Editing Hippocrates

{{Short description|Ancient Greek physician (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox person
| name        = Hippocrates of Kos
| image       = Hippocrates.jpg
| caption     = A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th-century engraving)
| birth_date  = {{circa|460}} BC
| birth_place = [[Kos]], [[ancient Greece]]
| death_date  = {{circa|370}} BC<br/>(aged approximately 90)
| death_place = [[Larissa]], ancient Greece
| occupation  = [[Physician]]
| era         = [[Classical Greece]]
}}

'''Hippocrates of Kos''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɪ|ˈ|p|ɒ|k|r|ə|t|iː|z}}; {{langx|grc|Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος|Hippokrátēs ho Kôios}}; {{c.|460|370 BC}}), also known as '''Hippocrates II''', was a Greek [[physician]] and [[philosopher]] of the [[Classical Greece|classical period]] who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the [[history of medicine]]. He is traditionally referred to as the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field, such as the use of [[prognosis]] and clinical observation, the systematic categorization of diseases, and the (however misguided) formulation of [[Humorism|humoral theory]]. His studies set out the basic ideas of modern-day specialties, including [[surgery]], [[urology]], [[neurology]], [[acute medicine]] and [[Orthopedic surgery|orthopedics]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kostakopoulos |first1=Nikolaos A |last2=Bellos |first2=Themistoklis C |last3=Katsimperis |first3=Stamatios |last4=Tzelves |first4=Lazaros |date=2024-10-01 |title=Hippocrates of Kos (460-377 BC): The Founder and Pioneer of Clinical Medicine |journal=Cureus |language=en |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=e70602 |doi=10.7759/cureus.70602 |doi-access=free |pmid=39483540 |pmc=11526839 }}</ref> The Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized [[ancient Greek medicine]], establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated ([[theurgy]] and [[philosophy]]), thus establishing medicine as a profession.<ref name="garrison9293">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|pp=92–93}}</ref><ref name="nuland5">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=5}}</ref>

However, the achievements of the writers of the [[Hippocratic Corpus]], the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the [[wikt:paragon|paragon]] of the ancient physician and credited with coining the [[Hippocratic Oath]], which is still relevant and in use today. He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of [[clinical medicine]], summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works.<ref name="garrison9293"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=96}}</ref>

==Biography==
[[File:Hippocrate refusant les présents d'Artaxerxès (original).JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Illustration of the story of Hippocrates refusing the presents of the [[Achaemenid]] Emperor [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes]], who was asking for his services. Painted by [[Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson|Girodet]], 1792.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinault|1992|p=79}}</ref>]]
Historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of [[Kos]]; other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=4}}</ref>

[[Soranus of Ephesus]], a 2nd-century Greek [[physician]],<ref name="BCE">{{Harvnb|Britannica Concise Encyclopedia|2006}}</ref> was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him. Later biographies are in the ''[[Suda]]'' of the 10th century AD, and in the works of [[John Tzetzes]], which date from the 12th century AD.<ref name="garrison9293"/><ref name="nuland7">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=7}}</ref> Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries: in [[Plato]]'s dialogues ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' and ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|1868|p=28}}</ref> and in [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', all of which date from the 4th century BC.<ref>Aristotle, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0058:book=7:section=1326a&highlight=hippocrates ''Politics'' VII. 1326a.]</ref>

Soranus wrote that Hippocrates's father was [[Heraclides (physician)|Heraclides]], a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, [[Thessalus (physician)|Thessalus]] and [[Draco (physician)|Draco]], and his son-in-law, [[Polybus (physician)|Polybus]], were his students. According to [[Galen]], a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates's true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named [[Hippocrates (physician)|Hippocrates]] (Hippocrates III and IV).<ref name="adams19">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=19}}</ref><ref name="margotta66">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}}</ref>

Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather ([[Hippocrates (physicians)|Hippocrates I]]), and studied other subjects with [[Democritus]] and [[Gorgias]]. Hippocrates was probably trained at the [[Asclepieion|asklepieion]] of Kos, and took lessons from the [[Thrace|Thracian]] physician [[Herodicus|Herodicus of Selymbria]]. Plato mentions Hippocrates in two of his dialogues: in ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'', Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the [[Asclepiad (Greek)|Asclepiad]]";<ref name="marti86">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|pp=86–87}}</ref><ref>[[#Plato380|Plato 380 B.C.]]</ref> while in ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', Plato suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thought that a complete knowledge of the nature of the body was necessary for medicine.<ref>[[#Plato360|Plato 360 B.C. 270c]]</ref> Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as [[Thessaly]], [[Thrace]], and the [[Sea of Marmara]]. Several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in [[Larissa]], at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he lived to be well over 100.<ref name="margotta66"/>

==Hippocratic theory==
{{rquote|right|It is thus with regard to [[epilepsy|the disease called Sacred]]: it appears to me to be nowise more divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder...|Hippocrates, ''[[On the Sacred Disease]]'' (epilepsy)}}

Hippocrates is credited as the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods.<ref name="philosophy">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=4}}</ref><ref name="jones11"/><ref name="nuland8"/><ref name="garrison9394"/> He was acknowledged by the disciples of [[Pythagoras]] for allying philosophy and medicine.<ref name="philosophy"/> He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the [[Greek gods|gods]] but rather the product of [[environmental factors]], diet, and living habits. There is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did hold many convictions that were based on  incorrect [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]], such as [[Humorism]].<ref name="jones11">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=11}}</ref><ref name="nuland8">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|pp=8–9}}</ref><ref name="garrison9394">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|pp=93–94}}</ref>

Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split into the [[Knidos|Knidian]] and [[Kos|Koan]] on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis.  Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek [[taboo]] forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.<ref name="adams15">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=15}}</ref> The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general [[medical diagnosis|diagnoses]] and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and [[prognosis]], not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.<ref name="margotta67">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=67}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=51}}</ref>

Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from modern medicine, in which the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates's day has generated serious criticism of their denunciations;<!--It seems to me that something is missing here. Hippocrates used methods that succeeded at his time, when medical knowledge was insufficiently advanced to allow for diagnoses or specialized treatments; at that time, attending to the general wellness of the patient was often the best way to allow their own immune system to fight off a disease. I'm almost certain I've seen this opinion in writing somewhere, and if it can be found it should be included.--> for example, the [[French people|French]] doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death".<ref name="jones1213">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|pp=12–13}}</ref>
{{rquote|right|If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kids.niehs.nih.gov/topics/environment-health | title=Environment & Health - Kids Environment Kids Health |publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/geoscience-topics/environmental-health/Pages/default.aspx | title= Environmental Health |publisher=Geological Survey Ireland}}</ref>|Hippocrates, 5th century BC}}

Analogies have been drawn between Thucydides' historical method and the Hippocratic method, in particular the notion of "human nature" as a way of explaining foreseeable repetitions for future usefulness, for other times or for other cases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/34779296|title=L'influence de la médecine hippocratique sur la Guerre du Péloponnèse de Thucydide |first=Marie |last=Durnerin|website=www.academia.edu|language=fr|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref>{{bsn|reason=inaccessible, [[WP:V|unverifiable]]|date=November 2024}}

===Crisis===
[[Image:Kos Asklepeion.jpg|thumb|[[Asklepieion]] on [[Kos]]]]
An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a ''crisis'', a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on ''critical days'', which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a ''critical day'', a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.<ref name="jones464859">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|pp=46,48,59}}</ref>

[[Image:HippocraticBench.png|thumb|Illustration of a [[Hippocratic bench]], date unknown]]

Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" ({{langx|la|[[vis medicatrix naturae]]}}). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the [[four humours]] and heal itself ({{lang|grc-Latn|physis}}).<ref name="garrison99">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=99}}</ref> Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital importance".<ref name="margotta73">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=73}}</ref> In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing [[Liniment|balms]] were sometimes employed.<ref name="garrison98">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=98}}</ref>

Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.<ref name="garrison98"/><ref name="sing35">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=35}}</ref> Some of the generalized treatments he prescribed are fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness". However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions.<ref name="britannica">{{Harvnb|Tuke|1911}}</ref> This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones, which required [[Traction (orthopedics)|traction]] to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The [[Hippocratic bench]] and other devices were used to this end.<ref>{{cite book
| last1 = Kazantzidis
| first1 = George
| last2 = Gerolemou
| first2 = Maria
| editor-last = Kazantzidis
| editor-first = George
| editor2-last = Gerolemou
| editor2-first = Maria
| title = Body and Machine in Classical Antiquity
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2023
| isbn = 9781316514665
| page = 120
| format = hardcover|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvnAEAAAQBAJ&dq=hippocratic+bench&pg=PA120}}</ref>

In Hippocrates's time it was thought that [[fever]] was a disease in and of itself.<ref name="LaFrance">{{cite magazine |last1=LaFrance |first1=Adrienne |title=A Cultural History of the Fever |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/09/running-hot-a-cultural-history-of-the-fever/405643/ |access-date=2 March 2023 |magazine=The Atlantic |date=16 September 2015}}</ref> Hippocrates treated patients with fever by [[Starvation|starving]] them out,<ref name="Currie">{{cite book |last1=Currie |first1=Margaret |title=Fever hospitals and fever nurses: a British social history of fever nursing: a national service |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1134265268 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkbgnoSEexsC&q=starve%20a%20fever |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref> believing that 'starving' the fever was a way to neutralize the disease.<ref name="Paulian">{{cite book |last1=Paulian |first1=Gunther B. |title=Divine Prescription: and science of health and healing |date=2017 |publisher=Teach Services |location=<!-- not identified --> |isbn=978-1479608294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hj0yDwAAQBAJ&dq=hippocrates+starve+a+disease&pg=PT166 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref> He may therefore have been the originator of the idea "[[Feed a cold, starve a fever]]".<ref name="Horne">{{cite book |last1=Horne |first1=Steven |title=Strategies For Health A Comprehensive Guide to Healing Yourself Naturally |date=2022 |publisher=Fulton Books |location=La Vergne |isbn=978-1637102541 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xypaEAAAQBAJ&dq=hippocrates+starve+a+fever&pg=PT184 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref>

One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on [[prognosis]]. At Hippocrates's time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.<ref name="garrison9394"/><ref name="garrison97">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=97}}</ref>

===Professionalism===
[[Image:Ancientgreek surgical.jpg|thumb|A number of ancient Greek surgical tools. On the left is a [[trephine]]; on the right, a set of [[scalpel]]s. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.<ref name="adams17">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=17}}</ref>]]

Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice.<ref name="garrison">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966}}</ref> The Hippocratic work ''On the Physician'' recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient [[operating room]].<ref name="margotta64">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=64}}</ref> He even kept his [[fingernail]]s to a precise length.<ref name="rutkow24">{{Harvnb|Rutkow|1993|pp=24–25}}</ref>

The Hippocratic school gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.<ref name="margotta66"/> Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.<ref name="garrison97"/> He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying.<ref name="marti88">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=88}}</ref> Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment.<ref name="margotta68">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=68}}</ref> "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation."<ref name="garrison9394"/>

==Direct contributions to medicine==
[[Image:ClubbingFingers1.jpg|thumb|Clubbing of fingers in a patient with [[Eisenmenger's syndrome]]; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as "Hippocratic fingers".]]
[[Image:GreekReduction.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|A [[woodcut]] of the reduction of a [[joint dislocation|dislocated]] shoulder with a Hippocratic device]]

Hippocrates and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Starr|2017}}</ref> He is given credit for the first description of [[Nail clubbing|clubbing]] of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease, [[lung cancer]] and [[Cyanotic heart defect|cyanotic heart disease]]. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".<ref name="schwartz">{{Harvnb|Schwartz|Richards|Goyal|2006}}</ref> Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe [[Hippocratic face]] in ''Prognosis''. [[Shakespeare]] famously alludes to this description when writing of [[Falstaff]]'s death in Act II, Scene iii. of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''.<ref name="sing40">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=40}}</ref><ref name="margotta70">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=70}}</ref>

Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as [[Acute (medicine)|acute]], [[Chronic (medicine)|chronic]], [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] and [[epidemic]], and use terms such as, "exacerbation, [[relapse]], resolution, crisis, [[paroxysm]], peak, and [[convalescence]]."<ref name="garrison97"/><ref name="mart90">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=90}}</ref> Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of [[Empyema|thoracic empyema]], i.e. [[suppuration]] of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of [[Pulmonology|pulmonary medicine]] and surgery.<ref name="major">{{Harvnb|Major|1965}}</ref> Hippocrates was the first documented [[Cardiothoracic Surgery|chest surgeon]] and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.<ref name="major" />

The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human [[rectum]] and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. [[Hemorrhoids]], for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways.<ref name="johann11">{{Harvnb|Jóhannsson|2005|p=11}}</ref><ref name="jani">{{Harvnb|Jani|2005|pp=24–25}}</ref> [[Cautery]] and [[surgery|excision]] are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: [[Ligature (medicine)|ligating]] the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well.<ref name="johann12">{{Harvnb|Jóhannsson|2005|p=12}}</ref><ref name="book">{{Harvnb|Mann|2002|pp=1, 173}}</ref> Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising."<ref name="johann11"/> Also, some of the fundamental concepts of [[proctoscopy]] outlined in the Corpus are still in use.<ref name="johann11"/><ref name="jani"/> For example, the uses of the rectal [[speculum (medical)|speculum]], a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.<ref name="jani"/> This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to [[endoscopy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shah|2002|p=645}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|NCEPOD|2004|p=4}}</ref> Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[exercise]] to treat diseases such as [[diabetes]], what is today called [[lifestyle medicine]].

Hippocrates helped establish several areas that would become specialized, contributing to them with his studies, those including surgery, [[urology]], [[neurology]], [[acute medicine]] and [[Orthopedic surgery|orthopedics]]. In neurology, he analyzed conditions such as [[Hemiparesis|hemiplegia]], [[paraplegia]], [[apoplexy]], and [[epilepsy]], the latter of which his studies contributed to the diminishing of its origin as a divine, and rather a common brain disorder. He laid the foundation of surgery with his studies, as his works described differing surgical techniques of general surgery, urology, orthopedics, and [[neurosurgery]]. He also used antiseptic techniques such as cleaning the surgical field with boiled water, salt, seawater, and natural perfumes. He also noted that a surgeon should have an organized medical bag of instruments. In urology, in studied urine in relation to acute and chronic diseases, and noted that stone formation is due to the quality of drinking water and to inflammation of the bladder neck, which is still true in modern urology.<ref name=":0" />

Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine".<ref>{{harvnb|Chishti|1988|p=11}}</ref> Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact origins remain unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Cardenas|2013}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|King|2020|pp=105–110}}</ref>

In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] in [[South Sinai]], they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript also contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe.<ref>{{harvnb|Gibbens|2017}}</ref>

==Hippocratic Corpus==
{{main|Hippocratic Corpus}}
[[Image:HippocraticOath.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|A 12th-century [[Byzantine empire|Byzantine]] manuscript of the Oath in the form of a [[cross]]]]

The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: ''Corpus Hippocraticum'') is a collection of around seventy early medical works collected in [[Alexandrian period|Alexandrian Greece]].<ref name="Iniesta2011">{{harvnb|Iniesta|2011|p=d688}}</ref> It is written in [[Ionic dialect|Ionic Greek]]. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered,<ref name="singer27">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=27}}</ref> but modern debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen).<ref name="britannica"/> The corpus came to be known by his name because of his fame; possibly all medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in [[Alexandria]].<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="margotta64"/><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002}}</ref> The volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.<ref name="hanson">{{Harvnb|Hanson|2006}}</ref>

