Editing History of India

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{{about|the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|the post-1947 history of India|History of India (1947–present)|the post-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|South Asia#Contemporary era}}
{{Redirect2|Ancient India|Indian history|outline|Outline of South Asian history}}
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{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Part of History of India}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}

[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png|thumb|Indus Valley Civilisation, at peak phase (2600–1900 BCE)]]
[[Anatomically modern humans]] first arrived on the [[Indian subcontinent]] between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Michael D. Petraglia|author2=Bridget Allchin|author-link2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10|publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|page=6|date=22 May 2007|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1}} Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref> The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. [[Sedentism|Sedentariness]] began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,{{sfn|Wright|2010|pp=44, 51}} and gradually evolved into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], one of three early [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilisation]] in the [[Old World]],{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=1}}<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|author-link=Jane McIntosh|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|page=387}}</ref> which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day [[Pakistan]] and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, [[4.2 kiloyear event|persistent drought]] caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. [[Rigvedic tribes|Indo-Aryan tribes]] moved into the [[Punjab]] from [[Central Asia]] in several [[Indo-Aryan migration theory|waves of migration]]. The [[Vedic Period]] of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns ([[Vedas]]). The social structure was loosely stratified via the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna system]], incorporated into the highly evolved present-day [[Jāti]] system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plain]]. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies ([[janapada]]s) were consolidated into larger states ([[mahajanapadas]]). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new [[Śramaṇa|ascetic]] movements and religious concepts,<ref name="Flood 273-274">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274</ref> including the rise of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. The latter [[Hindu synthesis|was synthesized]] with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to [[Hinduism]].

[[File:Indian cultural zone.svg|thumb|Indian cultural influence ([[Greater India]])]]
[[File:Timeline of Indian History.svg|thumb|Timeline of Indian history]]
[[Chandragupta Maurya]] overthrew the [[Nanda Empire]] and established the first great empire in ancient India, the [[Maurya Empire]]. India's Mauryan king [[Ashoka]] is widely recognised for the violent [[Kalinga War|kalinga war]] and his historical acceptance of [[Buddhism]] and his attempts to spread [[nonviolence]] and [[peace]] across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor [[Brihadratha Maurya|Brihadratha]] by his general [[Pushyamitra Shunga]]. Shunga would form the [[Shunga Empire]] in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] would claim the north-west and found the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the [[Gupta Empire]], in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a [[Hindu]] religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the [[Classical India|Classical]] or [[Golden Age of India]]. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming [[Greater India]].<ref>''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800'', Band 1 by [[Nicholas Tarling]], p. 281</ref><ref name="Flood 273-274" /> The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the [[Tripartite struggle]] centred on [[Kannauj]]. [[History of South India|Southern India]] saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The [[Chola dynasty]] conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, [[Indian mathematics]], including [[hindu numeral system|Hindu numerals]], influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the [[Arab world]], including the creation of the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].<ref>''Essays on Ancient India'' by Raj Kumar p. 199</ref>

[[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic conquests]] made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and [[Sindh]] as early as the 8th century,<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 p. 141 ''"Conquest of [[Makran]]"''</ref> followed by the invasions of [[Mahmud Ghazni]].{{sfn|Meri|2005|p=146}}
The [[Delhi Sultanate]], established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the [[Indo-Turkic]] [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqs]].<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|quote=The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.|title=History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320|author=Dr. K. S. Lal|date=1967|page=14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w14dAAAAMAAJ&q=khalji+indian+muslim+revolution}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&q=history+of+medieval+india+chaurasia|quote=In spite of all this, capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution, as instead of Turks, Indian Muslims gained power|title=History of Medieval India:From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|date=2002|publisher=Atlantic|page=30|isbn=978-81-269-0123-4}}</ref> The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of [[Timur]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Kumar|first=Sunil|editor-last=Bowering|editor-first=Gerhard|editor-link=Gerhard Böwering|encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|title=Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)|url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13484-0|pages=127–128}}</ref> and saw the advent of the [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]], [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], and [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five [[Deccan sultanates]]. The wealthy [[Bengal Sultanate]] also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA64|date=31 July 1996|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-20507-9|pages=64–}}</ref> During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] and [[List of Rajput dynasties and states|Rajput states]] under the [[Kingdom of Mewar]] emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Darwin |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EeeQ1C-6HYEC |title=After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400-2000 |date=2008 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-0141010229 |pages=Only in Mewar and in Vijaynagar had Hindu states withstood the deluge"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R.C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKVFAQAAMAAJ |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 06,The Delhi Sultanate |date=1960 |publisher=Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan |edition=3rd |pages=70 "It is also quite clear from contemporary chronicles that Muhammad Tughluq and the later Sultans practically left Rajputana severely alone, and the various Rajput principalities recognised Mewar as the paramount power at least in name"}}</ref>

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the [[Mughal Empire]] conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,<ref name="exeter" /> signaling the [[proto-industrialisation]], becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.<ref>{{cite book|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=11 August 2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|pages=39–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|author-link=Angus Maddison|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259|date=25 September 2003|publisher=[[OECD Publishing]]|isbn=9264104143|pages=259–261}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Developing cultures: case studies|last1=Harrison|first1=Lawrence E.|author-link1=Lawrence Harrison (academic)|last2=Berger|first2=Peter L.|author-link2=Peter L. Berger|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|page=158|url=https://archive.org/details/developingcultur0000unse|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-415-95279-8}}</ref> The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]], who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous [[Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani|Afghan invasions]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Myra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxgxDgAAQBAJ |title=Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War |date=2017-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-84904-858-3 |language=en|page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|page=161|display-authors=3|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Michaud|first=Joseph|year=1926|title=History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan|page=143}}</ref> The [[East India Company]], acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]], gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of [[company rule in India]] led to the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. India was afterwards ruled directly by the [[The Crown|British Crown]], in the [[British Raj]]. After [[World War I]], a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the [[Indian National Congress]], led by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Later, the [[All-India Muslim League]] would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority [[nation state]]. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the [[Dominion of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan]], each gaining its independence.
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== {{anchor|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE) ==
{{Over-quotation|section=section|date=July 2021}}{{multiple image
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| image1 = Rock Shelter 15, Bhimbetka 02.jpg
| caption1 = [[Mesolithic]] rock art at the [[Bhimbetka|Bhimbetka rock shelters]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated,<ref>{{cite book|last=Taçon|first=Paul S.C.|author-link=Paul Taçon|editor-last1=David|editor1-first=Bruno|editor-last2=McNiven|editor-first2=Ian J.|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXFyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181|date=17 October 2018|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-084495-0|pages=181–|chapter=The Rock Art of South and East Asia}}</ref> it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mithen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven Mithen|title=After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000–5000 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NVygmardAA4C&pg=PA411|year=2006|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-01999-7|pages=411–}}</ref> and some slightly earlier.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubey-Pathak|first=Meenakshi|year=2014|title=The Rock Art of the Bhimbetka Area in India|url=https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Adoranten|pages=16, 19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913162516/https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2021|archive-format=PDF}}</ref>
| image2 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG
| caption2 = A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]], [[Kerala, India]].
| image3 = EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg
| caption3 = [[Stone Age]] (6,000&nbsp;BCE) carvings of [[Edakkal Caves]] in Kerala, India.
}}

=== Paleolithic ===
{{Main|South Asian Stone Age}}[[Hominini|Hominin]] expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the [[Indian subcontinent]] approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|p=147}}{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}} This dating is based on the known presence of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in [[Indonesia]] by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at [[Riwat]] in [[Pakistan]].{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Mishra|first=Sheila|editor-last=Murray|editor-first=Tim|editor-link=Tim Murray (archaeologist)|year=1999|chapter=Developing an Indian stone age chronology|title=Time and Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/timearchaeology00murr|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Routledge]]|page=84|isbn=978-0-415-11762-3}}</ref> Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of [[Fluvial processes|fluvial sediments]], have not been independently verified.{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}

The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of ''Homo erectus'' or ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'', from the [[Narmada River|Narmada Valley]] in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}

According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:<blockquote>Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=1}}</blockquote>

According to Michael D. Petraglia and [[Bridget Allchin]]: <blockquote>Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=6}}</blockquote>

Historian of South Asia, [[Michael H. Fisher]], states: <blockquote>Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=23}}</blockquote>

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of [[anatomically modern humans]] in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Tuniz|author-first1=Claudio|author-last2=Gillespie|author-first2=Richard|author-last3=Jones|author-first3=Cheryl|title=The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|date=16 June 2016|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-315-41888-9|pages=163–}}</ref> although this interpretation is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Michael D.|last1=Petraglia|first2=Michael|last2=Haslam|first3=Dorian Q.|last3=Fuller|first4=Nicole|last4=Boivin|first5=Chris|last5=Clarkson|s2cid=6421383|date=25 March 2010|title=Out of Africa: new hypotheses and evidence for the dispersal of Homo sapiens along the Indian Ocean rim|journal=[[Annals of Human Biology]]|volume=37|issue=3|pages=288–311|doi=10.3109/03014461003639249|pmid=20334598|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205007/HCA15UQ205007.pdf|issn=0301-4460}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Paul|last1=Mellars|first2=Kevin C.|last2=Gori|first3=Martin|last3=Carr|first4=Pedro A.|last4=Soares|first5=Martin B.|last5=Richards|date=25 June 2013|title=Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=110|issue=26|pages=10699–10704|bibcode=2013PNAS..11010699M|doi=10.1073/pnas.1306043110|pmid=23754394|pmc=3696785|doi-access=free}}</ref> The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=28}}

According to Tim Dyson: <blockquote>Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=28}}</blockquote>

=== Neolithic ===
[[File:Mehrgarh ruins.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mehrgarh]] site in present-day [[Beluchistan]], [[Pakistan]]]]
[[File:MET 2003 592 2 O.jpg|thumb|right|Mehrgarh painted pottery, 3000–2500 BCE<ref>{{cite web |title=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/72342 |website=www.metmuseum.org |access-date=21 April 2019 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316093101/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/72342 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[Neolithic|Settled life]] emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the [[Indus River]] alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] of the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Wright|2010|pp=44, 51}}{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=4-5}} According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=33}} <blockquote>The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [''Bos indicus''] and unhumped [''Bos taurus'']). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=33}}</blockquote>

== Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE) ==

=== Indus Valley Civilisation ===
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}
{{See also|List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites}}
[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png|thumb|right|Harappan Period at peak, {{circa}} 2600 - 1900 BCE]]

The [[Bronze Age India|Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent]] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} The Indus Valley region was one of three early [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilisation]] in the [[Old World]]; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=1}} and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.<ref name="auto" />

The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]] basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900&nbsp;BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as [[Harappa]], [[Ganweriwal]], and [[Mohenjo-daro]] in modern-day Pakistan, and [[Dholavira]], [[Kalibangan]], [[Rakhigarhi]], and [[Lothal]] in modern-day India.

[[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|[[Mohenjo-daro]] (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site's [[Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro|Great Bath]], showing the surrounding urban layout.]]
[[File:DHOLAVIRA SITE (24).jpg|thumb|right|[[Dholavira]], a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with [[stepwell]] steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shuichi Takezawa|journal=Journal of Architecture and Building Science|volume=117|issue=1492|date=August 2002|page=24|url=http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/s1/jabs0208-019.pdf|title=Stepwells – Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture As Seen in Adalaj|access-date=18 November 2009}}</ref>]]
[[File:The drainage system at Lothal 2.JPG|thumb|right|Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at [[Lothal]] ]]

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.<ref>Kenoyer, J. M., Miller, H. M.-L. [http://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=1557249 "Metal technologies of the Indus Valley tradition in Pakistan and western India."] ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World,'' MASCA research papers in science and archaeology. 1999, Vol 16, pp 107-151; ref : 7 p.1/4. ISSN 1048-5325</ref> The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an [[Indus script]], the earliest of the [[Ancient scripts of the Indian subcontinent|ancient Indian scripts]], which is presently undeciphered.<ref>''Early India: A Concise History'', D.N. Jha, 2004, p. 31</ref> This is the reason why [[Harappan language]] is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Menon|first1=Sunil|last2=Mishra|first2=Siddhartha|date=13 August 2018|title=We Are All Harappans|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|magazine=Outlook|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803073245/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|archive-date=2018-08-03}}</ref>

[[File:Indus script.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Three [[stamp seal]]s and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals: '''unicorn''' (left), '''bull''' (centre), and '''elephant''' (right); at [[Guimet Museum]] ]]
After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Anindya|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Arati Deshpande|last3=Bera|first3=M. K.|last4=Das|first4=B.|last5=Juyal|first5=Navin|last6=Morthekai|first6=P.|last7=Deshpande|first7=R. D.|last8=Shinde|first8=V. S.|last9=Rao|first9=L. S.|title=Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization|journal=Scientific Reports|date=May 2016|volume=6|issue=1|pages=26555|doi=10.1038/srep26555|pmid=27222033|pmc=4879637|bibcode=2016NatSR...626555S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Ochre Coloured Pottery culture ===
[[File:Sinauli chariot ASI.jpg|thumb|[[Sinauli excavation site|Sinauli]] solid-disk wheel cart, photograph of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Vijay|title=A note on Chariot Burials found at Sinauli district Baghpat U.P|journal=Indian Journal of Archaeology|url=http://ijarch.org/Admin/Articles/9-Note%20on%20Chariots.pdf}}</ref>]]

During the 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE, [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]] was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|author-link=Upinder Singh|year=2008|publisher=[[Pearson Education India]]|pages=216–219|isbn=9788131711200|access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref>

== Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE) ==
{{See also|Iron Age in India}}

=== Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE) ===
{{Main|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion|Vedas}}
{{See also|Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan migrations}}

Starting {{circa|1900&nbsp;BCE}}, [[Rigvedic tribes|Indo-Aryan tribes]] moved into the [[Punjab]] from [[Central Asia]] in several [[Indo-Aryan migration theory|waves of migration]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stein|first=Burton|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=David|year=2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}</ref>{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=31}} The [[Vedic period]] is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the [[Chalcolithic]] to the [[Iron Age]] in this period.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}}

The Vedic culture is described in the texts of [[Vedas]], still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=51}} The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last=MacKenzie|first=Lynn|date=1995|title=Non-Western Art: A Brief Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/nonwesternartbri00mack|url-access=registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|page=[https://archive.org/details/nonwesternartbri00mack/page/151 151]|isbn=978-0-13-104894-2}}</ref><ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India: Part 1'', pp. 29–30.</ref> contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.

