BBC News]]|date=16 September 2019|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=3 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003010304/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34265922|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Southeast Asia's haze: what's behind the annual outbreaks?|url=https://www.asiaone.com/singapore/southeast-asias-haze-whats-behind-annual-outbreaks|agency=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|work=AsiaOne|date=17 September 2015|access-date=15 January 2020|archive-date=15 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115222927/https://www.asiaone.com/singapore/southeast-asias-haze-whats-behind-annual-outbreaks|url-status=live}}</ref> The haze that occurred in [[1997 Southeast Asian haze|1997]] was one of the most severe; dense hazes occurred again in [[2005 Malaysian haze|2005]], [[2006 Southeast Asian haze|2006]], [[2009 Southeast Asian haze|2009]], [[2013 Southeast Asian haze|2013]], and the worst was in [[2015 Southeast Asian haze|2015]], killing dozens of Indonesians as a result of respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility. Another 10 people were killed due to smog from forest and land fires.<ref>{{cite news|title=Haze kills 10 people, leaves 503,874 with respiratory ailments: Agency|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/24/haze-kills-10-people-leaves-503874-with-respiratory-ailments-agency.html|access-date=16 January 2017|work=The Jakarta Post|date=24 October 2015|archive-date=14 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114201156/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/10/24/haze-kills-10-people-leaves-503874-with-respiratory-ailments-agency.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.okezone.com/read/2015/09/18/340/1217052/gara-gara-kabut-asap-biker-tewas-tabrak-mobil-pemadam|title=Gara-Gara Kabut Asap, Biker Tewas Tabrak Mobil Pemadam|language=id|author=Banda Haruddin Tanjung|publisher=Okezone|date=18 September 2015|access-date=18 September 2015|archive-date=21 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921053940/http://news.okezone.com/read/2015/09/18/340/1217052/gara-gara-kabut-asap-biker-tewas-tabrak-mobil-pemadam|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.balikpapanpos.co.id/berita/detail/173903-akibat-kabut-asap-dua-tewas.html |title=Akibat Kabut Asap, Dua Tewas (Laka Tunggal, Tabrak Tiang Listrik)|language=id|publisher= Balikpapan Pos|date=29 September 2015 |access-date= 29 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008165216/http://www.balikpapanpos.co.id/berita/detail/173903-akibat-kabut-asap-dua-tewas.html |archive-date=8 October 2015|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.liputan6.com/read/2317496/tewas-akibat-tercekik-asap|title=Tewas Akibat 'Tercekik' Asap|language=id|author=Bangun Santoso|publisher=Liputan 6|date=14 September 2015|access-date=14 September 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915140731/http://news.liputan6.com/read/2317496/tewas-akibat-tercekik-asap|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=http://video.metrotvnews.com/play/2015/10/04/437506/ini-daftar-korban-tewas-akibat-kabut-asap |title=Ini Daftar Korban Tewas Akibat Kabut Asap|author=AMS |language=id|medium=video|time=10:24|publisher= Metro TV News|date=4 October 2015|access-date=6 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006071337/http://video.metrotvnews.com/play/2015/10/04/437506/ini-daftar-korban-tewas-akibat-kabut-asap|archive-date=6 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In September 2014, Indonesia ratified the [[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]], becoming the last ASEAN country to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.menlh.go.id/indonesia-meratifikasi-undang-undang-tentang-pengesahan-asean-agreement-on-transboundary-haze-pollution-persetujuan-asean-tentang-pencemaran-asap-lintas-batas/|title=Indonesia Meratifikasi Undang-Undang Tentang Pengesahan Asean Agreement On Transboundary Haze Pollution (Persetujuan Asean Tentang Pencemaran Asap Lintas Batas)|language=id|publisher=Ministry of Environment, Indonesia|access-date=16 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920063146/http://www.menlh.go.id/indonesia-meratifikasi-undang-undang-tentang-pengesahan-asean-agreement-on-transboundary-haze-pollution-persetujuan-asean-tentang-pencemaran-asap-lintas-batas/|archive-date=20 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Reign of Prabowo ===
On 14 February 2024, Indonesia held a presidential [[2024 Indonesian presidential election|election]]. The candidates included Anies Baswedan, former governor of Jakarta; Prabowo Subianto, a former general; and Ganjar Pranowo, former governor of Central Java.<ref>{{Cite web |last=KPU |title=KPU Tetapkan Tiga Pasangan Calon Presiden dan Wakil Presiden Pemilu 2024 |url=https://www.kpu.go.id/berita/baca/12081/kpu-tetapkan-tiga-pasangan-calon-presiden-dan-wakil-presiden-pemilu-2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623200507/https://www.kpu.go.id/berita/baca/12081/kpu-tetapkan-tiga-pasangan-calon-presiden-dan-wakil-presiden-pemilu-2024 |archive-date=23 June 2024 |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=www.kpu.go.id |language=id-ID |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 20 October 2024, Prabowo Subianto and his running mate, Gibran Rakabuming Raka, were sworn in as the President and Vice President of Indonesia, following their victory in the February election.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Media |first=Kompas Cyber |date=2024-02-14 |title="Quick Count" Pilpres 2024 Litbang Kompas Data 70 Persen: Prabowo Unggul 59,07 Persen |url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2024/02/14/16442461/quick-count-pilpres-2024-litbang-kompas-data-70-persen-prabowo-unggul-5907 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317075935/https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2024/02/14/16442461/quick-count-pilpres-2024-litbang-kompas-data-70-persen-prabowo-unggul-5907 |archive-date=17 March 2024 |access-date=2025-02-07 |work=KOMPAS.com |language=id |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=KPU Tetapkan Presiden dan Wakil Presiden Terpilih 2024-2029 |url=https://www.kpu.go.id/berita/baca/12330/kpu-tetapkan-presiden-dan-wakil-presiden-terpilih-2024-2029}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Indonesia}}
*[[Foreign relations of Indonesia]]
*[[History of Southeast Asia]]
*[[List of presidents of Indonesia]]
*[[Politics of Indonesia]]
;Museums:
*[[Jakarta History Museum]]
*[[National Museum of Indonesia]]