The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order.<ref name="singer27"/><ref name="rutkow23">{{Harvnb|Rutkow|1993|p=23}}</ref> These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus.<ref name="sing28">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=28}}</ref> Among the treatises of the Corpus are ''[[Hippocratic Oath|The Hippocratic Oath]]''; ''The Book of Prognostics''; ''On Regimen in Acute Diseases''; ''[[s:Aphorisms|Aphorisms]]''; ''On Airs, Waters and Places''; ''Instruments of Reduction''; ''On The Sacred Disease''; etc.<ref name="britannica"/>

===Hippocratic Oath===
{{main|Hippocratic Oath}}
The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the [[ethics]] of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently, the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar [[oath]]s and laws that define good medical practice and morals.<ref name="wma.net">{{harvnb|WMA}}</ref> Such derivatives are regularly taken by modern medical graduates about to enter medical practice.<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="jones217">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=217}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rahman|1966|pp=56–62}}</ref>

==Legacy==
[[Image:Galenoghippokrates.jpg|thumb|Mural painting showing [[Galen]] and Hippocrates. 12th century; [[Anagni]], Italy <!-- <ref>
[http://www.humanehealthcare.com/Article.asp?art_id=638 The Many Faces of Hippocrates: The Effects of Culture on a Classical Image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715015531/http://www.humanehealthcare.com/Article.asp?art_id=638 |date=2014-07-15 }}</ref>-->]]

Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jouanna|1999|p=42}}: "Hippocrates was neither the Father of Medicine nor the founder of the Coan school, but he did manage to confer an exceptionally lustrous reputation upon this school through his teaching". Though antiquated, the traditional title remains in wide use among scholars: see, e.g., {{Harvnb|Jouanna|1999|loc=pp. xi, xii, 4, 229, 348}}; {{Harvnb|King|2008|p=322}}; {{Harvnb|Smith|1998}}.</ref> His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled.<ref name="garrison100">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=100}}</ref> So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time.<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="margotta73"/> The centuries after Hippocrates's death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according to [[Fielding H. Garrison|Fielding Garrison]].<ref name="garrison95">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=95}}</ref>

After Hippocrates, another significant physician was [[Galen]], a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making some advancements, but also some regressions.<ref name="jones35">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=35}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|West|2014|pp=L121–L128}}</ref> In the [[Middle Ages]], the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=102}}</ref> After the [[European Renaissance]], Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates's rigorous clinical techniques were [[Thomas Sydenham]], [[William Heberden]], [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] and [[William Osler]]. [[Henri Huchard]], a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."<ref name="garrison934"/>

===Image===
[[Image:Engraving; bust of Hippocrates; by Paul Wellcome L0019959.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Engraving: bust of Hippocrates by [[Paulus Pontius]] after [[Peter Paul Rubens]], 1638]]

According to [[Aristotle]]'s testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates".<ref name="jones38">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=38}}</ref> Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern and forbidding".<ref name="marti86"/> He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. [[Francis Adams (translator)|Francis Adams]] describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."<ref name="adams15"/>

His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jove]] and [[Asklepius]]. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.<ref name="garrison100"/> Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. [[Fielding Garrison]], an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit."<ref name="garrison934">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=94}}</ref> "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according to ''A Short History of Medicine'', inspiring the medical profession since his death.<ref name="sing29">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=29}}</ref>

===Legends===
''[[The Travels of Sir John Mandeville]]'' reports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" [sic], and recounts a legend about Hippocrates's daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long [[dragon]] by the goddess [[Artemis|Diana]], and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend of [[Melusine]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bale|2012|p=15}}</ref>