==== Vedic society ====
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|right|An early 19th century manuscript in the [[Devanagari]] script of the [[Rigveda]], originally transmitted orally<ref>{{cite book|last=Staal|first=Frits|author-link=Frits Staal|year=1986|title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science|publisher=[[North Holland Publishing Company]]}}</ref>]]

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the [[Punjab]], and the upper [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}} The [[Peepal]] tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the [[Atharva Veda]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Singhal|first1=K. C.|last2=Gupta|first2=Roshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoXqCmo-Xs8C|title=The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation|date=2003|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-269-0286-8|location=New Delhi|oclc=53360586|pages=150–151}}</ref> Many of the concepts of [[Indian philosophy]] espoused later, like [[dharma]], trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<ref>{{cite book|last=Day|first=Terence P.|date=1982|title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjo2gk2tBK8C|location=Ontario|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]|pages=42–45|isbn=978-0-919812-15-4}}</ref>

Early Vedic society is described in the [[Rigveda]], the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William J.|author1-link=William J. Duiker|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson J.|author2-link=Jackson J. Spielvogel|year=2018|orig-year=First published 1994|title=World History|publisher=Cengage|edition=9th|pages=44, 59|isbn=978-1-337-40104-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=James Melvin|title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality|year=2009|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels/page/n91 77]|publisher=Springer}}</ref> in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA37|date=13 July 1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=37}}</ref> At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46837/The-appearance-of-Indo-Aryan-speakers|title=India: The Late 2nd Millennium and the Reemergence of Urbanism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=12 May 2007}}</ref> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]] in archaeological contexts.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}}<ref name="Witzel1989">[[Michael Witzel]] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. [[Colette Caillat|Caillat]], Paris, 97–265.</ref>

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western [[Ganges]] plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]]'', or social classes.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=43, 48, 51, 86–87}} This social structure was characterised by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into [[Janapada]]s (monarchical, state-level polities).{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=200}}

==== Sanskrit epics ====
{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}}
{{see also|List of historic Indian texts|List of Hindu texts}}
[[File:Kurukshetra.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Manuscript illustration of the [[Battle of Kurukshetra]].]]

The Sanskrit epics ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' were composed during this period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Valmiki|author-link=Valmiki|url=https://archive.org/details/ramayanaofva01valm/page/23|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda|date=10 April 1990|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-01485-2|editor-last1=Goldman|editor-first1=Robert P.|editor-link1=Robert P. Goldman|location=Princeton, New Jersey|page=[https://archive.org/details/ramayanaofva01valm/page/23 23]|editor-last2=Pollock|editor-first2=Sheldon|editor-link2=Sheldon Pollock}}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' remains the longest single poem in the world.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India Part 1'', p. 31.</ref> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}} The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between {{circa}} 400&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brockington|first=J. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26|title=The Sanskrit epics, Part 2|publisher=Brill|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-10260-6|volume=12|page=21}}</ref>

==== Janapadas ====
{{Main|Janapada}}
{{See also|Battle of the Ten Kings|List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes}}
[[File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|right|Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of [[Āryāvarta]] with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]], [[Panchala]], [[Kosala]], [[Videha]] ]]

The [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]] in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200&nbsp;BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are [[realms]], [[republics]] and [[monarchy|kingdoms]]—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]], [[Panchala]], [[Kosala]] and [[Videha]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes|last=Lanman|first=Charles Rockwell|author-link=Charles Rockwell Lanman|year=1912|orig-year=First published 1884|publisher=[[Ginn & Co.]]|location=Boston|url=https://archive.org/stream/sanskritreaderwi00lanmiala#page/158/mode/1up|oclc=633836|quote="''... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...''"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pedigree: The Origins of Words from Nature|last1=Potter|first1=Stephen|author-link1=Stephen Potter|last2=Sargent|first2=Laurens Christopher|year=1974|publisher=Taplinger Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8008-6248-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SNDAAAAIAAJ|quote=''... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...''}}</ref>

The [[Kuru Kingdom]] ({{circa}} 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata|last=Basu|first=Abhijit|publisher=Leadstart publishing|year=2013|page=153|isbn=978-93-84027-47-6}}</ref> as well as with the composition of the [[Atharvaveda]].<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Witzel|year=1995|title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State|url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|volume=1|issue=4|pages=1–26|doi=10.11588/ejvs.1995.4.823|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407172825/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the [[srauta]] ritual to uphold the social order.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> Two key figures of the Kuru state were king [[Parikshit]] and his successor [[Janamejaya II|Janamejaya]], who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> The archaeological [[Painted Grey Ware culture|PGW]] (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's [[Haryana]] and western [[Uttar Pradesh]] regions from about 1100 to 600&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}} is believed to correspond to the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]] and [[Pañcāla|Panchala]] kingdoms.<ref name="Witzel 1995" />{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=48}}

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of [[Videha]] emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and [[Bihar]] state);<ref name="Witzel1989" /> reaching its prominence under the king [[Janaka]], whose court provided patronage for [[Brahmin]] sages and [[Indian philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Yajnavalkya]], [[Aruni]], and [[Gārgī Vāchaknavī]].<ref>H.C. Raychaudhuri (1950), ''Political History of Ancient India and Nepal'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 58</ref> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called ''[[Mahajanapadas]]'', across Northern India.

=== Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)<!--Linked from 'Mahajanapadas'--> ===

[[File:City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.jpg|thumb|right|City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate]]
The period between 800 and 200&nbsp;BCE saw the formation of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement, from which [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] originated. The first [[Upanishads]] were written during this period. After 500&nbsp;BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|page=41}}}} started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=47}} The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the [[Painted Grey Ware culture]] of the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heitzman|first=James|date=31 March 2008|title=The City in South Asia|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-134-28963-9|url=https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit/page/12 12]–13}}</ref>

The Central Ganges Plain, where [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] gained prominence, forming the base of the [[Maurya Empire]], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=47–48}} with new states arising after 500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce|title=The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE|year=2015|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=41, 43}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|pp=48–51}} It "was the area of the earliest known [[History of rice cultivation#Indian subcontinent|cultivation of rice in South Asia]] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=49}} In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=48}}

==== Buddhism and Jainism ====
{{Main|Upanishads|Śramaṇa}}
{{Further|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| title = Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements
| image1 = MS Indic 37, Isa upanisad. Wellcome L0027330.jpg|caption1=A page of ''[[Isha Upanishad]]'' manuscript.
| image2 = Vardhaman Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg|caption2=[[Mahavira]], the 24th and last [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]].
| image3 = Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar.jpg|caption3=[[Gautama Buddha]]'s cremation stupa, [[Kushinagar]] (Kushinara).
}}

The time between 800&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest [[Upanishads]],<ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mascaró|first=Juan|author-link=Juan Mascaró|title=The Upanishads|url=https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc|url-access=registration|year=1965|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=978-0-14-044163-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc/page/7 7]–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-954025-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/ xxiv–xxix]|url=https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/|url-access=registration}}</ref> which form the theoretical basis of [[Hinduism|classical Hinduism]], and are also known as the ''[[Vedanta]]'' (conclusion of the [[Vedas]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Baumann|first1=Martin|editor-last1=Melton|editor-first1=J. Gordon|editor-link2=J. Gordon Melton|editor-last2=Baumann|editor-first2=Martin|encyclopedia=Religions of the World|title=Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|access-date=|edition=2nd|year=2010|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|volume=3|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref>

The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82" /> [[Mahavira]] ({{circa}} 599–527&nbsp;BCE), proponent of [[Jainism]], and [[Gautama Buddha]] ({{circa}} 563–483&nbsp;BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|editor1-last=Flood|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-link=Gavin Flood|chapter=The Renouncer Tradition|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|pages=273–274|quote=The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...}}</ref> Buddha found a [[Middle Way]] that ameliorated the extreme [[asceticism]] found in the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' religions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laumakis|first1=Stephen|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-38589-6|page=4}}</ref>

Around the same time, [[Mahavira]] (the 24th ''[[Tirthankara]]'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/121/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=121|quote=Jainism's major teacher for this age is Mahavira ... was a contemporary of the Buddha and died approximately 527 BCE.}}</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 872 – c. 772&nbsp;BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/122/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=122|quote=The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.}}</ref>

==== Mahajanapadas ====
{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}
[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|left|The [[Mahajanapadas]] were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] ]]
The period from {{circa|600&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} to {{circa|300&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} featured the rise of the [[Mahajanapadas]], sixteen powerful [[Realm|kingdoms]] and [[oligarchic]] republics in a belt stretching from [[Gandhara]] in the north-west to [[Bengal]] in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-[[Vindhya Range|Vindhyan]] region.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=260–261}} Ancient [[Buddhist texts]], like the ''[[Aṅguttara Nikāya]]'',<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p. 213; IV. pp. 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—[[Anga]], [[Assaka]], [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]], [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]], [[Gandhara]], [[Kingdom of Kashi|Kashi]], [[Kambojas|Kamboja]], [[Kosala]], [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]], [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], [[Malla (tribe)|Malla]], [[Matsya (tribe)|Matsya]] (or Machcha), [[Panchala]], [[Surasena]], [[Vajjika League|Vṛji]], and [[Vatsa]]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}

[[File:Xerxes Hidush warrior 480 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hindush]] warrior, on the [[Tomb of Xerxes I]], circa 480 BCE.]]
Early "republics" or [[gaṇasaṅgha|{{transliteration|sa|gaṇasaṅgha}}]],<ref name="Thapar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2002|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|pages=146–150|access-date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8}}</ref> such as [[Shakya]]s, [[Koliya]]s, [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s, and [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavis]] had republican governments. {{transliteration|sa|Gaṇasaṅgha}}s,<ref name="Thapar" /> such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of [[Kusinagara]], and the [[Vajjika League]], centred in the city of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 107</ref> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavis]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Republics in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=93–|id=GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0}}</ref>

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, [[punch-marked coins]], and the introduction of writing in the form of [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] and [[Kharosthi]] scripts.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In ''Historical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond|first=Jim|last=Shaffer|author-link=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1993|conference=|volume=31|book-title=Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times|series=Symposium Papers XV|publisher=National Gallery of Art|pages=53–67|jstor=42620472}}</ref> The language of the gentry at that time was [[Sanskrit]], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as [[Prakrit]]s.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of [[Gautama Buddha]]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}

==== Early Magadha dynasties ====
{{Main|Magadha|Greater Magadha}}
{{See also|Magadha period|Pradyota dynasty|Haryanka dynasty|Shaishunaga dynasty}}
[[File:Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png|thumb|right|Magadha state c. 600&nbsp;BCE, which is later expanded from its capital [[Rajagriha]] – under the [[Haryanka dynasty]] and the later [[Shishunaga dynasty]].]]

Magadha formed one of the sixteen [[Mahajanapadas]] ([[Sanskrit]]: "Great Realms") or [[Kingdoms of Ancient India|kingdoms in ancient India]]. The core of the kingdom was the area of [[Bihar]] south of the [[Ganges]]; its first capital was [[Rajagriha]] (modern Rajgir) then [[Pataliputra]] (modern [[Patna]]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi]] and [[Anga]] respectively,<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient India|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass Publishers]]|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|author-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1977|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|edition=8th}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]] and [[Puranas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html|title=Magadha Empire – Magadha Empire in India, History of Magadh Empire|website=iloveindia.com}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the [[Atharva-Veda]] where they are found listed along with the [[Anga]]s, [[Gandhara|Gandharis]], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Early sources, from the Buddhist [[Pāli Canon]], the [[Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)|Jain Agamas]] and the Hindu [[Puranas]], mention Magadha being ruled by the [[Pradyota dynasty]] and [[Haryanka dynasty]] ({{circa}} 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, {{circa}} 600–413&nbsp;BCE. King [[Bimbisara]] of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and [[West Bengal]]. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince [[Ajatashatru]], who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, [[Gautama Buddha]], the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in [[Bodh Gaya]], gave his first sermon in [[Sarnath]] and the [[Buddhist councils|first Buddhist council]] was held in Rajgriha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|publisher=lumbinitrust.org|title=Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden|access-date=6 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the [[Shaishunaga dynasty]] ({{circa}} 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by [[Mahapadma Nanda]] in 345&nbsp;BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).

==== Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign ====
{{main|Nanda Empire}}
{{See also|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}
The [[Nanda Empire]] ({{circa}} 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the [[Punjab]] in the west and as far south as the [[Vindhya Range]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}} The [[Nanda dynasty]] built on the foundations laid by their [[Haryanka dynasty|Haryanka]] and [[Shishunaga dynasty|Shishunaga]] predecessors.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=273}} Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 [[infantry]], 20,000 [[cavalry]], 2,000 war [[Ratha|chariot]]s and 3,000 [[war elephant]]s (at the lowest estimates).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raychaudhuri|first1=Hem Chandra|author1-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Bratindra Nath|author2-link=B. N. Mukherjee|year=1996|orig-year=First published 1923|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc|url-access=registration|edition=8th|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=208–209|isbn=978-0-19-563789-2}}</ref>

==== Maurya Empire ====
{{Main|Maurya Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Maurya Empire
| image1            = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
| caption1          = [[Maurya Empire]] at its peak under [[Ashoka the Great]].
| image2            = Asokanpillar2.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ashokan pillar]] at [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], 3rd century BCE.
}}

The Maurya Empire (322–185&nbsp;BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016|issn=1076-156X}}</ref> At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the [[Himalayas]] and to the east into what is now [[Assam]]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] assisted by Chanakya ([[Kautilya]]) in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (in modern [[Bihar]]) when he overthrew the [[Nanda Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=70}}</ref>

Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317&nbsp;BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]], founder of the [[Seleucid Empire]], during the [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]], thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son [[Bindusara]] succeeded to the throne around 297&nbsp;BCE. By the time he died in {{circa}} 272&nbsp;BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (around modern day [[Odisha]]) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}}

[[File:Lomas Rishi entrance.jpg|thumb|The Mauryan carved door of [[Lomas Rishi cave|Lomas Rishi]], one of the [[Barabar Caves]], {{circa}} 250 BCE]]
Bindusara was succeeded by [[Ashoka]], whose reign lasted until his death in about 232&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}} His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260&nbsp;BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}} The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, [[Brihadratha Maurya|Brihadratha]], was assassinated by [[Pushyamitra Shunga]] to establish the [[Shunga Empire]].{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}}

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the [[Grand Trunk Road]], one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=5 January 2016|website=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> After the [[Kalinga War]], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of [[Jainism]] increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the [[Indo-Mediterranean]], into [[Sri Lanka]], [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], [[West Asia]], [[North Africa]], and [[Southern Europe|Mediterranean Europe]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=67}}

The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' written by [[Chanakya]] and the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of [[Northern Black Polished Ware]]. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, [[usury]] was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=91}} During this period, a high-quality steel called [[Wootz steel]] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref>''Technology and Society'' by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15</ref>

==== Sangam period ====
{{Main|Sangam period|Sources of ancient Tamil history|Sangam literature|Five Great Epics}}
{{See also|Three Crowned Kings|Tamilakam|List of Tamil monarchs}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = South India in Sangam Period.jpg
| caption1          = [[Tamilakam]], located at the tip of [[South India]] during the Sangam period, ruled by [[Chera dynasty]], [[Chola dynasty]] and the [[Pandyan dynasty]].
| image2            = Puhar-ILango.jpg
| caption2          = [[Ilango Adigal]], author of [[Silappatikaram]], one of the [[the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|five great epics]] of [[Tamil literature]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review.|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|year=1975|pages=148–150|last=Rosen|first=Elizabeth S.|jstor=3250226|doi=10.2307/3250226}}</ref>
}}

During the Sangam period [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the [[Three Crowned Kings]] of [[Tamilakam]]: [[Chera dynasty]], [[Chola dynasty]], and the [[Pandya dynasty]] ruled parts of southern India.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=204–205}}

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<ref>''Essays on Indian Renaissance'' by Raj Kumar p. 260</ref> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.<ref>''The First Spring: The Golden Age of India'' by [[Abraham Eraly]] p. 655</ref>

Around {{circa}} 300 BCE – {{circa}} 200 CE, [[Pathupattu]], an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of [[Sangam Literature]], were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works [[Ettuthogai]] as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works [[Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku]]; while [[Tolkāppiyam]], the earliest grammarian work in the [[Tamil language]] was developed.<ref>* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tholkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</ref> Also, during Sangam period, two of [[the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature]] were composed. [[Ilango Adigal]] composed ''[[Silappatikaram]]'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around [[Kannagi (Tamil mythology)|Kannagi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|title=Silappathikaram Tamil Literature|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=22 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> and ''[[Manimekalai]]'', composed by [[Chithalai Chathanar]], is a sequel to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of [[Kovalan]] and [[Madhavi (Silappatikaram)|Madhavi]], who became a [[Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhunī|Bhikkhuni]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mukherjee|1999|p=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/4_drav/tamil/pm/pm141__u.htm|title=Cittalaiccattanar (c. 500): Manimekalai|website=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de}}</ref>

== Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE) ==
{{Main|Classical India}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg|[[Ancient India]] during the rise of the [[Shunga Empire]] from the North, [[Satavahana dynasty]] from the [[Deccan]], and [[Pandyan dynasty]] and [[Chola dynasty]] from the [[South India|southern part of India]].
|File:Karla caves Chaitya.jpg|Great Chaitya in the [[Karla Caves]]. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
|File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg|[[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] is home to the [[Hathigumpha inscription]], which was inscribed under [[Kharavela]], then Emperor of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] of the [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]].
|File:Andhra pradesh, santuario a più piani, da ghantasala, 90-110 ca..JPG|Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]] Stupa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|date=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-312-0|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA41|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Le|first1=Huu Phuoc|title=Buddhist Architecture|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8|page=238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA238|language=en}}</ref>
}}
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.<ref name="stein">{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> The [[Gupta Empire]] (4th–6th century) is regarded as the [[Golden Age of India]], although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the [[Sangam literature]] flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.<ref>''A Social History of Early India'' by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 259</ref> During this period, [[Economic history of India|India's economy]] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|date=17 September 2006 |url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]|isbn=978-92-64-02262-1|page=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en}}</ref>

=== Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE) ===

==== Shunga Empire ====
{{Main|Shunga Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 3
| total_width       = 450
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Shunga Empire
| image1            = East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg
| caption1          = East Gateway and Railings, [[Bharhut]] [[Stupa]], 2nd century BCE.
| image2            = Royal family Sunga West Bengal 1st century BCE.jpg
| caption2          = Shunga art [[Ancient vina]], 1st century BCE.
| image3            = MET DT6881.jpg
| caption3          = Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.
}}

The Shungas originated from [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78&nbsp;BCE. The dynasty was established by [[Pushyamitra Shunga]], who overthrew the last [[Maurya Empire|Maurya emperor]]. Its capital was [[Pataliputra]], but later emperors, such as [[Bhagabhadra]], also held court at [[Vidisha]], modern [[Besnagar]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stadtner|first=Donald|year=1975|title=A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|pages=101–104|issn=0004-3648|jstor=3250214|doi=10.2307/3250214}}</ref>

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son [[Agnimitra]]. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;<ref>K. A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970), [https://books.google.com/books?id=E3tDAAAAYAAJ ''A Comprehensive History of India: Volume 2''], p. 108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'".</ref> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<ref>Bhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain" in [https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC ''Between the Empires: Society in India, 300 to 400''] ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p. 96</ref> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], [[Satavahana dynasty]] of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], the [[Indo-Greeks]], and possibly the [[Panchala]]s and [[Mitra dynasty (Mathura)|Mitras of Mathura]].

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at [[Bharhut]] and the renowned Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]]. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of [[Brahmi]] and was used to write the [[Sanskrit language]]. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising [[Indian culture]] at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.

==== Satavahana Empire ====
{{Main|Satavahana Empire}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| title = Satavahana Empire
| image1 = Sanchi Stupa No.2 Front view1.jpg
| caption1=[[Sanchi|Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway]], 1st century CE ([[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]).
| image2 = Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg
|caption2=Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
}}
The Śātavāhanas were based from [[Amaravathi, Palnadu district|Amaravati]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]] as well as [[Junnar]] ([[Pune]]) and Prathisthan ([[Paithan]]) in [[Maharashtra]]. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the [[Mauryan dynasty]], but declared independence with its decline.

The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) to [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]]. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the [[Shunga Empire]] and then the [[Kanva dynasty]] of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the [[Sakas]], [[Yavanas]] and [[Pahlavas]]. In particular, their struggles with the [[Western Kshatrapas]] went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] and [[Sri Yajna Sātakarni]] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the [[Western Kshatrapas]] and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA113|title=Studies in Indian Coins|isbn=9788120829732|last1=Sircar|first1=D. C.|year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers}}</ref>

==== Trade and travels to India ====
{{Further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
[[File:Silk route copy.jpg|thumb|right|[[Silk Road]] and [[Spice trade]], ancient trade routes that linked India with the [[Old World]]; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.]]
The [[spice trade]] in [[Kerala]] attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port [[Muziris]] had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000&nbsp;BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]]. [[Jewish]] traders arrived in [[Kochi]], [[Kerala, India]] as early as 562 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schreiber|first=Mordecai|title=The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=Schreiber Publishing|location=Rockville, MD|isbn=978-1-887563-77-2|page=125}}</ref> The [[Greco-Roman world]] followed by trading along the [[incense route]] and the [[Indo-Roman trade relations|Roman-India routes]].{{sfn|Law|1978|p=164}} During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian]] ports such as [[Aden]].<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/alex5.htm ''Greatest emporium in the world''], CSI, UNESCO.</ref> During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and [[Ethiopian]]s that became the maritime trading power of the [[Red Sea]].

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took [[Indian cuisine]] to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and [[curry|curries]] became popular with the native inhabitants.{{sfn|Collingham|2006|p=245}} Buddhism entered China through the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Silk Road]] in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA506|title=The Medical Times and Gazette, Volume 1|year=1867|publisher=John Churchill|location=London|page=506}}</ref> Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.{{sfn|Donkin|2003|pp=67, 60–70}}

==== Kushan Empire ====
{{Main|Kushan Empire}}

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 300
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Kushan Empire
| image1            = Map of the Kushan Empire.png
| caption1          = Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription
| image2            = Kanishka Buddha detail.jpg
| caption2          = Depiction of the [[Buddha]] in Kanishka's coinage, [[Mathura art]], 2nd century CE
}}

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, [[Kujula Kadphises]], about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian speaking]] tribe,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Loewe|first1=Michael|last2=Shaughnessy|first2=Edward L.|author-link1=Michael Loewe|author-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC|year=1999|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|access-date=1 November 2013|pages=87–88}}</ref> one of five branches of the [[Yuezhi]] confederation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Runion|first=Meredith L.|title=The history of Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=978-0-313-33798-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653/page/n66 46]|quote=The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinrui|title=Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history|year=2001|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-56639-832-9|page=156|editor=Adas, Michael}}</ref> By the time of his grandson, [[Kanishka the Great]], the empire spread to encompass much of [[Afghanistan]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120307154447/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm ''Buddhist Records of the Western World''] Si-Yu-Ki, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new [[Hindu]] majority.<ref>{{cite book|author=Grégoire Frumkin|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|year=1970|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=[https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum/page/51 51]–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rafi U. Samad|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93|year=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|pages=93–}}</ref> Historian [[Vincent Arthur Smith|Vincent Smith]] said about Kanishka:

{{Blockquote|He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<ref>Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</ref>}}

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the [[Silk Road]] through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and [[Roman empire|Rome]]. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming [[Gandhara art]] and [[Mathura art]], which reached its peak during Kushan rule.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|author2=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/151 151]–}}</ref> The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as ''[[Pax Kushana]]''. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was [[Vasudeva I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|publisher=kushan.org|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|access-date=6 January 2017|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, ''Buddhist Records of the Western World'', (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref>

=== Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE) ===

==== Gupta Empire ====
{{Main|Gupta Empire}}
{{Further|Meghadūta|Abhijñānaśākuntala|Kumārasambhava|Panchatantra|Aryabhatiya|Indian numerals|Kama Sutra}}

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 350
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Gupta Empire
| image1            = Map of the Gupta Empire.png
| caption1          = [[Gupta Empire]] around 420&nbsp;CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.
| image2            = Mahabodhitemple.jpg
| caption2          = Current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
}}

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|archive-date=30 March 2010}}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as [[Kalidasa]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Varahamihira]], [[Vishnu Sharma]], and [[Vatsyayana]]. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – [[Chandragupta I]], [[Samudragupta]], and [[Chandragupta II]] – brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html|title=The Story of India&nbsp;– Photo Gallery|publisher=PBS|access-date=16 May 2010}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.<ref>Coedes, G. (1968) ''The Indianized States of Southeast Asia'' Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Introduction... ''The geographic area here called ''Farther India'' consists of Indonesia, or island Southeast Asia....''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Philippe Groslier|title=The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia|url=https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Crown Publishers}}</ref> The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as ''[[Pax Gupta]]''.

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the [[Alchon Huns]], who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamiyan]].<ref>Iaroslav Lebedynsky, ''Les Nomades'', p. 172.</ref> However, much of the southern India including [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] were largely unaffected by these events.<ref>''Early History of India'', p. 339, Dr V.A. Smith; See also ''Early Empire of Central Asia'' (1939), W.M. McGovern.</ref><ref>''Ancient India'', 2003, p. 650, Dr V.D. Mahajan; ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj'', p. 50, Dr [[R.C. Majumdar]], Dr A.D. Pusalkar.</ref>

==== Vakataka Empire ====
{{Main|Vakataka Empire}}
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of [[Malwa]] and [[Gujarat]] in the north to the [[Tungabhadra River]] in the south as well as from the [[Arabian Sea]] in the western to the edges of [[Chhattisgarh]] in the east. They were the most important successors of the [[Satavahanas]] in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], contemporaneous with the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]] in northern India and succeeded by the [[Vishnukundina dynasty]].