==Further reading==
* Burhanudin, Jajat, and Kees van Dijk, eds. ''Islam in Indonesia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations'' (Amsterdam University Press, distributed by University of Chicago Press; 2013) 279 pages; scholarly articles
* Dijk, Kees van. 2001. ''A country in despair. Indonesia between 1997 and 2000.'' [[KITLV]] Press, Leiden, {{ISBN|90-6718-160-9}}
* Schwarz, Adam. 1994. ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability''. 2nd Edition. St Leonards, NSW : Allen & Unwin.
* van Zanden J. L. ''An Economic History of Indonesia: 1800–2010'' (Routledge, 2012)
* Tagliacozzo, Eric, ed. ''Producing Indonesia: The State of the Field of Indonesian Studies'' (Cornell Modern Indonesia Project) (2014) Essays by 27 scholars.

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Bibliography==
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* Cribb, Robert. ''Historical atlas of Indonesia'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Crouch, Harold. ''The army and politics in Indonesia'' (Cornell UP, 2019).
* Drakeley, Steven. ''The History Of Indonesia'' (2005) [https://archive.org/details/TheHistoryOfIndonesiaTheGreenwoodHistoriesOfTheModernNations online]
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* Elson, Robert Edward. ''The idea of Indonesia: A history. Vol. 1'' (Cambridge UP, 2008).
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* Gouda, Frances. ''American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/123062166/american-visions-of-the-netherlands-east-indies-indonesia online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121012525/https://www.questia.com/read/123062166/american-visions-of-the-netherlands-east-indies-indonesia |date=21 January 2020}}; [http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=340274 another copy online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719232802/http://oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=340274 |date=19 July 2018}}
* Hindley, Donald. ''The Communist Party of Indonesia, 1951–1963'' (U of California Press, 1966).
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*{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-54262-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri}}
* {{cite book |last1=Whitten |first1=T. |last2=Soeriaatmadja |first2=R. E. |last3=Suraya |first3=A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong}}
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* Woodward, Mark R. ''Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta'' (1989)
{{refend}}

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