==Namesakes==
[[File:Hippocrates sculpture in front of Mayne Medical School, Brisbane, 2021.jpg|thumb|Statue of Hippocrates in front of the [[University of Queensland Mayne Medical School|Mayne Medical School]] in [[Brisbane]]]]
Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe them. [[Hippocratic face]] is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like. [[Nail clubbing|Clubbing]], a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. [[Hippocratic succussion]] is the internal splashing noise of [[hydropneumothorax]] or [[pyopneumothorax]]. [[Hippocratic bench]] (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and [[Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage]] are two devices named after Hippocrates.<ref name="Fishchenko">{{Harvnb|Fishchenko|Khimich|1986}}</ref> [[Hippocratic Corpus]] and [[Hippocratic Oath]] are also his namesakes. [[Risus sardonicus]], a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.<ref>{{cite news |title=The dilemma of balding solve by father of medicine Hippocrates|publisher=Healthy Hair Highlights News|date=15 August 2011}} <!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20111006150551/http://www.healthyhairhighlights.com/hair_loss_and_hair_growth_in_bible.html --></ref>

In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named [[Hippocrates (lunar crater)|Hippocrates]]. The [[Hippocratic Museum]], a [[museum]] on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. [[The Hippocrates Project]] is a program of the [[New York University]] Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. [[Project Hippocrates]] (an acronym of "High Performance Computing for Robot-Assisted Surgery") is an effort of the [[Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science]] and [[Shadyside Medical Center]], "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots."<ref name="project">{{Harvnb|Project Hippocrates|1995}}</ref>  Both the [http://www.hippocraticregistry.com Canadian Hippocratic Registry] and [[American Hippocratic Registry]] are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.

==Genealogy==
Hippocrates's legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to [[Heracles]].<ref name="britannica"/> According to Tzetzes's ''[[Chiliades]]'', the [[ahnentafel]] of Hippocrates II is:<ref name="adams">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891}}</ref>
[[Image:Kos museum mos01.JPG|thumb|A [[mosaic]] of Hippocrates on the floor of the [[Asclepieion]] of Kos, with [[Asklepius]] in the middle, 2nd–3rd century]]
1. '''Hippocrates II.'''<br />
2. Heraclides<br />
4. Hippocrates I.<br />
8. Gnosidicus<br />
16. {{Not typo|Nebrus}}<br />
32. Sostratus III.<br />
64. Theodorus II.<br />
128. Sostratus, II.<br />
256. Thedorus<br />
512. Cleomyttades<br />
1024. Crisamis<br />
2048. Dardanus<br />
4096. Sostratus<br />
8192. Hippolochus<br />
16384. [[Podalirius]]<br />
32768. [[Asklepius]]

==See also==
* [[Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and Medicine]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|22em}}