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of [[Ajanta Caves]] (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, [[Harishena]].<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year=1990|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/173 173]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref>The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. [http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta.asp The ASI say] "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:AJANTA CAVES - C.SHELARE (2).jpg|[[Ajanta Caves]], 30 [[rock cut architecture|rock-cut]] Buddhist cave monument built under the [[Vakatakas]].
|File:Ajanta Cave 26 Dagoba with praying monks.jpg|Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
|File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
|File:Ajanta Cave 17 frescoe.jpg|Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
}}

==== Kamarupa Kingdom ====
{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}
[[File:Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings.jpg|120px|thumb|Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at [[Madan Kamdev]] ruins.|alt=]]
[[Samudragupta]]'s 4th-century [[Allahabad Pillar#Samudragupta inscription|Allahabad pillar inscription]] mentions Kamarupa ([[Western Assam]])<ref>Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", p. 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and [[Davaka]] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", p. 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present [[Sadiya]] and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, [[North Bengal]], parts of [[Bangladesh]] and, at times [[Purnea]] and parts of [[West Bengal]].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in [[Kalika Purana]]) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref>

Ruled by three dynasties [[Varman dynasty|Varmanas]] (c. 350–650&nbsp;CE), [[Mlechchha dynasty]] (c. 655–900&nbsp;CE) and [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]] (c. 900–1100&nbsp;CE), from their capitals in present-day [[Guwahati]] ([[Pragjyotishpura]]), Tezpur ([[Haruppeswara]]) and [[North Gauhati]] ([[Durjaya]]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from [[Narakasura]].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the reign of the Varman king, [[Bhaskar Varman]] (c. 600–650&nbsp;CE), the Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] visited the [[Kamrup region|region]] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255&nbsp;CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185&nbsp;CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255&nbsp;CE) dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|date=1990|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|edition=1st|location=Guwahati, India|publisher=Assam Publication Board|oclc=499315420}}</ref> The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the [[Khen dynasty]] under [[Sandhya (ruler of Kamarupa)|Sandhya]] of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the [[Kamata kingdom]].<ref>Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H.K., ''The Comprehensive History of Assam'', 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48</ref>

==== Pallava Empire ====
{{Main|Pallava Empire}}[[File:Shore temple, mahabalipuram.jpg|thumb|[[Shore Temple]] ([[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) at [[Mahabalipuram]] built by [[Narasimhavarman II]].|alt=]]The [[Pallava]]s, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the [[Gupta]]s of the [[North India|North]], great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the [[South India|South]] of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called [[Grantha script|Grantha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyknowledge.com/pallava.htm|title=Pallava script|date=30 December 2010|publisher=SkyKnowledge.com}}</ref> Early Pallavas had different connexions to [[Southeast Asia]]n countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in [[Mamallapuram]], [[Kanchipuram]] and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic [[Hindu temple architecture|temple architecture]] and sculpture style of [[Vastu Shastra]].<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, pp. 412–413</ref>

Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of [[Mahendravarman I]] (571–630 CE) and [[Narasimhavarman I]] (630–668 CE) and dominated the [[Telugu people|Telugu]] and northern parts of the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] region until the end of the 9th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day|publisher=World Publications Group|others=John Grayson Kirk|year=2005|isbn=978-1-57215-421-6|editor1-last=Hall|editor1-first=John Whitney|location=North Dighton, MA|page=246|chapter=India|orig-year=1988}}</ref>

==== Kadamba Empire ====
{{Main|Kadamba Empire}}
[[File:Close up view of shrines at Lakshmi Devi temple complex at Doddagaddavalli.JPG|thumb|Kadamba ''shikara'' (tower) with ''Kalasa'' (pinnacle) on top, [[Doddagaddavalli]].|alt=]]

Kadambas originated from [[Karnataka]], was founded by [[Mayurasharma]] in 345&nbsp;CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of [[Pallavas of Kanchi]] possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of [[Kakusthavarma]], a notable ruler with whom the kings of [[Gupta Dynasty]] of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the [[Chalukya]] and the [[Rashtrakuta]] empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties ([[Kadambas of Goa]], [[Kadambas of Halasi]] and [[Kadambas of Hangal]]).

==== Empire of Harsha ====
{{Main|Harsha|Pushyabhuti dynasty}}
[[Harsha]] ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of [[Prabhakarvardhana]] and the younger brother of [[Rajyavardhana]], who were members of the [[Vardhana dynasty]] and ruled [[Thanesar]], in present-day [[Haryana]].
[[File:Harshavardhana Circa AD 606-647.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of [[Harsha|Emperor Harsha]], c. 606–647 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261204|title=CNG: eAuction 329. India, Post-Gupta (Ganges Valley). Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. Harshavardhana. Circa AD 606–647. AR Drachm (13&nbsp;mm, 2.28 g, 1h).|website=cngcoins.com}}</ref>|alt=]]

After the downfall of the prior [[Gupta Empire]] in the middle of the 6th century, [[North India]] reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.<ref>RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Medieval India</ref> At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until [[Kamarupa]], and South until [[Narmada River]]; and eventually made [[Kannauj]] (in present [[Uttar Pradesh]]) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.<ref name="Historic Places p.507">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p. 507</ref>

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from [[Surya]] worship.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|title=Harsha|year=2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> His biography ''[[Harshacharita]]'' ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet [[Banabhatta]], describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied ''Dhavalagriha'' (White Mansion).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sthanvishvara (historical region, India)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/566090/Sthanvishvara|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harsha (Indian emperor)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref>

== Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200) ==
{{Main|Medieval India|Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|Tripartite Struggle}}
Early [[medieval India]] began after the end of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 6th century&nbsp;CE.<ref name="stein" /> This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the [[Empire of Harsha]] in the 7th century,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in Northern India;{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} the beginning of Imperial [[Kannauj]], leading to the [[Tripartite struggle]]; and the end of the [[Later Cholas]] with the death of [[Rajendra Chola III]] in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in the south around the 17th century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, [[Śrauta]] sacrifices declined, and support for [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaktism]] expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanderson|first=Alexis|year=2009|chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period|editor-last=Einoo|editor-first=Shingo|title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism|location=Tokyo|publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo|series=Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series|volume=23|pages=41–43|isbn=978-4-7963-0188-6}}</ref> Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical [[Hinduism]] formed in the [[Hindu synthesis]], and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.<ref>Sarao, ''Decline of Buddhism in India''</ref>

In the 7th century, [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa]] formulated his school of [[Mimamsa]] philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.<ref>Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', ed. Ian McGready, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 198–201. {{ISBN|0-06-270085-5}}.</ref>

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the [[Gurjara Pratihara]]s of Malwa, the [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of Bengal, and the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] of the Deccan. The [[Sena dynasty]] would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the [[Chandelas of Bundelkhand|Kingdom of Bundelkhand]], the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kingdom of Dahala]], the [[Tomaras]] of [[Haryana]], and the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Kingdom of Sambhar]], these states were some of the earliest [[List of Rajput dynasties and states|Rajput kingdoms]];<ref>{{cite book|title=India: The Ancient Past. A History of the Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200|first=Burjor|last=Avari|author-link=Burjor Avari|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-203-08850-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmB_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT204|pages=204–205|quote=Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs}}</ref> while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the [[Western Chalukyas]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=93}} During this period, the [[Chaulukya dynasty]] emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the [[Dilwara Temples]], [[Sun Temple, Modhera|Modhera Sun Temple]], [[Rani ki vav]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Vinod Chandra Srivastava|year=2008|title=History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D.|publisher=Concept|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA857|page=857|isbn=978-81-8069-521-6}}</ref> in the style of [[Māru-Gurjara architecture]], and their capital Anhilwara (modern [[Patan, Gujarat]]) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in {{circa}} 1000.

The [[Chola Empire]] emerged as a major power during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]] and [[Rajendra Chola I]] who successfully [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|invaded parts of Southeast Asia]] and [[Chola occupation of Sri Lanka (993-1077)|Sri Lanka]] in the 11th century.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129">''The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India'' by Balaji Sadasivan p. 129</ref> [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri [[Karkoṭa dynasty]], which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by [[Lohara dynasty]]. [[Kalhana]] in his [[Rajatarangini]] credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|year=2006|title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India|publisher=University of California Press|pages=241–242|isbn=978-0-520-93202-9}}</ref><ref>Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). [http://www.ikashmir.net/glimpses/doc/glimpses.pdf ''The Kashmir Series: Glimpses of Kashmiri Culture – Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari'' (p. 57).]</ref><ref>R. C. Mazumdar, ''Ancient India'', p. 383</ref>

The [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga Empire]] rose to power; noted for the advancement of [[Hindu architecture]], most notable being [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] and [[Konark Sun Temple]], as well as being patrons of art and literature.
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Martand Sun Temple Central shrine (6133772365).jpg|[[Martand Sun Temple]] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity [[Surya]], and built by the third ruler of the [[Karkoṭa Empire|Karkota dynasty]], [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]], in the 8th century
|File:Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|[[Konark Sun Temple]] at [[Konark]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], built by [[Narasimhadeva I]] (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
|File:Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] in the [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho complex]] was built by the [[Chandela]]s
|File:PURI JAGANATHA TEMPLE, PURI, ORISSA, INDIA, ASIA.jpg|[[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]], built by [[Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva]] of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
}}

===Later Gupta dynasty===
{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
[[File:Map of the Later Guptas.jpg|thumb|Map of the Later Guptas]]
The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the [[Gupta Empire|imperial Guptas]] as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317476818|page=26}}</ref> The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|publisher=New Age|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980|page=246}}</ref>

=== Chalukya Empire ===
{{Main|Chalukya dynasty}}
The [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya Empire]] ruled large parts of southern and [[central India]] between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern [[Badami]]) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadamba]] kingdom of [[Banavasi]] and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of [[Pulakeshin&nbsp;II]]. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of [[Karnataka]]. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the [[Kaveri]] and the [[Narmada River]]s. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] between 970 and 1190.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Galaganatha Temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka.jpg|Galaganatha Temple at [[Pattadakal|Pattadakal complex]] ([[UNESCO World Heritage]]) is an example of [[Badami Chalukya architecture]]
|File:View of Bhutanatha temple in Badami during monsoon.jpg|[[Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami|Bhutanatha temple complex]] at [[Badami]], next to a [[waterfall]], during the monsoon.
|File:Vishnu image inside cave number 3 in Badami.jpg|[[Vishnu]] image inside the [[Badami cave temples|Badami Cave Temple Complex]]. Example of [[Indian rock-cut architecture]]
|File:Aihole Temple Karnataka.JPG|8th century Durga temple exterior view at [[Aihole|Aihole complex]]. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments
}}

=== Rashtrakuta Empire ===
{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
Founded by [[Dantidurga]] around 753,{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=334}} the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at [[Manyakheta]] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=19–20}}</ref> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the [[Ganges-Yamuna Doab]] in the north to [[Cape Comorin]] in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=83, 85, 97}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians|last=Puttaswamy|first=T.K.|year=2012|chapter=Mahavira|pages=231|publisher=Elsevier Publications|place=London|isbn=978-0-12-397913-1}}</ref>

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=380}} [[Govinda III]] and [[Amoghavarsha]] were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote [[Kavirajamarga]], the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<ref name="Chandra" />{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=380–381}} Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at [[Pattadakal]] in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.{{sfn|Daniélou|2003|p=170}} The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician [[Mahāvīra (mathematician)|Mahāvīra]] had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.<ref>''The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry'' by William L. Hosch p. 105</ref> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.<ref name="Chandra" />
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg|[[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailasa temple]], is one of the largest [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] ancient [[Hindu temple]]s located in [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]]
|File:Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg|[[Shikhara]] of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves
|File:Ellora cave10 002.jpg|Statue of the [[Buddha]] seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).
|File:Ellora Caves 86.jpg|[[Jain]] [[Tirthankara]] [[Mahavira]] with [[Yaksha]] Matanga and [[Yakshi]] Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves
}}

=== Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ===
{{Main|Gurjara-Pratihara Empire}}
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the [[Indus River]]. [[Nagabhata I]] defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the [[Umayyad campaigns in India]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=283–284}}</ref> Under [[Nagabhata II]], the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son [[Ramabhadra]], who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, [[Mihira Bhoja]]. Under Bhoja and his successor [[Mahendrapala I]], the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of [[Sindh]] in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the [[Narmada River]] in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=204}} The expansion triggered a [[Tripartite Struggle|tripartite power struggle]] with the [[Rashtrakuta]] and [[Pala Empire|Pala]] empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.

By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the [[Chandelas of Bundelkhand|Kingdom of Bundelkhand]], the [[Tomaras]] of [[Haryana]], and the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Kingdom of Sambhar]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=285–286}}</ref> and the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kingdom of Dahala]].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|One of the four entrances of the [[Teli ka Mandir]], built by the Pratihara emperor [[Mihira Bhoja]].<ref>{{cite book|author=K.D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref>
|File:Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg|Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, [[Gwalior Fort]]
|File:Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside [[Siddhachal Caves]], Gwalior Fort
|File:Baroli Temple Complex1.jpg|Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at [[Baroli Temples|Baroli Temples complex]]. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure
}}

=== Gahadavala dynasty ===
{{Main|Gahadavala dynasty}}
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day [[Indian states]] of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at [[Varanasi]].{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}

===Karnat dynasty===
{{Main|Karnat dynasty}}
[[File:Pillar at Simroungarh.jpg|thumb|Pillar from the Karnat capital of [[Simraungadh (medieval city)|Simraungadh]]]]
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in [[Darbhanga]] and [[Simraungadh|Simraongadh]]. The dynasty was established by [[Nanyadeva]], a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the [[Maithili language|Maithili]] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the [[Varna Ratnakara]] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into [[Nepal]]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of [[Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sinha|first1=CPN|title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|date=1969|volume=31|pages=66–72|jstor=44138330}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chakrabarty|first1=Dilip|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=47–48|isbn=978-0-19-908832-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+focus+of+the+history+of+bihar+in+the+eleventh+and+twelfth+century+is+on+Mithila&pg=PT115}}</ref>

=== Pala Empire ===
[[File:Nalanda University India ruins.jpg|thumb|right|Excavated ruins of [[Nalanda]], a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193]]

{{Main|Pala Empire}}
The Pala Empire was founded by [[Gopala I]].<ref>''[[Epigraphia Indica]]'', XXIV, p. 43, Dr N.G. Majumdar</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nitish K. Sengupta|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4|pages=43–45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Biplab Dasgupta|title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341|date=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-029-7|pages=341–}}</ref> It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of [[Shashanka]]'s [[Gauda Kingdom]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=112, 119}}

The Palas were followers of the [[Mahayana]] and [[Tantric Buddhism|Tantric]] schools of Buddhism,<ref>''History of Buddhism in India'', Translation by A Shiefner</ref> they also patronised [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].<ref name="ChandraPala">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=13–15}}</ref> The empire reached its peak under [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.<ref name="ChandraPala" />

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}} Dharmapala founded the [[Vikramashila]] and revived Nalanda,<ref name="ChandraPala" /> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}}<ref>{{cite book|title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201|year=2003|editor1=PN Chopra|editor2=BN Puri|editor3=MN Das|editor4=AC Pradhan|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-81-207-2503-4|pages=200–202}}</ref> The Palas also built many [[vihara]]s. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and [[Tibet]]. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.

=== Cholas ===
{{Main|Chola dynasty|Chola Empire}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|250px|[[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola]], {{circa}} 1030]]
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<ref>''History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D.'' by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p. 237</ref> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129" /> Under [[Rajaraja Chola I]] and his successors [[Rajendra Chola I]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola]], [[Virarajendra Chola]] and [[Kulothunga Chola I]] the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=116}}<ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=215}}: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.</ref> Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty|publisher=En.articlesgratuits.com|date=22 August 2007|access-date=23 September 2009|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|archive-date=20 January 2010}}</ref> the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], the [[Lakshadweep]] (Laccadive) islands, [[Sumatra]], and the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the [[Ganges]] which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of [[Srivijaya]] in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref>[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p. 158</ref>

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.<ref>''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations'' by Tansen Sen p. 229</ref> Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B.V. Rao p. 297</ref> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<ref>''Indian Civilization and Culture'' by Suhas Chatterjee p. 417</ref>

[[File:Ranganathaswamy temple tiruchirappalli.jpg|300px|thumb|centre|[[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple]] is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/|title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam}}</ref> present in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]] ]]
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Big Temple-Temple.jpg|The granite [[gopuram|gopuram (tower)]] of [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]], 1010
|File:Chariot detail, Airavatesvara, Tamil Nadu.jpg|Chariot detail at [[Airavatesvara Temple]] built by [[Rajaraja Chola II]] in the 12th century
|File:Back view of Raja gopuram.jpg|The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at [[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadisvara Temple]].
|File:Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.JPG|Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at [[Thanjavur]]
}}

=== Western Chalukya Empire ===
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the [[Deccan Plateau|western Deccan]], South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Medieval India p.24">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p. 24</ref> Vast areas between the [[Narmada River]] in the north and [[Kaveri River]] in the south came under Chalukya control.<ref name="Medieval India p.24" /> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the [[Hoysalas]], the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri]], the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] and the [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Southern Kalachuris]], were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.<ref>''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'' by Sailendra Nath Sen pp. 403–405</ref>

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the [[Kasivisvesvara Temple]] at [[Lakkundi]], the [[Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti|Mallikarjuna Temple]] at Kuruvatti, the [[Kalleshvara Temple, Bagali|Kallesvara Temple]] at Bagali, [[Siddhesvara Temple]] at Haveri, and the [[Mahadeva Temple (Itagi)|Mahadeva Temple]] at Itagi.<ref>''World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India'', Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd pp. 132–134</ref> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman [[Basava]] and the great mathematician [[Bhāskara II]].<ref>''History of Kannada Literature'' by E.P. Rice p. 32</ref><ref>''Bilhana'' by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Profile of the vimana (sanctum outerwall and tower) of the Siddhesvara temple at Haveri 2.JPG|Shrine outer wall and ''Dravida'' style superstructure (''[[shikhara]]'') at [[Siddhesvara Temple]] at [[Haveri]]
|File:Ornate entrance to closed mantapa in Kalleshvara temple at Bagali.JPG|Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at [[Kalleshvara Temple, Bagali|Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali]]
|File:Shrine wall frieze and relief in Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti.JPG|Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in [[Mallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti|Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti]]
|File:Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district.JPG|Rear view showing lateral entrances of the [[Mahadeva Temple, Itagi|Mahadeva Temple at Itagi]]
}}

== Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526) ==
{{Main|Medieval India}}
{{see also|Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent}}
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=53}}

=== Delhi Sultanate ===
{{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries.<ref name="delhi">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156530/Delhi-sultanate Delhi Sultanate], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref> The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html|title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India|last=Bartel|first=Nick|year=1999|website=The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html|archive-date=12 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The subsequent [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]] of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. The [[Khalji dynasty]] conquered much of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become [[vassal state]]s.<ref name="delhi" />

The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of [[Urdu]] was born during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, [[Razia Sultana]] ({{reign|1236|1240}}).

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–52}} However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Richard Eaton (2000), [https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States], Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp. 283–319</ref>

The [[Mongol invasions of India]] were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of [[Alauddin Khalji]]. A major factor in their success was their Turkic [[Mamluk]] slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–51}} By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}} the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp = 50–51}}

A [[Turco-Mongol]] conqueror from Central Asia, [[Timur]] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultan [[Mahmud Shah II|Nasir-u Din Mehmud]] of the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] in Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|title=Timur – conquest of India|website=Gardenvisit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the [[sayyid]]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson|pages=445–446}}</ref> The sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the [[Sayyid dynasty|Sayyid]] and [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]] dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi until the defeat of the last sultan, [[Ibrahim Khan Lodi]], [[First Battle of Panipat|in 1526]] to the forces of [[Babur]].<ref>{{Encyclopaedia Islamica|title=Delhi Sultanate|url=https://referenceworks.brill-com/display/entries/ISLO/COM-037181.xml?rskey=FlvuV6|first1=Huda Seyyed|last1=Hussein-zadeh|first2=Isabel|last2=Miller|translator-first=Mushegh|translator-last=Asatryan|date=2018}}</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Qutb minar ruins.jpg|[[Qutb Minar]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], whose construction was begun by [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], the first Sultan of Delhi.
|File:Nizamuddin Dargah and Jamaat Khana Masjid, Delhi.jpg|[[Dargah]]s of [[Suffism|Sufi]]-saint [[Nizamuddin Auliya]], and poet and musician [[Amir Khusro]] in Delhi.
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}}

=== Vijayanagara Empire ===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire}}
[[File:Sangamas of the Vijayanagara Empire.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the [[Sangama dynasty]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] ]]
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by [[Harihara I]] and his brother [[Bukka Raya I]] of [[Sangama Dynasty]],<ref>''History of Classical Sanskrit Literature'': by M. Srinivasachariar p. 211</ref> which originated as a political heir of the [[Hoysala Empire]], [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Empire]],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=28–29}} and the [[Pandyan Empire]].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=239}} The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off [[Islamic invasions of India|Islamic invasions]] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the [[Deccan sultanates]]. The empire is named after its capital city of [[Vijayanagara]], whose ruins surround present day [[Hampi]], now a [[World Heritage Site]] in Karnataka, India.<ref>''South India'' by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p. 32</ref>

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of [[Arcot]], the [[Reddy]]s of Kondavidu, and the [[Madurai Sultanate|Sultan of Madurai]] and had gained control over [[Goa]] in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna [[doab]] in the north.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=170–171}}{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=317}}

[[Harihara II]], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the [[Krishna River]] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref>The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to {{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, [[Deva Raya I]], emerged successful against the [[Gajapatis]] of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref>From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Bowman|editor-first=John Stewart|year=2000|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=271|isbn=0-231-11004-9}}</ref> [[Deva Raya II]] succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=244}} He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Quilon]] in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of [[Myanmar|Burma]] at [[Pegu]] and [[Tanintharyi Division|Tanasserim]].<ref>From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=245}})</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=173}}<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p. 11)</ref>

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref>From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. ({{harvnb|Kamath|1980|p=189}})</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526|s2cid=163090404}}</ref> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of [[Shiva]]), but made grants to the [[Vaishnava]] order of [[Sringeri]] with [[Vidyaranya]] as their patron saint, and designated ''[[Varaha]]'' (an [[avatar]] of Vishnu) as their emblem.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=188-189}} Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|page=50|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> The later [[Saluva]] and [[Tuluva]] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord [[Venkateshwara]] (Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|pages=41, 43|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref>{{cite book|last=Wagoner|first=Phillip B.|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=John. M.|editor2-last=Michell|editor2-first=George|year=2001|chapter=Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas|title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|publisher=Marg Publications|page=14|isbn=81-85026-53-X}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the [[dvaita]] order (philosophy of dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]] at [[Udupi]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=189}}

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| Photograph of the ruins of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] at [[Hampi]], now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868<ref>"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241 UNESCO World Heritage List].</ref>
|File:Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their [[war elephants]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html|title=Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables|publisher=Vijayanagara.org|date=9 February 2014|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517222359/http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/Ele_Stables.html|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|File:Krishna Pushkarani - Hampi Ruins.jpg|Vijayanagara marketplace at [[Hampi]], along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
|File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi
}}

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] founded the famous [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics]] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like [[Parameshvara]], [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] and [[Jyeṣṭhadeva]].<ref>''History of Science and Philosophy of Science'' by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p. 91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)'' by Satish Chandra pp. 188–189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>''Art History'', Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p. 243</ref>

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the [[Battle of Talikota]] (1565). After the death of [[Aliya Rama Raya]] in the Battle of Talikota, [[Tirumala Deva Raya]] started the [[Aravidu dynasty]], moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=100–101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=li–lii}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=101–115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Kingdom]], [[Keladi Nayaka]], [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Nayaks of Tanjore]], [[Nayakas of Chitradurga]] and [[Nayaks of Gingee|Nayak Kingdom of Gingee]]&nbsp;– all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}

=== Other kingdoms ===
{{Main|Guhila dynasty|Kingdom of Mewar}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=130|File:Tower of victory.jpg
|[[Vijaya Stambha]] (Tower of Victory).
|File:Temple in Rajasthan.jpg|Temple inside [[Chittorgarh fort]]
|File:Man Singh Palace as viewed in the early hours of the morning.JPG|Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the [[Gwalior fort]]
|File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|Chinese manuscript ''Tribute Giraffe with Attendant'', depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan [[Saifuddin Hamza Shah]] of Bengal to the [[Yongle Emperor]] of [[Ming China]]
|File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education
|||title=}}

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the [[Chero dynasty]] ruled much of Eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] from the 12th to the 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71|title=Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn=9789352667697|last1=Singh|first1=Pradyuman|date=19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Surendra Gopal|title=Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCZFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-03416-6|pages=289–295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Surinder Singh|author2=I. D. Gaur|title=Popular Literature and Pre-modern Societies in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC&pg=PA77|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1358-7|pages=77–}}</ref> The [[Reddy dynasty]] successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from [[Cuttack]] in the north to [[Kanchi]] in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gordon Mackenzie|title=A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10|year=1990|orig-year=First published 1883|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0544-2|pages=9–10, 224–}}</ref>

In the north, the [[Rajput kingdoms]] remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The [[Mewar dynasty]] under [[Maharana Hammir]] defeated and captured [[Muhammad Tughlaq]] with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the [[Punjab]]. The [[Tomaras of Gwalior|Tomaras]] established themselves at [[Gwalior]], and [[Man Singh Tomar]] reconstructed the [[Gwalior Fort]].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-93-80607-34-4|pages=116–117}}</ref> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and [[Rana Kumbha]] expanded his kingdom at the expense of the [[Sultan]]ates of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]] and [[Sultanate of Gujarat|Gujarat]].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>''Lectures on Rajput history and culture'' by Dr. [[Dasharatha Sharma]]. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. {{ISBN|0-8426-0262-3}}.</ref> The next great Rajput ruler, [[Rana Sanga]] of Mewar, became the principal player in [[Northern India]]. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the [[Battle of Khanwa]] consolidated the new [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.<ref name="sen2" /> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana [[Udai Singh II]] faced further defeat by Mughal emperor [[Akbar]], with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded [[Udaipur]], which became the new capital of the [[Udaipur State|Mewar kingdom]]. His son, [[Maharana Pratap]] of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the [[Chittor Fort]].<ref>John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</ref>

In the south, the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] in the Deccan, born from a [[Rebellion of Ismail Mukh|rebellion]] in 1347 against the [[Tughlaq dynasty]],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=41–42}} was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five [[Deccan sultanates]]; [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]] declared independence, followed by [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] and [[Berar sultanate|Berar]] in the same year; [[Golconda Sultanate|Golkonda]] became independent in 1518 and [[Bidar Sultanate|Bidar]] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-first=R. C.|editor-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1974|title=The Mughul Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VII|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=412}}</ref> Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=George|first2=Mark|last2=Zebrowski|title=Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|location=Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ|isbn=0-521-56321-6|page=10}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=98}}

In the East, the [[Gajapati Kingdom]] remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under [[Kapilendradeva]], Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower [[Ganga]] in the north to the [[Kaveri]] in the south.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=R. C.|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|title=The Delhi Sultanate|url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/367/mode/1up|year=1980|orig-year=First published 1960|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VI|edition=3rd|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|oclc=664485|pages=367|quote=[Describing the Gajapati kings of Orissa] Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.}}</ref> In [[Northeast India]], the [[Ahom Kingdom]] was a major power for six centuries;<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Yasmin Saikia]]|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8|date=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2|page=8}}</ref> led by [[Lachit Borphukan]], the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the [[Battle of Saraighat]] during the [[Ahom-Mughal conflicts]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Sarkar|first=J.N.|contribution=Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|volume=2|publisher=Assam Publication Board|place=Guwahati|year=1992|page=213}}</ref> Further east in Northeastern India was the [[Kingdom of Manipur]], which ruled from their seat of power at [[Kangla Fort]] and developed a sophisticated Hindu [[Gaudiya Vaishnavite]] culture.{{Sfn|Williams|2004|pp=83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela}}{{Sfn|Massey|2004|p=177}}{{Sfn|Devi|1990|pp=175–180}}

The [[Sultanate of Bengal]] was the dominant power of the [[Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta]], with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a [[Sunni Muslim]] monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and [[Bengali Muslim]] elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of [[vassal states]], including [[Odisha]] in the southwest, [[Arakan]] in the southeast, and [[Tripura]] in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over [[Kamarupa|Kamrup]] and [[Kamata Kingdom|Kamata]] in the northeast and [[Jaunpur district|Jaunpur]] and [[Bihar]] in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct [[Architecture of Bengal|Bengali style.]] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the [[history of Bengal]]. Its decline began with an [[interregnum]] by the [[Suri Empire]], followed by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Bengal Subah|conquest]] and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