==References==
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==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation
| translator-last=Adams | translator-first=Francis
| year = 1994 |orig-year=1891
| title = Works by Hippocrates
| publisher = Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics © 1994–2000
| place = The Internet Classics Archive
| url = http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Coulter | first=Harris L
| title=Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought: The Patterns Emerge: Hippocrates to Paracelsus
| year=1975 | publisher=Weehawken Book | location=Washington, DC | volume=1}}
* Craik, Elizabeth M. (ed., trans., comm.), ''The Hippocratic Treatise'' On glands (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36).
* {{Citation|last=Di Benedetto|first=Vincenzo|title=Il medico e la malattia. La scienza di Ippocrate|year=1986|publisher=Einaudi|location=Turin}}
* {{Citation|last=Edelstein|first=Ludwig|title=The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation|year=1943|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore}}
* Enache, Cătălin (2019), ''Ontology and Meteorology in Hippocrates''' On Regimen, ''Mnemosyne'' 72 (2), [https://brill.com/abstract/journals/mnem/72/2/article-p173_1.xml#affiliation0 173–196].
* {{Citation|last=Goldberg|first=Herbert S.|title=Hippocrates, Father of Medicine|year=1963|publisher=Franklin Watts|location=New York}}
* {{Citation|last=Heidel|first=William Arthur|title=Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method|journal=Nature|volume=149|issue=3781|pages=422–423|year=1941|bibcode=1942Natur.149..422J|doi=10.1038/149422a0|s2cid=4136630}}
* {{Citation|last=Hippocrates|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Wesley D|title=Pseudepigraphic writings: letters, embassy, speech from the altar, decree|year=1990|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-09290-7}}
* {{Citation
| last=Jori, Alberto
| author-link=Alberto Jori
| year = 1996
| title = Medicina e medici nell'antica Grecia. Saggio sul 'Perì téchnes' ippocratico
| publisher = il Mulino
| place = Bologna (Italy)
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Kalopothakes | first=M.D.
| year = 1857
| title = An essay on Hippocrates
| publisher = King and Baird Printers
| place = Philadelphia
| url = http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&idno=akk6471.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=3
}}.
* {{Citation|last=Langholf|first=Volker|title=Medical theories in Hippocrates: early texts and the "Epidemics"|year=1990|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-11-011956-5}}
* {{Citation|last=Levine|first=Edwin Burton|title=Hippocrates|year=1971|publisher=Twayne|location=New York}}
* {{Citation
| last=Lopez | first=Francesco | year = 2004
| title = Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Percorsi di ragionamento e testimonianze. Vol. I
| publisher = Edizioni Pubblisfera
| isbn = 978-88-88358-35-2
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A4fGB7Fzj_UC
| place = Cosenza (Italy)
}}.
* {{Citation|last=Moon|first=Robert Oswald|title=Hippocrates and His Successors in Relation to the Philosophy of Their Time|year=1923|publisher=Longmans, Green and Co|location=New York}}
* {{Citation|last=Petersen|first=William F.|title=Hippocratic Wisdom for Him Who Wishes to Pursue Properly the Science of Medicine: A Modern Appreciation of Ancient Scientific Achievement|year=1946|publisher=Charles C Thomas|location=Springfield, IL}}
* {{Citation|last=Phillips|first=E.D.|title=Aspects of Greek Medicine|year=1973|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York}}
* [[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]: Book XXIX.'', translated by [[John Bostock (physician)|John Bostock]]. See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+29.2 Perseus Project].
* {{Citation|last=Sargent |first=Frederick II |title=Hippocratic heritage: a history of ideas about weather and human health|year=1982|publisher=Pergamon Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-08-028790-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hippocraticherit0000sarg}}
* {{Citation
| last=Smith
| first=Wesley D.
| title = Hippocratic Tradition
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| year = 1979
| isbn = 978-0-8014-1209-7
}}<!-- this should have some new info!!! -->
* {{Citation|last=Temkin|first=Owsei|title=Hippocrates in a world of pagans and Christians|year=1991|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-4090-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hippocratesinwor00owse}} [https://archive.org/details/hippocratesinwor00owse  online free to borrow]
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|s=author:Hippocrates}}
* {{Wikisourcelang-inline|el|Ιπποκράτης|Hippocrates}}
* [http://galen.bbaw.de/epubl/online/editionencmg_01.html Works by Hippocrates] at the [http://cmg.bbaw.de/ Corpus Medicorum Graecorum]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5694 The Harvard Classics Volume 38 with "The Oath of Hippocrates", project gutenberg]
* [https://onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en/languages/english/hippocrates-collection-315 Hippocrates collection], full works in English, at [https://onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en/ One More Library]
* {{librivox author|id=8284}}
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/hippocra/ Hippocrates] entry in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120523211351/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica/hipp_va.htm First printed editions of the Hippocratic Collection] at the Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de Médecine of Paris (BIUM) studies and digitized texts by the [http://www.bium.parisdescartes.fr BIUM (Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d'odontologie, Paris)] see its digital library [https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025741/http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed/medica.htm Medic@].
* [http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/hipges.html List of works by Hippocrates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029163405/http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/hipges.html |date=2021-10-29 }}, with digitized editions, manuscripts and translations.
* {{BHL author|6998}}

{{ancient anaesthesia-footer}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hippocrates}}
[[Category:460s BC births]]
[[Category:370s BC deaths]]
[[Category:5th-century BC Greek physicians]]
[[Category:4th-century BC Greek physicians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek science writers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks in Thessaly]]
[[Category:Ancient Koans]]
[[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]]
[[Category:Classical humanists]]
[[Category:Ionic Greek writers]]
[[Category:Longevity myths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]