=== Bhakti movement and Sikhism ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Buddhism in India|Sikhism}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism}}
The Bhakti movement refers to the [[theism|theistic]] devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} and later revolutionised in [[Sikhism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johar|first1=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality|date=1999|publisher=MD Publications|isbn=978-81-7533-093-1|page=89}}</ref> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}}
* The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as [[Vaishnavism]] (Vishnu), [[Shaivism]] (Shiva), [[Shaktism]] (Shakti goddesses), and [[Smartism]].<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'' (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8146-5856-7}}, pp. 562–563</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], Encyclopædia Britannica; [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects The Four Denomination of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113071854/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=13 January 2020 }} Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] of [[Dvaita]] to absolute [[monism]] of [[Advaita Vedanta]].{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=2}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Novetzke|first=Christian|s2cid=144065168|year=2007|title=Bhakti and Its Public|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=11|issue=3|pages=255–272|jstor=25691067|doi=10.1007/s11407-008-9049-9}}</ref>
* Sikhism is a [[monotheistic]] and [[panentheistic]] religion based on the spiritual teachings of [[Guru Nanak]], the first Guru,<ref>Singh, Patwant (2000). ''The Sikhs''. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. p. 17. {{ISBN|0-375-40728-6}}.</ref> and the ten successive [[Sikh gurus]]. After the death of the tenth Guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]], the Sikh scripture, [[Guru Granth Sahib]], became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<ref>Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), ''Historical Dictionary of Sikhism'', 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-3600-4}}, p. 17</ref><ref>William James (2011), ''God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston'', McGill Queens University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-3889-4}}, pp. 241–242</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Gurinder Singh|year=2001|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture|url=https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann/page/n33 21]}}</ref>
* [[Buddhism in India]] flourished in the [[Himalaya]]n kingdoms of [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Namgyal Kingdom]] in [[Ladakh]], [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim Kingdom]] in [[Sikkim]], and [[Chutia Kingdom]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] of the Late medieval period.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Rang Ghar Sibsagar.jpg|[[Rang Ghar]], built by [[Pramatta Singha]] in [[Ahom kingdom]]'s capital [[Sibsagar|Rangpur]], is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent
|File: Chittorgarh fort.JPG| [[Chittor Fort]] is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]]
|File:Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain temple]] was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of [[Mewar]]
|File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|[[Gol Gumbaz]] built by the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine [[Hagia Sophia]]
}}

== Early modern period (1526–1858) ==
The [[early modern period]] of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the [[Mughal Empire]], which inherited from the [[Timurid Renaissance]]. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]];{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} the growth of [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] and [[Sikh Empire|Sikhs]] enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.<ref name="exeter">{{cite web|title=India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526–1857|website=[[University of Exeter]]|url=http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/}}</ref> With the discovery of the [[Cape route]] in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the [[Portuguese in Goa and Bombay]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITxsDwAAQBAJ&q=early+modern+India|title=Unwanted Neighbours: The Mughals, the Portuguese, and Their Frontier Zones|isbn=978-0-19-909368-7|last1=Flores|first1=Jorge|date=5 June 2018|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

=== Mughal Empire ===
{{Main|Mughal Empire}}
{{See also|Bengal Subah|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal architecture|Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal clothing|Mughal painting}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 450
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Mughal Empire
| image1            = Joppen1907India1700a.jpg
| caption1          = Map of the [[Mughal Empire]] at its peak in year 1700
| image2            = Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg
| caption2          = [[Taj Mahal]] is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] declaration, 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/|title=Taj Mahal|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
}}

In 1526, [[Babur]] swept across the [[Khyber Pass]] and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)|website=University of Calgary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170951/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> However, his son [[Humayun]] was defeated by the Afghan warrior [[Sher Shah Suri]] in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to [[Kabul]]. After Sher Shah's death, his son [[Islam Shah Suri]] and his Hindu general [[Hemu Vikramaditya]] established secular rule in North India from [[Delhi]] until 1556, when [[Akbar]] ({{Reign|1556|1605}}), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the [[Battle of Panipat (1556)|Second Battle of Panipat]] on 6 November 1556 after winning [[Battle of Delhi (1556)|Battle of Delhi]]. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the ''[[jizya]]'' tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local ''[[maharajas]]'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique [[Indo-Persian culture]] and [[Mughal architecture|Indo-Saracenic architecture]].

Akbar married a [[Rajput]] princess, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], and they had a son, [[Jahangir]] ({{Reign|1605|1627}}).<ref>Jeroen Duindam (2015), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ky2CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 ''Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300–1800'', p. 105], Cambridge University Press</ref> Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] ({{Reign|1628|1658}}) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the [[Taj Mahal]] at Agra.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Turchin|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|journal=[[Journal of World-Systems Research]]|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=14 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914101602/https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the [[world economy]],<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA261 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, p. 261</ref> and the world leader in manufacturing,<ref>{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|page=2}}</ref> producing 25% of global industrial output.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]], David Clingingsmith|publisher=[[Harvard University]]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal [[agrarian reform]]s that intensified agricultural production,<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=John F.|author-link=John F. Richards|year=1995|orig-year=First published 1993|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA190|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=190|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref> and a relatively high degree of [[urbanisation]].<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Abraham Eraly]]|year=2007|title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5|publisher=Penguin Books|page=5|isbn=978-0-14-310262-5}}</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center|title=Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites
|width=180|File:Agra Fort 20180908 143826.jpg|[[Agra Fort]] showing [[Yamuna]] river and Taj Mahal in the background
|File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg|[[Fatehpur Sikri]], near Agra, showing [[Buland Darwaza]], the complex built by [[Akbar]], the third Mughal emperor
|||File:Red Fort in Delhi 03-2016 img1.jpg|[[Red Fort]], Delhi, constructed in the year 1648
}}

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of [[Aurangzeb]] ({{Reign|1658|1707}}), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850|author=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2009|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|isbn=9789047429975}}</ref> Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the ''jizya'' tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|title=A History of State and Religion in India|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45950-4|page=119|display-authors=3}}</ref> employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|author=Audrey Truschke|author-link=Audrey Truschke|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=2017|pages=56, 58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=978-1-5036-0259-5}}</ref> However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The [[English East India Company]] suffered a defeat in the [[Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)|Anglo-Mughal War]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb|first=Farhat|last=Hasan|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=34|issue=4|year=1991|pages=351–360|doi=10.1163/156852091X00058|jstor=3632456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1|date=September 2017}}</ref>

[[File:1751 map of India from "Historical Atlas of India", by Charles Joppen.jpg|thumb|150px|18th-century political formation in India]]
The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], [[Rajput]]s, [[Bharatpur State|Jats]] and [[Durrani Empire|Afghans]]. In 1737, the Maratha general [[Bajirao]] of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler [[Suraj Mal]], overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Royina Grewal|title=In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-310265-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpFImGZdVEC&pg=PA220|page=220}}</ref> In 1739, [[Nader Shah]], emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the [[Battle of Karnal]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dupuy, R. Ernest|name-list-style=and|author2=Trevor N. Dupuy|title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History|edition=4th|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|year=1993|page=711}}</ref> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the [[Peacock Throne]].<ref>{{cite web|website=avalanchepress.com|title=Iran in the Age of the Raj|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] commenced his own invasions as ruler of the [[Durrani Empire]], eventually [[Sack of Delhi (1757)|sacking Delhi in 1757]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmU9AAAAMAAJ |title=Marathas and Panipat |date=1961 |publisher=Panjab University |language=en|page=326}}</ref> Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; [[Banda Singh Bahadur]] led the [[Sikh]] [[Khalsa]] against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu [[Raja]]s of Bengal, [[Pratapaditya]] and [[Raja Sitaram Ray]] revolted; and [[Maharaja]] [[Chhatrasal]], of [[Bundela]] Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the [[Panna State]].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=265}} The [[Mughal emperors|Mughal dynasty]] was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. [[Vadda Ghalughara]] took place under the Muslim provincial government based at [[Lahore]] to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the [[Chhota Ghallughara]],<ref>''A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=vcSRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 p. 86], Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005</ref> and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.<ref>[[Khushwant Singh]], ''A History of the Sikhs'', Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129</ref>

=== Maratha Empire ===
{{Main|Maratha Empire}}
{{Further|Maratha Army|Maratha Navy|Battles involving the Maratha Empire}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| title             = Maratha Empire
| image1            = India1760 1905.jpg
| caption1          = Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from [[South India]] to present-day [[Pakistan]]
| image2            = Shaniwarwada gate.JPG
| caption2          = [[Shaniwarwada]] palace fort in [[Pune]], the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818
}}

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by [[Chatrapati Shivaji]].<ref>''Shivaji and his Times'' (1919) – J.N. Sarkar</ref> However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to ''[[Peshwa]]'' (chief minister) [[Bajirao I]]. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".<ref>''[[An Advanced History of India]]'', Dr. K.K. Datta, p. 546</ref>

In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pearson|first=M.N.|date=February 1976|title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=2|pages=221–235|doi=10.2307/2053980|jstor=2053980|s2cid=162482005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|author=Capper, J.|date=1918|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|page=28|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|author=Sen, S.N.|date=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|page=1941|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued [[Battles involving the Maratha Empire|their military campaigns]] against the Mughals, [[Nizam]], [[Nawab of Bengal]] and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-12-01|title=Maratha empire {{!}} History, Definition, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha-Empire|access-date=2024-01-21|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting [[Vishwasrao]] Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghazi|first=Mahmood Ahmad|author-link=Mahmood Ahmed Ghazi|year=2002|title=Islamic Renaissance in South Asia 1707–1867: The Role of Shāh Walī Allāh and His Successors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QO4KjzuJ52QC&q=vishwasrao+peshwa+throne+delhi&pg=PA129|publisher=Islamic Research Institute|pages=129–130|isbn=969-408-232-3}}</ref>

The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from [[Tamil Nadu]] in the south,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|year=2005|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA204|publisher=New Dawn Press|page=204|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|quote=The Maratha Governor of Trichinopoly}}</ref> to [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|Peshawar]] (modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PR22|year=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|page=16}}</ref> {{#tag:ref|Many historians consider [[Attock]] to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire<ref>Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – ''[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]]: The Maratha supremacy''</ref>|group=note}}) in the north, and [[Maratha expeditions in Bengal|Bengal]] in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]].<ref>{{cite book|author=N.G. Rathod|title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8|year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-52-9|page=8}}</ref>

Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the [[Gaekwad]]s of [[Baroda State|Baroda]], the [[House of Holkar|Holkar]]s of [[Indore State|Indore]] and [[Malwa]], the [[Scindia]]s of [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] and [[Ujjain]], the [[Bhonsle (clan)|Bhonsale]]s of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]] and the [[Paramara dynasty|Puars]] of [[Dhar State|Dhar]] and [[Dewas State (Maratha Confederacy)|Dewas]]. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in [[Pune]], which led to the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]], resulting in a Maratha victory.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=M.S.|title=Battles of the Honorourable East India Company|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-81-313-0034-3|pages=63}}</ref> The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]s (1805–1818).

=== Sikh Empire ===
{{Main|Sikh Empire}}
{{See also|Sikh architecture}}
The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the [[Punjab]], from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the [[Khalsa]], under the leadership of [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] (1780–1839).{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Gulcharan|date=July 1981|title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War|journal=USI Journal|volume=111|issue=465|pages=184–192}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grewal|first=J.S.|author-link=J. S. Grewal|year=1990|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|publisher=Cambridge University Press|series=The New Cambridge History of India|volume=II.3|pages=101, 103–104|isbn=978-0-521-26884-4|quote=Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.}}</ref>

At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the [[Khyber Pass]] in the west, to [[Kashmir]] in the north, to [[Sindh]] in the south, running along Sutlej river to [[Himachal Pradesh|Himachal]] in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

=== Other kingdoms ===
[[File:India 1763 EN.svg|thumb|left|Territories of India in 1763]]
The [[Kingdom of Mysore]] in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under [[Hyder Ali]] and his son [[Tipu Sultan]] in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The [[Maratha–Mysore War]] ended in April 1787, following the finalising of ''treaty of Gajendragad'', in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] took place, where the Mysoreans used the [[Mysorean rockets]]. The [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the [[Siege of Seringapatam (1799)]].

Hyderabad was founded by the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]] of [[Golconda]] in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad]] in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the [[Battle of Palkhed]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-pmgxsWwoC&q=Bajirao+I&pg=PA12|title=History Modern India|first=S. N.|last=Sen|date=15 August 2006|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122417746|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. [[Hyderabad State]] became a princely state in British India in 1798.

The [[Nawab of Bengal|Nawabs of Bengal]] had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out [[Expeditions in Bengal|six expeditions in Bengal]] from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, [[Siraj ud-Daulah]], the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the [[Battle of Plassey]] by [[Mir Jafar]]. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the ''Masnad'' (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaudhury|first1=Sushil|last2=Mohsin|first2=KM|year=2012|chapter=Sirajuddaula|chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|editor1-last=Islam|editor1-first=Sirajul|editor1-link=Sirajul Islam|editor2-last=Jamal|editor2-first=Ahmed A.|title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh|edition=Second|publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|archive-date=14 June 2015|access-date=15 August 2018}}</ref> In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the ''Nizamat'' (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the [[British East India Company]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Vipul|date=2009|title=Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75avUTXB11AC&pg=PA29|publisher=Pearson Education India|pages=29–|isbn=978-8131728888}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=2009|title=Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnyaLNskRfEC&pg=PA11|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|pages=11–|isbn=978-81-7482-744-9}}</ref>

In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the [[Pindari]]s, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]], and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha [[Sindhia]] ruler of [[Gwalior]] gave up the district of [[Ajmer-Merwara]] to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.<ref>{{Citation|title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present|first=Jeremy|last=Black|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99039-8|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398|page=78}}</ref> Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the [[Revolt of 1857]], and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The [[Rajputana Agency]] contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being [[Udaipur State]], [[Jaipur State]], [[Bikaner State]] and [[Jodhpur State]].

After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many [[List of Maratha dynasties and states|Maratha dynasties and states]] became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1846, under the terms of the [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]], the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja [[Gulab Singh]] and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the [[Dogra dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|title=Treaty of Amritsar|access-date=25 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826235201/http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rai|first=Mridu|title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|pages=27, 133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5azvT2hjW0C|isbn=978-0-691-11688-4}}</ref> While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of [[Cooch Behar Kingdom]], [[Twipra Kingdom]] and [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.

After the fall of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Polygar]] states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the [[Polygar Wars]], where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA114|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-8424-568-4|pages=C-114|year=1988}}</ref> Around the 18th century, the [[Kingdom of Nepal]] was formed by Rajput rulers.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|date=20 May 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8|pages=138–}}</ref>

=== European exploration ===
{{Main|Colonial India}}
[[File:Gama route 1.svg|thumb|right|The route followed in [[Vasco da Gama]]'s first voyage (1497–1499)p]]

In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under [[Vasco da Gama]] discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in [[Velha Goa]], [[Damaon]], [[Dio island]], and [[Bombay]]. The Portuguese instituted the [[Goa Inquisition]], where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glenn Ames|editor=Ivana Elbl|title=Portugal and its Empire, 1250–1800 (Collected Essays in Memory of Glenn J. Ames).: Portuguese Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hld-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=Trent University Press|pages=12–15 with footnotes, context: 11–32}}</ref> Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was [[Indian annexation of Goa|annexed by India in 1961]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Praval|first=K. C.|year=2009|orig-year=First published 1987|title=Indian Army after Independence|location=New Delhi|publisher=Lancer|page=214|isbn=978-1-935501-10-7}}</ref>

The next to arrive [[Dutch India|were the Dutch]], with their main base in [[Ceylon]]. They established ports in [[Dutch Malabar|Malabar]]. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] by the [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]] during the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M.O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1 http://mod.nic.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016}} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of [[Surat]] in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Pondichéry]] and [[Chandernagore]], and the Portuguese colonies of [[Goa, Daman and Diu]].<ref>{{Cite web|website=themaparchive.com|title=The British in India – The Map Archive|date=18 February 2022 |url=https://www.themaparchive.com/the-british-in-india/|access-date=2024-11-16|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Magedera|first=Ian H.|date=November 2010|title=Arrested Development: The Shape of 'French India' after the Treaties of Paris of 1763 and 1814|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|journal=Interventions|language=en|volume=12|issue=3|pages=331–343|doi=10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|issn=1369-801X}}</ref>

=== East India Company rule in India ===
{{Main|East India Company|Company rule in India}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 1/2
| total_width       = 225
| caption_align     = center
| title             = India under East India Company rule
| image1            = India1765and1805b.jpg
| caption1          = India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink
| image2            = India1837to1857.jpg
| caption2          = India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
}}

The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] in [[Masulipatnam]] on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in [[Surat]] in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara ruler]] farther south, a second factory was established in [[Madras]] on the southeastern coast. The islet of ''[[Bom Bahia]]'' in present-day Mumbai (Bombay) was a Portuguese [[outpost (military)|outpost]] not far from Surat. It was presented to [[Charles II of England]] as [[dowry]] in his marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]]. Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a [[trade post]] in the [[River Ganges]] delta. During this time other companies established by the [[Portuguese East India Company|Portuguese]], [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]], [[French Indies Company|French]], and [[Danish East India Company|Danish]] were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.

The company's victory under [[Robert Clive]] in the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]] and another victory in the 1764 [[Battle of Buxar]] (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor [[Shah Alam II]] to appoint it the ''[[Diwan (title)|diwan]]'', or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and [[Odisha|Orissa]]. The company thus became the ''de facto'' ruler of large areas of the [[Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests|lower Gangetic plain]] by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (1766–99) and the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]] (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the [[Sutlej River]]. With the defeat of the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|orig-year=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne''|editor-first=Claude|editor-last=Markovits|title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA271|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=271–|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>

The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the [[North-Western Provinces]] (comprising [[Rohilkhand]], [[Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh|Gorakhpur]], and the [[Doab]]) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam ([[Ahom Kingdom]] 1828) and [[Sindh]] (1843). [[Punjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province]], and [[Kashmir]] were annexed after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Anglo-Sikh Wars]] in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]] (1850) to the [[Dogra Dynasty]] of [[Jammu]] and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, [[Berar Province|Berar]] was annexed along with the state of [[Oudh State|Oudh]] two years later.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Warren Hastings greyscale.jpg|[[Warren Hastings]], the first governor-general of [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William (Bengal)]] who oversaw the company's territories in India
|File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg|Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]], king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do [[ashrafi]] in [[Urdu]]) issued during [[Company rule in India]]
|File:Railway bridge bhor ghaut incline1855.jpg|Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay
||}}

The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's [[hegemony]] in return for limited internal [[autonomy]]. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.<ref name="brown-p67">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> The most important such support came from the ''[[subsidiary alliance]]s'' with Indian princes.<ref name="brown-p67" /> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.<ref name="brown-p67" /> When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<ref name="brown-68">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=68}}</ref>

In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<ref name="brown-68" /> Subsidiary alliances created the [[Princely States]] of the Hindu [[maharaja]]s and the Muslim [[nawab]]s. Prominent among the princely states were [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] (1791), [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] (1794), [[Travancore]] (1795), [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] (1798), [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] (1799), [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] (1815), [[Central India Agency]] (1819), [[Cutch State|Cutch]] and [[Baroda State|Gujarat Gaikwad territories]] (1819), [[Rajputana]] (1818),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] (1833).
<!--The East India Company also concluded treaties with various Afghan rulers and with [[Ranjit Singh]] of the Punjab, to counterbalance Russia's support of [[Iran|Persian]] plans in western [[Afghanistan]]. In 1839 the company's actions the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|First Afghan War]] (1839–42).  However, as the British expanded their territory in India, so did Russia in Central Asia, with the taking of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]] in 1863 and 1868 respectively, thereby setting the stage for the [[Great Game]] of Central Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=135}}</ref>-->

==== Indian indenture system ====
{{Main|Indian indenture system}}
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5&nbsp;million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large [[Indian diaspora]] that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large [[Indo-Caribbean]] and [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indo-African]] populations.

== Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947) ==
=== Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences ===
{{Main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Rani of jhansi.jpg|[[Rani of Jhansi|Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi]], one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the [[Doctrine of lapse]].
|File:Bahadur Shah II of India.jpg|[[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.
|File:Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning - Project Gutenberg eText 16528.jpg|[[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]], the [[Governor-General of India]] during the rebellion.
|File:Dalhousie.jpg|[[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the [[Doctrine of Lapse]].
}}

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was [[Mangal Pandey]].<ref>Saul David, p. 70, ''The Indian Mutiny'', Penguin Books 2003</ref> In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the [[Doctrine of Lapse]] and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as [[Nana Sahib]] and the [[Rani of Jhansi]] belonged to this group.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=172}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref>

After the outbreak of the mutiny in [[Meerut]], the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the [[North-Western Provinces]] and [[Awadh]] (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=177}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|2000|p=357}}</ref> However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly [[Princely states]], but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.<ref>Christopher Hibbert, ''The Great Mutiny: India 1857'' (1980)</ref>

In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the [[British Crown]], which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.<ref>{{Citation|first=Wilhelm von|last=Pochhammer|title=India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=1981|isbn=978-81-7764-715-0}}</ref>

=== British Raj (1858–1947) ===
{{Main|British Raj}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 1/2
| total_width       = 300
| caption_align     = center
| title             = British Raj
| image1            = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg
| caption1          = The British Indian Empire in 1909. [[British India]] is shown in pink; the  [[princely state]]s in yellow.
| image2            = Victoriaterminus1903.JPG
| caption2          = A 1903 stereographic image of [[Victoria Terminus]] a [[terminal train station]], in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].
}}

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The [[Indian Penal Code]] came into being.<ref>"Law Commission of India&nbsp;– Early Beginnings"</ref> In education, [[Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay|Thomas Babington Macaulay]] had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Suresh Chandra Ghosh|year=1995|title=Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India|journal=History of Education|volume=24|issue=1|pages=17–25|doi=10.1080/0046760950240102}}</ref> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|author=I.D. Derbyshire|year=1987|title=Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=21|issue=3|pages=521–545|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00009197|jstor=312641|s2cid=146480332}}</ref> Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robb|first=Peter|date=November 1981|title=British Rule and Indian 'Improvement'|journal=Economic History Review|volume=34|issue=4|pages=507–523|jstor=2595587|doi=10.2307/2595587}}</ref>

In 1905, [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]] [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|split the large province of Bengal]] into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India [[John Morley]] consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The [[Indian Councils Act 1909|Morley-Minto reforms of 1909]] provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<ref>S.A. Wolpert, ''Morley and India, 1906–1910'', (1967)</ref> Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the [[All India Muslim League]] in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The [[Hindu Mahasabha]] and [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.<ref>''Democracy and Hindu nationalism'', Chetan Bhatt (2013)</ref> Sikhs founded the [[Shiromani Akali Dal]] in 1920.<ref>Harjinder Singh Dilgeer. ''Shiromani Akali Dal (1920–2000)''. Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.</ref> However, the largest and oldest political party [[Indian National Congress]], founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<ref>''The History of the Indian National Congress'', B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg|Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of [[Queen Victoria|Victoria, Queen]], the second of Victoria, Empress.  Victoria became [[Empress of India]] in 1876.
|File:Sir R. Ross on steps of laboratory in Calcutta, 1898 Wellcome L0011943.jpg| [[Ronald Ross]], left, at [[David Douglas Cunningham|Cunningham's]] laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of [[malaria]] by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] in 1902.
|File:'552. Darjeeling. The loop No. 3, near Candaria', albumen print, c.1870.jpg| A [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] train shown in 1870.  The railway became a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1999.
|File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg|A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of [[New Delhi]] as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, [[Calcutta]] had been the capital of the Raj.
}}

==== Indian Renaissance ====
{{Main|British Raj|Bengali Renaissance}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Syed Ahmed Khan.jpg|Sir [[Syed Ahmad Khan]] (1817–1898), the author of ''Causes of the Indian Mutiny'', was the founder of [[Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College]], later the [[Aligarh Muslim University]]
|File:Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati 1858-1922 front-page-portrait.jpg|[[Pandita Ramabai]] (1858–1922) was a [[reform movement|social reformer]], and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India
|File:Rabindranath Tagore unknown location.jpg|[[Rabindranath Tagore]] (1861–1941) was a [[Bengali language]] poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913
|File:Srinivasa Ramanujan - OPC - 2 (cleaned).jpg|[[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to [[number theory]]
}}

The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by [[Bengali Hindus]], in the [[Bengal|Bengal region]] of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian [[Nitish Sengupta]] describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]] (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate [[Rabindranath Tagore]] (1861–1941).<ref>{{cite book|author=Nitish Sengupta|author-link=Nitish Sengupta|year=2001|title=History of the Bengali-speaking People|publisher=UBS Publishers' Distributors|pages=210–213|isbn=978-81-7476-355-6|quote=Producing in about three quarters of a century so many creative stalwarts in literature, art, music, social and religious reform and also trading and industry ... The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) ... On the whole, it remained an elitist movement restricted to Hindu ''bhadralok'' (gentry) and ''zamindars''.}}</ref> This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian [[David Kopf]] as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kopf|first=David|author-link=David Kopf|date=December 1994|title=Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872|type=Book review|journal=American Historical Review|volume=99|issue=5|pages=1741–1742|doi=10.2307/2168519|jstor=2168519}}</ref>

During this period, Bengal witnessed an [[intellectual]] awakening that is in some way similar to the [[Renaissance]]. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the [[dowry]] system, the [[caste system]], and religion. One of the earliest [[social movement]]s that emerged during this time was the [[Young Bengal]] movement, which espoused [[rationalism]] and [[atheism]] as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharma|first=Mayank|title=Essay on 'Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement'|date=January 2012|url=http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=14 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114224008/http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

==== Famines ====
{{Main|Famine in India|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule}}
{{See also|Demographics of India}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg|Map of famines in India during [[British Empire]] in year 1800–1885.
|File:Bellary Zilla,Great Famine of 1876–78..jpg|Engraving from ''[[The Graphic]]'', October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in [[Bellary district]], [[Madras Presidency]], British India during the [[Great Famine of 1876–1878]]
|File:FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg|Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the [[Indian famine of 1899–1900]]
|File:OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg|A picture of orphans who survived the [[Bengal famine of 1943]], a man-made disaster by the British government
}}

During British East India Company and [[British Raj|British Crown]] rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded [[famines in India|famines]]. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,<ref name="davis" /> included the [[Great Famine of 1876–1878]] in which 6.1&nbsp;million to 10.3&nbsp;million people died,<ref>Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 7</ref> the [[Great Bengal famine of 1770]] where between 1 and 10 million people died,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Datta|first=Rajat|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44927255|title=Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760-1800|date=2000|publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-7304-341-8|location=New Delhi|pages=262, 266|oclc=44927255}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Amartya Sen|title=Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation|url=https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena|url-access=registration|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-828463-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena/page/39 39]}}</ref> the [[Indian famine of 1899–1900]] in which 1.25 to 10&nbsp;million people died,<ref name="davis">Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 173</ref> and the [[Bengal famine of 1943]] where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenough|first=Paul Robert|date=1982|title=Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-503082-2}}</ref> The [[Third plague pandemic]] in the mid-19th century killed 10&nbsp;million people in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|title=Plague|access-date=5 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217172854/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|archive-date=17 February 2009}}. World Health Organisation.</ref> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200&nbsp;million in 1750,<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Colin Clark (economist)|Colin Clark]]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|isbn=978-1-349-15775-4}}</ref> had reached 389&nbsp;million by 1941.<ref>[http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/chapters_preview/98/1iie2806.pdf "Reintegrating India with the World Economy"]. Peterson Institute for International Economics.</ref>

==== World War I ====
{{Main|Indian Army during World War I}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Hodsons Horse France 1917 IWM Q 2061.jpg|Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914
|File:2nd Indian Cav Div.jpg|Indian cavalry from the [[Deccan Horse]] during the [[Battle of Bazentin Ridge]] in 1916.
|File:Indian Army QF 3.7 inch gun battery Jerusalem 1917.jpg|Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with [[3.7-inch mountain howitzer]]s, Jerusalem 1917
|File:India Gate in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg|India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the [[British Indian Army]] who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War
}}
During [[World War I]], over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Pati|1996|p=31}}</ref> The Army saw early action on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] at the [[First Battle of Ypres]]. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mgtrust.org/ind1.htm|title=Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War|website=Memorial Gates Trust|access-date=12 September 2009}}</ref>

Indian Army and [[Imperial Service Troops]] fought during the [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]]'s [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign#Suez Canal Campaign (1915–1916)|defence of the Suez Canal]] in 1915, at [[Battle of Romani|Romani]] in 1916 and to [[Battle of Jerusalem (1917)|Jerusalem]] in 1917. India units [[Occupation of the Jordan Valley (1918)|occupied the Jordan Valley]] and after the [[German spring offensive]] they became the major force in the [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]] during the [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Battle of Megiddo]] and in the [[Desert Mounted Corps]]' advance to [[Damascus]] and on to [[Aleppo]]. Other divisions remained in India guarding the [[North-West Frontier (military history)|North-West Frontier]] and fulfilling internal security obligations.

One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220138/http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|archive-date=26 September 2007}}</ref> and another 67,000 were wounded.{{sfn|Sumner|2001|p=7}} The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War|Afghan Wars]] are commemorated by the [[India Gate]].

==== World War II ====
{{Main|India in World War II}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:Monty, wavvel, auk.jpg|General [[Claude Auchinleck]] (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Wavell]] (centre) and [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|General Montgomery]] (left)
|File:Indian women training for air raid precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay, 1942. IND1492.jpg|Indian women training for [[Air Raid Precautions]] (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942
|File:INDIAN TROOPS IN BURMA, 1944.jpg|Indian infantrymen of the [[7th Rajput Regiment]] about to go on patrol on the [[Arakan Campaign 1942–43|Arakan front]] in Burma, 1944
|File:VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg|The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II
}}

British India officially declared war on [[Nazi Germany]] in September 1939.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kux|first=Dennis|title=India and the United States: estranged democracies, 1941–1991|publisher=Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-8189-8|year=1992}}</ref> The British Raj, as part of the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Nations]], sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the [[Axis powers]]. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the [[China Burma India Theater|China Burma India Theatre]].

Indians fought throughout the world, including in the [[European theatre of World War II|European theatre against Germany]], [[North African Campaign|in North Africa against Germany and Italy]], against the Italians in [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East Africa]], in [[Syria-Lebanon Campaign|the Middle East]] against the [[Vichy French]], in the [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma]]. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.

The [[Indian National Congress]] denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the [[Quit India Movement]] in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

[[Subhas Chandra Bose]] (also called ''Netaji'') broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the [[Indian Legion]];{{sfn|Müller|2009|p=55}} however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the [[Indian National Army]] (INA), after the [[First Indian National Army]] under [[Mohan Singh (general)|Mohan Singh]] was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=viii}}</ref> Bose also headed the [[Provisional Government of Free India]] (or [[Azad Hind]]), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1989|p=410}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=426}}</ref>

By 1942, neighbouring [[Myanmar|Burma]] was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the [[Provisional Government of Free India]] on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as [[Kohima]] in [[Nagaland]]. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the [[Battle of Kohima]] in June and from [[Battle of Imphal|that of Imphal]] on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in British India [[Bengal famine of 1943|suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943]]. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1991|pp=97–98}}</ref> with most sources asserting that wartime [[Colonization|colonial]] policies exacerbated the crisis.<ref>{{harvtxt|Devereux|2000|p=6}}</ref>

=== Indian independence movement (1885–1947) ===
{{Main|Indian independence movement}}
{{See also|Indian independence activists|Pakistan Movement}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=140|File:1st INC1885.jpg|The first session of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885.  [[A. O. Hume]], the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.<ref>{{citation|last=Marshall|first=P. J.|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7|page=179}} Quote: "The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress."</ref>
|||File:Bhagat Singh's execution Lahore Tribune Front page.jpg|Front page of the ''Tribune'' (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]] and [[Sukhdev Thapar|Sukhdev]] by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
|File:Nehru gandhi.jpg|From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Information about the Indian National Congress|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress|website=open.ac.uk|publisher=Arts & Humanities Research council|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> Gandhi is shown here with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], later the first prime minister of India.
}}

The numbers of British in India were small,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/CensusOfIndia1931/Census+of+India+1931#page/n437/mode/2up|title=Census Of India 1931|website=archive.org|year=1933}}</ref> yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the [[princely states]] that accounted for 48% of the area.<ref>{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude|title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76">''Modern India'', Bipin Chandra, p. 76</ref> leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76" /> "racial discriminations",<ref>''India Awakening and Bengal'', N.S. Bose, 1976, p. 237</ref> and "the revelation of India's past".<ref>''British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance'', Part–II, Dr. R.C. Majumdar, p. 466</ref>

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of [[councillor]]s to advise the British [[viceroy]] in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large [[British Indian Army]], with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as [[Gurkha]]s from Nepal and [[Sikhs]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard|title='India's well-timed diversification of army helped democracy' &#124; Business Standard News|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<ref>Anil Chandra Banerjee, ''A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935'' (1978) pp. 171–173</ref>

[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], an Indian nationalist leader, declared [[Swaraj]] (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"<ref>{{cite book|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj|author1=R, B.S.|author2=Bakshi, S.R.|date=1990|publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-7041-262-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOjhv5g629UC|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like [[Bipin Chandra Pal]] and [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the [[Swadeshi movement]] involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;<ref name="Chandra2016p128" /> the triumvirate were popularly known as [[Lal Bal Pal]]. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] and [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.<ref name="Chandra2016p128">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Bipan|author1-link=Bipan Chandra|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Mridula|author2-link=Mridula Mukherjee|last3=Mukherjee|first3=Aditya|last4=Mahajan|first4=Sucheta|last5=Panikkar|first5=K.N.|author5-link=K. N. Panikkar|year=2016|orig-year=First published 1987|title=India's Struggle for Independence|edition=Revised and updated|publisher=Penguin Books|page=128|isbn=978-0-14-010781-4}}</ref>

The [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal in 1905]] further increased the [[revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the [[Government of India Act 1919]], which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.<ref>Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. ''The Government of India''. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125</ref> In 1919, Colonel [[Reginald Dyer]] ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]]; which led to the [[Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)|Non-cooperation Movement]] of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bond|first=Brian|date=October 1963|title=Amritsar 1919|magazine=History Today|volume=13|issue=10|pages=666–676}}</ref>

From 1920 leaders such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]] began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like [[Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)|non-co-operation]], [[Dandi March|civil disobedience]] and [[Swadeshi movement|economic resistance]]. However, [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|revolutionary activities]] against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the [[Hindustan Republican Association]], that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.

The [[All India Azad Muslim Conference]] gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an [[Opposition to the partition of India|independent and united India]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Qasmi|first1=Ali Usman|last2=Robb|first2=Megan Eaton|title=Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-62123-6|page=2|language=en}}</ref> Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haq|first1=Mushir U.|title=Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947|date=1970|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|page=114|language=en|quote=This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed2016">{{cite web|last1=Ahmed|first1=Ishtiaq|title=The dissenters|url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-dissenters/|work=[[The Friday Times]]|language=en|date=27 May 2016|quote=However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.}}</ref><ref name="Ali2017">{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Afsar|title=Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims|work=[[The Milli Gazette]]|language=en|date=17 July 2017}}</ref> The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion".<ref name="Ahmed2016" /><ref name="Ali2017" /> The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader [[Allah Bakhsh Soomro]] also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.<ref name="Ali2017" />

==== After World War II (c. 1946–1947) ====
{{Quote box
|width     = 15em
|border    = 1px
|align     = right
|bgcolor   =#D0F0C0
|fontsize  = 85%
|title_bg  =
|title_fnt =
|title     =
|quote="A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
|salign    = right
|source    =&nbsp;— From, [[Tryst with destiny]], a speech given by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to the [[Constituent Assembly of India]] on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/series/greatspeeches|title=Great speeches of the 20th century|work=The Guardian|date=8 February 2008}}</ref>
}}
In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with [[Royal Indian Navy mutiny|mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy]] in [[Bombay]] in February 1946, followed by others in [[Calcutta]], [[Madras]], and [[Karachi]]. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an [[Interim Government of India|interim government]].

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] proclaimed 16 August 1946 as [[Direct Action Day]], with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "[[Direct Action Day|Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946]]". The communal violence spread to [[1946 Bihar riots|Bihar]], [[Noakhali riots|Noakhali]] in Bengal, [[Garhmukteshwar]] in the [[United Provinces (1937-1950)|United Provinces]], and on to [[Rawalpindi]] in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were [[1947 Rawalpindi massacres|attacked or driven out]] by Muslims.
[[File:Literacy India 1901 2011 Detail.png|right|thumb|[[Literacy in India]] grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.]]

== Independence and partition (1947–present) ==
{{Main|Partition of India|South Asia#Contemporary era|History of India (1947–present)|History of Pakistan (1947–present)|History of Bangladesh}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the [[Imperial Gazetteer of India]]. The partition of the [[Punjab]] and Bengal was based on such majorities.
||Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India (1947)
|File:Gandhi Badshah Khan in Bela Bihar 1947.jpg|Gandhi touring [[Bela, Bihar]], a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is [[Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan]].
|File:Lord Mountbatten swears in Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister of free India on Aug 15, 1947.jpg|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]] being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy [[Lord Louis Mountbatten]] at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.
}}

In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. In particular, the partition of the [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.<ref>Philip Ziegler, ''Mountbatten''(1985) p. 401.</ref><ref name="symonds">{{cite book|last=Symonds|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Symonds (academic)|title=The Making of Pakistan|year=1950|publisher=Faber and Faber|location=London|oclc=1462689|page=74|quote=At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Abid|first1=Abdul Majeed|title=The forgotten massacre|url=https://nation.com.pk/29-Dec-2014/the-forgotten-massacre|website=The Nation|date=29 December 2014|quote=On the same dates [4 and 5 March 1947], Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)}}</ref> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12&nbsp;million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<ref name="symonds" /> In 1971, [[Bangladesh]], formerly [[East Pakistan]] and [[East Bengal]], seceded from Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Srinath Raghavan|title=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-73129-5}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Adivasi]]
* ''[[Early Indians]]''
* [[India (Herodotus)]]
* [[List of time periods#Indian periods|List of Indian periods]]
* ''[[The Cambridge History of India]]''
* [[Outline of ancient India]]
* [[Timeline of Indian history]]
===By topic===
* [[Cultural history of India|Culture]]
* [[Economic history of India|Economy]]
* [[Historiography of India|Historiography]]
* [[History of foreign relations of India (pre-1947)|Foreign relations]]
* [[Indian maritime history|Maritime]]
* [[Linguistic history of India|Languages]]
* [[Military history of India|Military]]
* [[Indian physical culture|Physical culture]]
* [[Taxation in medieval India|Medieval taxation]]
{{colend}}

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=note}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===

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== Further reading ==

=== General ===
* [[A. L. Basham|Basham, A.L.]], ed. ''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)
* Buckland, C.E. ''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_InFTmnS4crYC full text]
* Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.
* {{cite book|editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya|editor-given=D. P.|editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya|title=[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture|History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization]]|volume=15-volum + parts Set|place=Delhi|publisher=[[Centre for Studies in Civilizations]]}}
* Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947
* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000) [https://archive.org/details/raj00lawr online]
* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015); also published as ''India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War'' [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199753490/excerpt India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War].
* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Great-Partition-Making-India-Pakistan/dp/030023032X/ excerpt]
* Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC excerpt and text search]
* [[R. C. Majumdar|Majumdar, R.C.]] : ''[[An Advanced History of India]]''. London, 1960. {{ISBN|0-333-90298-X}}
* [[R. C. Majumdar|Majumdar, R.C.]] (ed.) : ''[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]]'', Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
* Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
* Markovits, Claude, ed. ''A History of Modern India, 1480–1950'' (2002) by a team of French scholars
* Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. ''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006)
* Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885'' (2006), 192pp
* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC excerpt]
* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries [https://books.google.com/books?id=LI8UAQAAIAAJ excerpt]
* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''[https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00roth An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991]'' (1993)
* [[Ram Sharan Sharma|Sharma, R.S.]], ''[[India's Ancient Past]]'', (Oxford University Press, 2005)
* Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002)
* {{cite book|last=Senior|first=R.C.|title=Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.|year=2006|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9709268-6-9}}
* Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People'' (1983)
* Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
* [[Spear, Percival]]. ''A History of India''. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990) [First published 1965]
* Stein, Burton. ''A History of India'' (1998)
* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC excerpt and text search]
* Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. ''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 [https://books.google.com/books?id=93fnssiWvjoC excerpt and text search]
* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947'' (1979) [https://archive.org/details/politicaleconomy0000toml online]
* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (8th ed. 2008) [https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofindi0000wolp online 7th edition]

=== Historiography ===
* {{cite book|last=Bannerjee|first=Gauranganath|year=1921|title=India as known to the ancient world|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up|location=London|publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bayly|first1=C.A.|date=November 1985|title=State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=38|issue=4|pages=583–596|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x|jstor=2597191}}
* Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp.&nbsp;34–. [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915152404/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 |date=15 September 2011 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Elliot|first1=Henry Miers|first2=John|last2=Dowson|year=1867|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|title=The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period|publisher=London: Trübner and Co.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|archive-date=25 August 2009}}
* {{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Yasmin|chapter=Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War|editor1=Martin Gegner|editor2=Bart Ziino|title=The Heritage of War|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|pages=177–193}}
* {{cite book|last=Jain|first=M.|title=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts|chapter=4|publisher=[[Delhi]]: Ocean Books|year=2011}}
* {{cite book|last=Lal|first=Vinay|title=The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India|year=2003}}
* {{cite book|last=Palit|first=Chittabrata|title=Indian Historiography|year=2008}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Arvind Sharma|title=Hinduism and Its Sense of History|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-566531-4|last=Sharma|first=Arvind}}
* {{cite book|first=E.|last=Sreedharan|title=A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000|year=2004}}
* {{cite book|last=Warder|first=A.K.|title=An introduction to Indian historiography|year=1972}}

=== Primary ===
* {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India|date=1908–1931|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/}} Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.

{{History of Asia}}{{South Asian topics}}{{India topics}}
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{{subject bar|portal1=History|portal2=India|commons=yes|commons-search=category:History of India|q=yes|v=yes|d=yes|d-search=Q133136}}

[[Category:History of India| ]]
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